2020-09-14T05:10:57Z

趣木木：/* 领取任务 */

==新手须知==
===创建账户===
确定自己是否有集智百科页面的用户账号，如果没有，私聊生产组负责人[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]，添加微信，以创建属于自己的账号，并可以补充完善好自己的个人主页。

===领取任务===
点击石墨文档中的链接[https://shimo.im/sheets/VH8pVcJtDVHqyDCJ/hl9sY 词条生产总表],在对应的任务表中选择自己感兴趣的词条，在“词条领取人”一栏中填上自己的用户名，并且根据自身情况估计完成日期，填写在“初次完成时间”中，并关注词条的“需求点”，在翻译过程中按照要求进行翻译。
注意：一般词条生产最晚应在一周内完成，根据所设积分可以大体推算完成日期。
如积分在20以下，完成时间往后退一至两天，积分为20-50区间内，完成时间往后退三至四天，积分为50以上，原则上在一周内完成。有特殊情况则私聊[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]。'''提交完词条任务后，即时就在[https://shimo.im/sheets/VH8pVcJtDVHqyDCJ/hl9sY 词条生产总表]领取下次的词条。
'''

===明确生产形式===
点击所领取词条下对应的“集智百科链接地址”，首先查看页面是否存在英文文本缺失的问题，若存在，点击对应的英文wiki地址进行补充。对于公式显示错误或遇到其余页面显示问题，请私聊[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]进行反映。页面形式为两段重复的英文文本及由彩云小译初步翻译出来的中文文本。译者点击右上角的“登录”，登录上自己的账号，在编辑页面的最上端写上“本词条由[[用户名]]初步翻译”。

以[[LFR算法]]为例，可看到以下界面，只需查看第二次出现的英文原文，对比中文进行翻译。点击“编辑”，即可编辑页面，其具体操作为：

[[File:编辑操作.png|1000px]]

'''根据蓝色框内的英文，修改重译红色框中的中文。借助维基百科的英文原文进行翻译，利用翻译工具有彩云小译、网易有道翻译等翻译软件，译者需要自行翻译，将中文换为符合习惯的表达，多方查询相关释义，及时反馈，以确保专业性。'''

[[File:翻译对比.png|1000px]]
对于页面的基本操作可查看[https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83 编辑入门]

===知识储备===

可从集智学园，集智斑图以及公众号搜索相关资料，查看中文维基百科中相对应的词条，对词条内容有一个初步的认识和了解；将查阅到的资料、课程相关链接放到编者推荐、相关链接的内容中；可从[https://campus.swarma.org/ 集智学园]查看相关课程资源、在[https://swarma.org/ 集智俱乐部]中的集智斑图获取学习路径，从'''集智微信公众号：集智俱乐部'''查看相关科普文章和学习资源。

===明确生产职责===
译者需将英文wiki的原文通畅且较为准确、完整、专业的人工翻译出来，符合中文的语言表达，借助机器翻译但不完全是机器翻译。
===达到翻译过程中的生产要求===
====规范性====
*专业名词格式
译者通过英文原文中含有链接的英文、小标题对应的英文确定哪些为专业名词。在确定过程中注意人名、机构、与词条本身的专业领域关系不大的名词不在考虑范围内，通过语法[[File:标橙语法.png|300px]]''' 专业名词'''即可对专业名词标橙。且将专业名词的格式设为“中文+英文”（注：不加括号,英文首字母均大写），示例:[[File:专业名词格式.png|200px]]
*文本格式
1、中文文本用中文对应括号（）英文数学文本用英文对应括号() 

2、人名译名缩写大写如j.a 实际上应为J.A 

3、排除多余的句点"。。"→"。" 

4、中文文本用“。”而不是“.” 

5、变量采用斜体 ''N'' 

*图片的图注翻译格式
图注翻译格式为：【图1：英文原文＋翻译内容】

*文本统一
注意全文一致同一术语释义、同一人名释义（与集智俱乐部公众号一致）

*利用讨论标注出省略翻译、意译的句子
利用讨论语法[[File:讨论.png|100px]]添加讨论
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]（[[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]]）该句省译

*具体年份不宜省略翻译，如"2012年"不可只写"12年"

====完整性====
避免存在漏译的情况，特别注意图注、“see also”部分、章节名的翻译完整。

====专业性====

*专业名词查询释义
对于筛选出来的专业名词请在[https://campus.swarma.org/translation/ 翻译词库]中进行查询，不论是否查询得到，均需将专业名词标橙。对于查询到的释义，采用该专业名词释义；对于未查询到的释义，点击“新增翻译词”，补充上未查询到的英文，中文填为“待补充”。其具体操作如下，操作完毕即有下图中蓝色框内的形式。
[[File:词库新增.png|1000px]]
此外，还可在[http://dict.cnki.net/dict_result.aspx cnki翻译助手]里面初步检索专业名词，选取引用量最高的释义，待后续专家审校进行反馈纠正释义后，再将纠正的准确释义添加在[https://campus.swarma.org/translation/ 翻译词库]中
* 疑难句标绿
对于自己翻译不清楚、存疑的疑难句，采用语法[[File:段落标绿.png|250px]]将'''疑难句'''进行标绿，且在后面附加上疑难句所对应的英文。

====通顺性====
通读全文一至两遍，保证全文的语句通顺，符合语言表达，且释义统一。

====进阶需求（不做要求）====
可在页面中加一个模块：专家对于该术语/概念的一些描述（从书籍资源中补充概念）

===复查词条===
至少通读一至两遍译文，按照[https://shimo.im/docs/pX8Pgy66gDjG9WCR 自审清单]进行自审，寻找是否有语序、逻辑不通的地方，前后表述并不一致的地方，以及同一单词尽量用同一释义；注意检查相关的术语加粗，变量斜体，公式是否显示正常，图片图注序号是否正确等格式问题；在确保自己已达到上述的生产要求后，递交给负责人[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]，负责人进行通读，检查，反馈，译者进行修改。

===复修改词条===
在规定时间内，负责人[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]提交给审校，审校会添加讨论以及反馈，译者查看进行复核与复修改。'''（注：若被审校打回重译，所得积分减半）'''
===提交积分审核===
完成上述工作后，向负责人[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]发送以下信息，以[[经济复杂性指数]]为例：

词条名：[[经济复杂性指数]]
词条领取人：[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]
词条对应链接：https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%A4%8D%E6%9D%82%E6%80%A7%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0_Economic_Complexity_Index
词条对应积分：30
词条初次完成时间:2020.07.09(这里指提交给负责人审核的日期）

负责人审核，确定词条达到要求后，记录积分。

==新手提升==
===与审校部门联合进行相关培训===
接受一些定期对译者的培训，收集译者在翻译过程中存在的问题，进行分享解析；分享翻译时的一些技巧，以提高翻译能力。
===入门资源推荐===

1.张江复杂性思维课程（集智学园） 

2.《复杂》梅拉妮·米歇尔，网上有视频课程（喜马拉雅APP）[https://www.complexityexplorer.org/courses/104-introduction-to-complexity 《复杂》] 

3.教材《网络、群体与市场》，网上有[http://www.chinesemooc.org/mooc/4406 视频课程] 

4.郝柏林：圣菲研究所与复杂性研究 

5.复杂性科学、网络科学、计算社会科学研究机构推介（北美篇） 

6.新英格兰复杂系统研究所长文综述：复杂系统科学及其应用 

7.新英格兰复杂系统研究所长文综述：复杂系统科学及其应用，集智斑图网站负责人如意整理的[https://pattern.swarma.org/path?id=22 路径1] 、[https://pattern.swarma.org/path?id=30 路径2] 、 [https://pattern.swarma.org/path?id=32" 路径3]

集智百科翻译团队工作指南

2020-09-14T05:10:04Z

趣木木：/* 领取任务 */

==新手须知==
===创建账户===
确定自己是否有集智百科页面的用户账号，如果没有，私聊生产组负责人[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]，添加微信，以创建属于自己的账号，并可以补充完善好自己的个人主页。

===领取任务===
点击石墨文档中的链接[https://shimo.im/sheets/VH8pVcJtDVHqyDCJ/hl9sY 词条生产总表],在对应的任务表中选择自己感兴趣的词条，在“词条领取人”一栏中填上自己的用户名，并且根据自身情况估计完成日期，填写在“初次完成时间”中，并关注词条的“需求点”，在翻译过程中按照要求进行翻译。
注意：一般词条生产最晚应在一周内完成，根据所设积分可以大体推算完成日期。
如积分在20以下，完成时间往后退一至两天，积分为20-50区间内，完成时间往后退三至四天，积分为50以上，原则上在一周内完成。有特殊情况则私聊[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]。

===明确生产形式===
点击所领取词条下对应的“集智百科链接地址”，首先查看页面是否存在英文文本缺失的问题，若存在，点击对应的英文wiki地址进行补充。对于公式显示错误或遇到其余页面显示问题，请私聊[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]进行反映。页面形式为两段重复的英文文本及由彩云小译初步翻译出来的中文文本。译者点击右上角的“登录”，登录上自己的账号，在编辑页面的最上端写上“本词条由[[用户名]]初步翻译”。

以[[LFR算法]]为例，可看到以下界面，只需查看第二次出现的英文原文，对比中文进行翻译。点击“编辑”，即可编辑页面，其具体操作为：

[[File:编辑操作.png|1000px]]

'''根据蓝色框内的英文，修改重译红色框中的中文。借助维基百科的英文原文进行翻译，利用翻译工具有彩云小译、网易有道翻译等翻译软件，译者需要自行翻译，将中文换为符合习惯的表达，多方查询相关释义，及时反馈，以确保专业性。'''

[[File:翻译对比.png|1000px]]
对于页面的基本操作可查看[https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83 编辑入门]

===知识储备===

可从集智学园，集智斑图以及公众号搜索相关资料，查看中文维基百科中相对应的词条，对词条内容有一个初步的认识和了解；将查阅到的资料、课程相关链接放到编者推荐、相关链接的内容中；可从[https://campus.swarma.org/ 集智学园]查看相关课程资源、在[https://swarma.org/ 集智俱乐部]中的集智斑图获取学习路径，从'''集智微信公众号：集智俱乐部'''查看相关科普文章和学习资源。

===明确生产职责===
译者需将英文wiki的原文通畅且较为准确、完整、专业的人工翻译出来，符合中文的语言表达，借助机器翻译但不完全是机器翻译。
===达到翻译过程中的生产要求===
====规范性====
*专业名词格式
译者通过英文原文中含有链接的英文、小标题对应的英文确定哪些为专业名词。在确定过程中注意人名、机构、与词条本身的专业领域关系不大的名词不在考虑范围内，通过语法[[File:标橙语法.png|300px]]''' 专业名词'''即可对专业名词标橙。且将专业名词的格式设为“中文+英文”（注：不加括号,英文首字母均大写），示例:[[File:专业名词格式.png|200px]]
*文本格式
1、中文文本用中文对应括号（）英文数学文本用英文对应括号() 

2、人名译名缩写大写如j.a 实际上应为J.A 

3、排除多余的句点"。。"→"。" 

4、中文文本用“。”而不是“.” 

5、变量采用斜体 ''N'' 

*图片的图注翻译格式
图注翻译格式为：【图1：英文原文＋翻译内容】

*文本统一
注意全文一致同一术语释义、同一人名释义（与集智俱乐部公众号一致）

*利用讨论标注出省略翻译、意译的句子
利用讨论语法[[File:讨论.png|100px]]添加讨论
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]（[[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]]）该句省译

*具体年份不宜省略翻译，如"2012年"不可只写"12年"

====完整性====
避免存在漏译的情况，特别注意图注、“see also”部分、章节名的翻译完整。

====专业性====

*专业名词查询释义
对于筛选出来的专业名词请在[https://campus.swarma.org/translation/ 翻译词库]中进行查询，不论是否查询得到，均需将专业名词标橙。对于查询到的释义，采用该专业名词释义；对于未查询到的释义，点击“新增翻译词”，补充上未查询到的英文，中文填为“待补充”。其具体操作如下，操作完毕即有下图中蓝色框内的形式。
[[File:词库新增.png|1000px]]
此外，还可在[http://dict.cnki.net/dict_result.aspx cnki翻译助手]里面初步检索专业名词，选取引用量最高的释义，待后续专家审校进行反馈纠正释义后，再将纠正的准确释义添加在[https://campus.swarma.org/translation/ 翻译词库]中
* 疑难句标绿
对于自己翻译不清楚、存疑的疑难句，采用语法[[File:段落标绿.png|250px]]将'''疑难句'''进行标绿，且在后面附加上疑难句所对应的英文。

====通顺性====
通读全文一至两遍，保证全文的语句通顺，符合语言表达，且释义统一。

====进阶需求（不做要求）====
可在页面中加一个模块：专家对于该术语/概念的一些描述（从书籍资源中补充概念）

===复查词条===
至少通读一至两遍译文，按照[https://shimo.im/docs/pX8Pgy66gDjG9WCR 自审清单]进行自审，寻找是否有语序、逻辑不通的地方，前后表述并不一致的地方，以及同一单词尽量用同一释义；注意检查相关的术语加粗，变量斜体，公式是否显示正常，图片图注序号是否正确等格式问题；在确保自己已达到上述的生产要求后，递交给负责人[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]，负责人进行通读，检查，反馈，译者进行修改。

===复修改词条===
在规定时间内，负责人[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]提交给审校，审校会添加讨论以及反馈，译者查看进行复核与复修改。'''（注：若被审校打回重译，所得积分减半）'''
===提交积分审核===
完成上述工作后，向负责人[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]发送以下信息，以[[经济复杂性指数]]为例：

词条名：[[经济复杂性指数]]
词条领取人：[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]
词条对应链接：https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%A4%8D%E6%9D%82%E6%80%A7%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0_Economic_Complexity_Index
词条对应积分：30
词条初次完成时间:2020.07.09(这里指提交给负责人审核的日期）

负责人审核，确定词条达到要求后，记录积分。

==新手提升==
===与审校部门联合进行相关培训===
接受一些定期对译者的培训，收集译者在翻译过程中存在的问题，进行分享解析；分享翻译时的一些技巧，以提高翻译能力。
===入门资源推荐===

1.张江复杂性思维课程（集智学园） 

2.《复杂》梅拉妮·米歇尔，网上有视频课程（喜马拉雅APP）[https://www.complexityexplorer.org/courses/104-introduction-to-complexity 《复杂》] 

3.教材《网络、群体与市场》，网上有[http://www.chinesemooc.org/mooc/4406 视频课程] 

4.郝柏林：圣菲研究所与复杂性研究 

5.复杂性科学、网络科学、计算社会科学研究机构推介（北美篇） 

6.新英格兰复杂系统研究所长文综述：复杂系统科学及其应用 

7.新英格兰复杂系统研究所长文综述：复杂系统科学及其应用，集智斑图网站负责人如意整理的[https://pattern.swarma.org/path?id=22 路径1] 、[https://pattern.swarma.org/path?id=30 路径2] 、 [https://pattern.swarma.org/path?id=32" 路径3]

网络科学专题

2020-09-09T14:54:31Z

趣木木：/* 理论 */

== 张江——演化网络 ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚]]
* [[双曲空间]]
* [[复杂网络双曲生长模型]]
* [[克洛内克积（Kronecker Product）]]
* [[克罗内克图]]
* [[网络的密集化现象（Densification）]]
* [[加速生长（Accelerating Growth）]]
* [[匹配生长模型]]
{{div col end}}
== 陈清华——无标度性质 ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[无标度网络]]
* [[无标度性]]
* [[度分布]]
* [[幂律分布]]
* [[80/20原则]]
* [[Pareto分布]]
* [[Zipf律]]
* [[分形]]
* [[自组织临界]]
* [[沙堆模型]]
* [[无标度网络的鲁棒性与脆弱性——阿喀琉斯之踵]]
* [[蒙特卡洛模拟]]
* [[KS检验]]
{{div col end}}

== 史定华——BA模型 ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[随机变量]]
* [[随机过程]]
* [[概率分布]]
* [[概率密度函数]]
* [[分布函数]]
* [[补分布函数]]
* [[幂律分布]]
* [[重尾分布]]
* [[幂律哀减尾部]]
{{div col end}}

== 许小可——随机网络 ==

{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[二项分布]]
* [[泊松分布]]
* [[幂率分布]]
* [[六度分离]]
* [[小世界]]
* [[相变]]
* [[临界点]]
* [[聚集系数]]
* [[巨连通分支]]
* [[度分布]]
* [[格子网络]]
{{div col end}}

== 陈关荣——网络鲁棒性 ==

[1] Percolation theory [仅需"阈值" (threshold) 的基本概念]
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%97%E6%B5%81%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA

[2] Cascading failures [级联崩溃]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_failure

[3] Attacks [攻击]
Node-removal and edge-removal attacks [对节点和连边的攻击]
Random attack and malicious attack [随机攻击和恶意攻击]
Attack threshold [攻击凑效的阈值]

[4] Robustness (and Fragility) [鲁棒性（与脆弱性）]
https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%B2%81%E6%A3%92%E6%80%A7
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robustness_of_complex_networks
Achilles heel: https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%98%BF%E5%96%80%E7%90%89%E6%96%AF%E4%B9%8B%E8%B8%B5/340132?fromtitle=Achilles%20heel&fromid=8705928

=== 理论 ===
==== 已有词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[图论]]
* [[WS小世界模型]]
* [[社区结构]]
* [[复杂网络]]
* [[网络效应]]
{{div col end}}

==== 待翻译词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[网络可控性]]
* [[组合优化]]
* [[互惠性]]
* [[三元闭包]]
* [[同质性]]
* [[传递关系]]
* [[平衡理论]]
* [[社会影响]]
* [[复杂传染病]]
{{div col end}}
==== 待审校词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[链路分析]]
* [[图的绘制]]
* [[演化网络]]
* [[相变]]

* [[优先链接]]
{{div col end}}

=== 图的特征 ===

==== 已翻译词条 ====
*[[超图]]

==== 待翻译词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[团（图论）]]
* [[切]]
*[[图论常用概念表]]
{{div col end}}
==== 待审校词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[环]]
*[[邻接矩阵]]
*[[关联矩阵]]
*[[顶点]]
*[[路径]]
*[[二分图]]
*[[随机图]]
*[[图距离]]
*[[图（抽象数据类型）]]

{{div col end}}

=== 网络特性 ===
==== 已建立词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[集聚系数]]
* [[幂律分布]]
* [[节点中心性]]
* [[HITS算法]]
* [[六度分隔]]
* [[PageRank算法]]
* [[模块度]]
* [[链路预测]]
* [[随机网络模型]]
* [[渗流理论]]（待完善）
* [[无标度网络]]

{{div col end}}

==== 待建立词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}

* [[布尔网络]]
*[[网络连通性]]
*[[LFR算法]]
{{div col end}}

==== 待审校词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[度]]
*[[度分布]]
*[[网络中心性]]
*[[介数中心性]]
{{div col end}}
=== 其他词条===

==== 待建立词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[埃尔德什数理论]]
* [[巨连通分支]]
* [[鲁棒性]]
* [[攻击耐受性]]
* [[级联故障]]
* [[NP-难问题]]
{{div col end}}
==== 待审校词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[泊松分布]]
* [[枢纽节点]]
* [[社交网络]]
* [[层次聚类]]
* [[生物网络]]
{{div col end}}

网络科学专题

2020-09-09T14:48:59Z

趣木木：

== 张江——演化网络 ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚]]
* [[双曲空间]]
* [[复杂网络双曲生长模型]]
* [[克洛内克积（Kronecker Product）]]
* [[克罗内克图]]
* [[网络的密集化现象（Densification）]]
* [[加速生长（Accelerating Growth）]]
* [[匹配生长模型]]
{{div col end}}
== 陈清华——无标度性质 ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[无标度网络]]
* [[无标度性]]
* [[度分布]]
* [[幂律分布]]
* [[80/20原则]]
* [[Pareto分布]]
* [[Zipf律]]
* [[分形]]
* [[自组织临界]]
* [[沙堆模型]]
* [[无标度网络的鲁棒性与脆弱性——阿喀琉斯之踵]]
* [[蒙特卡洛模拟]]
* [[KS检验]]
{{div col end}}

== 史定华——BA模型 ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[随机变量]]
* [[随机过程]]
* [[概率分布]]
* [[概率密度函数]]
* [[分布函数]]
* [[补分布函数]]
* [[幂律分布]]
* [[重尾分布]]
* [[幂律哀减尾部]]
{{div col end}}

== 许小可——随机网络 ==

{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[二项分布]]
* [[泊松分布]]
* [[幂率分布]]
* [[六度分离]]
* [[小世界]]
* [[相变]]
* [[临界点]]
* [[聚集系数]]
* [[巨连通分支]]
* [[度分布]]
* [[格子网络]]
{{div col end}}

== 陈关荣——网络鲁棒性 ==

[1] Percolation theory [仅需"阈值" (threshold) 的基本概念]
https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%97%E6%B5%81%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA

[2] Cascading failures [级联崩溃]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_failure

[3] Attacks [攻击]
Node-removal and edge-removal attacks [对节点和连边的攻击]
Random attack and malicious attack [随机攻击和恶意攻击]
Attack threshold [攻击凑效的阈值]

[4] Robustness (and Fragility) [鲁棒性（与脆弱性）]
https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%B2%81%E6%A3%92%E6%80%A7
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robustness_of_complex_networks
Achilles heel: https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E9%98%BF%E5%96%80%E7%90%89%E6%96%AF%E4%B9%8B%E8%B8%B5/340132?fromtitle=Achilles%20heel&fromid=8705928

=== 理论 ===
==== 已有词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[图论]]
* [[WS小世界模型]]
* [[社区结构]]
* [[复杂网络]]
{{div col end}}

==== 待翻译词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[网络可控性]]
* [[组合优化]]
* [[互惠性]]
* [[三元闭包]]
* [[同质性]]
* [[传递关系]]
* [[平衡理论]]
* [[社会影响]]
* [[复杂传染病]]
{{div col end}}
==== 待审校词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[链路分析]]
* [[图的绘制]]
* [[演化网络]]
* [[相变]]
* [[网络效应]]
* [[优先链接]]
{{div col end}}
=== 图的特征 ===

==== 已翻译词条 ====
*[[超图]]

==== 待翻译词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[团（图论）]]
* [[切]]
*[[图论常用概念表]]
{{div col end}}
==== 待审校词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[环]]
*[[邻接矩阵]]
*[[关联矩阵]]
*[[顶点]]
*[[路径]]
*[[二分图]]
*[[随机图]]
*[[图距离]]
*[[图（抽象数据类型）]]

{{div col end}}

=== 网络特性 ===
==== 已建立词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[集聚系数]]
* [[幂律分布]]
* [[节点中心性]]
* [[HITS算法]]
* [[六度分隔]]
* [[PageRank算法]]
* [[模块度]]
* [[链路预测]]
* [[随机网络模型]]
* [[渗流理论]]（待完善）
* [[无标度网络]]

{{div col end}}

==== 待建立词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}

* [[布尔网络]]
*[[网络连通性]]
*[[LFR算法]]
{{div col end}}

==== 待审校词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[度]]
*[[度分布]]
*[[网络中心性]]
*[[介数中心性]]
{{div col end}}
=== 其他词条===

==== 待建立词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[埃尔德什数理论]]
* [[巨连通分支]]
* [[鲁棒性]]
* [[攻击耐受性]]
* [[级联故障]]
* [[NP-难问题]]
{{div col end}}
==== 待审校词条 ====
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[泊松分布]]
* [[枢纽节点]]
* [[社交网络]]
* [[层次聚类]]
* [[生物网络]]
{{div col end}}

2020-08-18T00:35:10Z

趣木木：

此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。

{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}

{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}

A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).

A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).

层级(来自希腊的大祭司的统治，来自大祭司的统治，来自于大祭司的统治，来自于神圣仪式的总统)是一种项目的安排(对象，名字，价值观，类别等等)其中项目表示为“上面”、“下面”或“与其他项目处于同一水平”。等级是一个重要的概念，在各种各样的领域，如哲学，数学，计算机科学，组织行为学，系统理论，和社会科学(特别是政治哲学)。

A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.

A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.

层次结构可以直接或间接地连接实体，也可以垂直或对角地连接。层次结构中唯一的直接联系，只要它们是等级的，就是与一个人的直接上级或者与一个人的下级的直接联系，尽管一个主要是等级结构的系统也可以包含替代的等级结构。层次链接可以延伸“垂直”向上或向下通过多个链接在同一方向，遵循一个路径。层次结构中没有垂直相连的所有部分都可以通过一条路径“水平”相连，即沿着层次结构向上走，找到一个共同的直接或间接的上级，然后再向下。这类似于两个同事或同事; 每个人向一个共同的上级汇报，但他们拥有相同的相对权限。组织形式的存在是层次结构的替代和补充。异质结构就是这样一种形式。

==Nomenclature==

{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}

Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).

Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).

等级制度有它们自己特殊的词汇。当层次结构用图表表示时，这些术语最容易理解(见下)。

In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/>

In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:

在组织环境中，以下术语经常与层次结构相关:

* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)

* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)

* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)

* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)

*'''Terms about Positioning'''

**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object

**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance

**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)

**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure

*'''Terms about Placement'''

**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure

**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached

**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level

**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy

**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.

**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)

**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)

** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)

** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)

** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)

*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)

** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another

** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has

*'''Terms about Nature'''

** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')

** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')

In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.

In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.

在数学上下文中(在图论中) ，使用的一般术语是不同的。

Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].

Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.

大多数层次结构使用更具体的与其主题相关的词汇表，但其背后的思想是相同的。例如，对于数据结构，对象称为节点，上级称为父级，下级称为子级。在商业环境中，上司是主管/老板，同事是同事。

===Degree of branching ===

[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.

Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.

分支度是指一个对象有多少个直接的下级或子级(在图论中，相当于一个有向图中通过外向弧连接的其他顶点的数量)。层次结构可以根据“最大程度”进行分类，这是整个系统中存在的最高程度。以这种方式进行分类可以得到两大类: 线性和分支。

In a '''linear hierarchy''', the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].

In a linear hierarchy, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.

在一个线性层次结构中，按 wp: r # pla，这应该是粗体 > ，最大程度是1。换句话说，所有的对象都可以在一个列表中可视化，每个对象(不包括顶部和底部的对象)只有一个直接下属和一个直接上级。注意，这指的是对象而不是级别; 每个层次结构对于级别都有这个属性，但通常每个级别可以有无限个对象。线性等级的一个例子是生命的等级。

In a '''branching hierarchy''', one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.

In a branching hierarchy, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.

在一个分支层次结构中，按照 wp: r # pla，这应该是粗体 > ，一个或多个对象具有2或更高的度(因此最小度为2或更高)。对于许多人来说，“层次”这个词自动唤起了分支层次结构的想象。分支层次结构存在于许多系统中，包括组织和分类方案。分支层次的广义范畴可以根据程度进一步细分。

A '''flat hierarchy''' is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.

A flat hierarchy is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.

按照 wp: r # pla，这应该是粗体的扁平层次结构 < ! ! -- 是一个分支层次结构，其中最大度接近无穷大，也就是说，它的跨度很大。最常见的情况是，直观上被认为是分层的系统最多只有一个中等的跨度。因此，平面层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如，钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构，这些碳原子可以进一步分解成亚原子粒子。

An '''overlapping hierarchy''' is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).

An overlapping hierarchy is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).

重叠的层次结构 < ! -- 按照 wp: r # pla，这应该是粗体 -- > 是一个分支层次结构，其中至少有一个对象具有两个父对象。例如，一个研究生可以有两个联合主管，学生可以直接和平等地向他们汇报工作，而且他们在大学等级制度中的权力水平相同(即，他们拥有相同的职位或终身职位)。

==History of the term==

Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],

Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],

牛津英语词典引用的英语单词“等级”的第一次使用可能是在1881年，当时它被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯(5-6世纪)所描述的3个3级天使。伪狄奥尼修斯使用了相关的希腊词汇(something hierarchy)来指代天界等级和教会等级。希腊语“ something”的意思是“大祭司的统治”(来自于 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0057%3aentry%3di%28era%2frxhs ，意思是“大祭司的神圣仪式的主席”),

Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.

Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.

亨利·乔治·李道尔，Robert Scott，希腊语－英语词典，关于珀尔修斯数字图书馆 </ref > 和那从 something 希雷斯，“牧师”和 something arche，其中包括“第一位置或权力，规则”) ，和 Dionysius 被记入第一次使用它作为抽象名词。由于等级制教会，如罗马天主教(见天主教会圣统制)和东正教教堂，有组织表是“等级”的现代意义上的话(传统上上帝作为顶峰或领导的等级) ，这个术语来指类似的组织方法在世俗的设置。

=={{anchor|hierachy}}Visually representing hierarchies==

==Visually representing hierarchies==

= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题，请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink！-->

[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]

Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]

马斯洛的人类需求层次理论。这是一个用三角形图表可视化的层次结构的例子。]

A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.

A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.

层次结构通常被描述为一个金字塔，其中一个层次的高度代表该层次的状态，而一个层次的宽度代表该层次相对于整体的物品数量。例如，一个公司的少数几个董事可能处于顶峰，而基层可能是成千上万没有下属的人。

These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.

These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.

这些金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(但请注意，并非所有的三角形/金字塔图表都是层次分明的; 例如，1992年美国农业部食品指南金字塔) ，这两种图表都强调了各层次之间的大小差异。一个三角形图表的例子出现在右边。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表，在下面的树形图中有所描述。

More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].

More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.

最近，随着计算机允许存储和导航越来越大的数据集，各种方法被开发出来表示层次结构，以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕上的可用空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树。

==Visual hierarchy==

In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.

In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.

在设计领域，主要是平面设计，文档内容的成功布局和格式化在很大程度上依赖于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于正确组织计算机上的文件也很重要。

An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.

An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.

可视化表示层次结构的一个示例是通过嵌套集群。嵌套集群通过使用信息层表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素中，例如在 Venn 图中。这种表示层次结构的结构在表示简单关系时最为有效。例如，当指示某人在计算机桌面上打开一个文件时，可以首先将他们指向主文件夹，然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹。他们会一直打开文件夹中的文件，直到找到指定的文件。

For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.

For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.

对于更复杂的层次结构，楼梯结构通过使用可视化堆叠表示层次关系。从视觉上想象一下下楼梯的顶部，从左边开始，从右边下楼。子元素位于楼梯的底部，父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时，这种结构非常有效，因为这些步骤没有放置在明显的序列中。进一步的步骤是隐藏的，除非所有的步骤是按顺序显示。在计算机桌面示例中，只有在打开另一个文件时才能找到正在寻找的文件。所需文件的链接位于另一个文档中。所有步骤都必须完成，直到到达最终目的地。

==Informal representation==

In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref>

In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:

在简单的英语中，层次可以被看作是一个集合，其中:

# No element is superior to itself, and

No element is superior to itself, and

任何元素都不优于其本身，并且

# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.

One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.

其中一个元素，大师，优于集合中的所有其他元素。

The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].

The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.

第一个需求也被解释为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。

The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.

The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.

第二个需求断言层次结构必须具有所有对象共有的领导者或根。

==Mathematical representation==

{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}

Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings

Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings

在数学上，从最一般的形式来看，层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日，在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录

|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].

|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.

[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中，每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起，每个产生的级别都称为类。

"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. 

"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. 

“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲，等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- >

Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:

Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:

诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常，加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示，因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:

(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).

(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).

(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).

In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.

In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.

在这个问题中，根据数学层次规则，一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时，人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位，这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题，而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。

==Subtypes==

===Nested hierarchy===

===Nested hierarchy===

= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题，请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- >

[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]

[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]

[俄罗斯套娃，又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面，直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时，结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]

A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:

A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:

嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着，一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶，下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶，等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构，其中每个层次只包含一个对象，也就是说，每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象，但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:

: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math>

<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math>

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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.

A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.

正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来，它是一个等级制度。但是，请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形，不能是三角形、六边形等等。

Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref>

Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:

嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如，使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ，人类可以被规划为:

: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math>

<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math>

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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.

Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.

分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ，但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。

In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref>

In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.

在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中，嵌套的层次结构，包括俄罗斯娃娃，也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集，递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。

====Containment hierarchy====

A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:

A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:

包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的，但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:

: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math>

<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math>

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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to ''y''.

The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to y.

符号 < math > x subsetneq y，</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集，但不等于 y。

A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].

A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.

一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。

Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref>

Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.

两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构，一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。

=====Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====

A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.

A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.

包容层次结构是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系ーー较低级别的对象“是”较高级别的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用 Linnaean 分类的例子，可以看到，属于哺乳动物等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员; 更具体地说，人类“是”灵长类动物，灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物，等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如，根据林奈的等级划分，像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。

=====Compositional containment hierarchy=====

A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.

A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.

组合包容层次结构是组成系统的各个部分的顺序ー系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构，无论是自然的还是人工的，都可以用这种方式分解。

The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].

The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.

每个人每时每刻都会遇到的构成层次就是生命的层次。每个人都可以归结为器官系统，器官系统是由组织构成的，组织是由细胞构成的，分子是由原子构成的。事实上，最后两个层次适用于所有物质，至少在宏观。此外，每个级别都继承了它们子级的所有属性。

In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.

In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.

在这个特定的例子中，还有一些突发特性ーー在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如，认知不是神经元的特性，而是大脑的特性)ーー以及标量特性(分子比原子大，细胞比分子大，等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中，但它们不是必需的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。向上因果关系涉及较低层次的实体引起较高层次实体的某些属性; 儿童实体可能相互作用以产生父实体，父母至少部分由他们的子女组成。向下因果关系是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和交互产生的影响。此外，每个级别上的实体都是自治的。

==Contexts and applications==

==Contexts and applications==

= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题，请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink！-->

According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/>

According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.

根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) ，几乎每个应用于世界的组织系统都是按等级排列的。按照他们的共同定义，每个国家都有一个政府，每个政府都是等级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会等级(社会的社会阶层) ，所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教，不管它们的内部管理结构如何，都在上帝的统治下运作。许多基督教教派都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表兄弟关系的角度来看，家庭被看作是一种等级结构(例如，第一代表兄弟，第二代表兄弟，等等)。) ，祖先(描述在一个家谱)和继承(继承和继承)。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用马斯洛的人类需求层次理论来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次结构---- 学习微分方程必须首先学习微积分; 学习微积分必须首先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的等级，许多计划，如林奈分类学，生命的组织，生物量金字塔试图记录下来。等级制度如此深入到日常生活中，以至于人们认为它们微不足道。

While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref>

While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.

虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述，并且是经典的例子，但是层次结构存在于许多系统中，其中这种分支结构并不是很明显。例如，大多数邮政编码系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例，顶层的绑定概念是“ postal district” ，由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“ zone” ，其中的对象是数字0-9。这是一个重叠层次结构的例子，因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成，理论上，720万个 A0A 0A0格式的唯一代码(第二个和第三个字母的位置允许每个20个对象)。大多数图书分类法系统也是分等级的。杜威十进制图书分类法被认为是无限层次的，因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。

[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]

organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]

以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为组织结构图。]

===Organizations===

{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}

[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].

Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.

组织可以被构建成一个等级序列。在一个组织的层次结构中，有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威，每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样组织的，包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。

In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.

In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.

在一个相反的等级制度中，权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的，因此顶点在底部，底部在顶部。这种模式代表了排名较高的成员对排名较低的成员负有责任的思想。

=== Life===

{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}

Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref>

Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.

在实践中，我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出等级结构。从理论上讲，我们可以期待复杂系统在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化的世界中成为层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析，为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。

The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics.

The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics.

用热力学方法总结了这些理论基础。

When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.

When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.

当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时，在其最一般的抽象中，它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统，耗散结构之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。

===Computer graphic imaging===

{{Main|3D modeling}}

[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.

CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.

CGI 和计算机动画程序大多使用模型的层次结构。例如，在一个人的三维模型中，胸部是左上臂的母体，而左下臂是手的母体。这是用于建模和动画几乎所有建立的一个三维数字模型。

===Linguistics===

Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.

Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.

许多语法理论，如短语结构语法，都涉及层次性。

[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.

Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.

克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等正反语言不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记，而是通过人的等级来区分动词的主语和宾语。

In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.

In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.

在这个系统中，3个人(或者4个阿尔冈昆诸语言)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语，哪个是宾语，如果宾语的级别高于主语，则使用反向标记。

On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.

On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.

另一方面，语言包括各种不分等级的现象。例如，代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系，通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。

===Music===

The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.

The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.

音乐创作音乐的结构通常是按等级来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835，见 Schenkerian 分析) ，以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 在1985年的声调音乐生成理论)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面，它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次是前景层次，这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到; 中间层次，大致上是对位进行和主音的概括; 背景层次，即 Ursatz，这是调性音乐文学中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。

The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."

The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."

调性音乐的音高和形式是按等级组织的，所有音高的重要性来自于它们与主调的关系，其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊 · 麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局》(Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来，甚至指出，主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ，次要

==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability ==

In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.

In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.

在威廉 · 詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔 · 福柯(1926-1984)和海登 · 怀特等不同理论家的著作中，提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底的经验主义”中断言，明确的类型和范畴区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标，因此，当他们被发现，成功是宣布。但是，如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来，涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性，那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。

Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.

Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.

17世纪左右，伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面，术语层次是指它们是如何从真实到非真实的区分。女权主义者、马克思主义者、无政府主义者、共产主义者、批判理论家和其他人，他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度，尤其是社会关系中的等级制度，都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分: 在企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。

===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity===

[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]

Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.

以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述，描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。

In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].

In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.

在伦理学中，各种美德被列举出来，有时根据某些品牌的美德理论等级地组织起来。

In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.

In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.

在一些随机的例子中，结构层次之间的组合意义是不对称的，因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一个层次: 生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导; 道德生活被实践理性所指导; 实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。

==Examples of other applications==





<！-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度，仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置，请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么，它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么，它就属于这里)。-->

{{col-begin}}

{{col-3}}

====Information-based====

====Information-based====

= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的，连字符是正确的，即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- >

* [[Library classification]]

** [[Dewey Decimal Classification]]

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====City planning-based====

====City planning-based====

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads]]

** [[Street hierarchy|Streets]]

* [[Settlement hierarchy]]

** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010]]

** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968)]]

{{col-3}}

====Linguistics-based====

====Linguistics-based====

= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的，连字符是正确的，即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- >

* [[Tree model|Language family tree]]

* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars]]

* [[Direct–inverse language]]s

* [[Structural linguistics]]

** [[Parse tree]]

** [[Formal grammar]]s

** [[Abstract syntax tree]]

* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages]]

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====Power- or authority-based====

====Power- or authority-based====

= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的，连字符是正确的，即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- >

* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies]]

** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe]]

** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China]]

* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies]]

** [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]

** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy]]

** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy]]

** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy]]

** see also [[autocephaly]]

* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies

** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] 

** [[Administrative divisions of India]]

** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]

** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]

* Political party hierarchies

** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party]]

*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]

*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau]]

** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]

** [[Communist Party of China]]

* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command]]

** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks]]

** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units]]

** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands]]

* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance]]

** [[Pecking order]]

* [[Social stratification|Social classes]]

** [[Caste system in India]]

** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan]]

** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy]]

** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion]] (Ender's Game)

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====Value-based====

====Value-based====

= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art]]

* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence]]

* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs]]

* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances]]

* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values]]

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====Perception-based====

====Perception-based====

= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的，连字符是正确的，即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- >

* [[Color wheel]]

** [[Primary colors]]

*** [[Secondary colors]]

**** [[Tertiary colors]]

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====History-based====

====History-based====

= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的，连字符是正确的，即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- >

* [[Three-age system]]

* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization]]

** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler]]

** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]

* [[Spiral dynamics]]

{{col-3}}

====Science-based====





< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次">

* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe]]

* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems]]

* [[Biological classification]]

* [[Biological organization]]

* [[Phylogenetic tree]]

* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development]]

* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions]]

{{col-3}}

====Technology-based====

* [[Memory hierarchy]]

** [[Cache hierarchy]]

* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters]]

* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs]]

* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization]]

** [[Hierarchical query]]

* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage]]

** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh)]]

* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices]]

* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses]]

* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory]]

** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation]]

* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks]]

* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells]]

* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations)]]

* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses]]

* [[Structure]]

** [[Data Structure]]

* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming)]]

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====Religion-based====

====Religion-based====

= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的，连字符是正确的，即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- >

* Levels of consciousness

** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras]]

** [[Great chain of being]]

** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]

** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary]]

* Levels of spiritual development

** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism]]

** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism]]

** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy]]

* Ages in the evolution of society

** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology]]

** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion)]]

** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism]]

** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism]]

* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches]]

* [[UFO religion]]s

** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet]]

* Deities

** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism]]

** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy]]

* Angels

** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity]]

** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam]]

** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism]]

*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic]]

** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism]]

* Devils and Demons

** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]

** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]

* [[Hell]]s

** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell)]]

** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell)]]

* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society]]

* (organizational hierarchies are listed under {{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})

===Methods using hierarchy===

===Methods using hierarchy===

= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- >

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|

{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em |

* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process]]

** [[Hierarchical Decision Process]]

* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design]]

* [[Hierarchical Bayes model]]

* [[Hierarchical clustering]]

** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks]]

* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction]]

* [[Hierarchical linear modeling]]

* [[Hierarchical modulation]]

* [[Hierarchical proportion]]

* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function]]

* [[Hierarchical storage management]]

* [[Hierarchical task network]]

* [[Hierarchical temporal memory]]

* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket]]

* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern]]

* [[Presentation-abstraction-control]]

** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller]]

}}

}}

}}

==See also==

==See also==

= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- >

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|

{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em |

* [[Anarchy]]

* [[Class browser]]

* [[Forms of government]]

* [[Graph theory]]

* [[Heterarchy]]

* [[Hierarchical classifier]]

* [[Hierarchical epistemology]]

* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model]]

* [[Hierarchical INTegration]]

* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language]]

* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition]]

* [[Hierarchy problem]]

* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings}}

* [[Instrumental value]]

* [[Layer (disambiguation)]]

* [[Multilevel model]]

* [[Multitree]]

* [[Ordinary (officer)]]

** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}

** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria]]

* [[Peter Principle]]

* [[Ring (computer security)]]

* [[Social dominance theory]]

}}

}}

}}

===Strucure-related concepts===

''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''

(For example, in )

(例如，在

* [[Is-a]]

** [[Hypernymy]] (and [[supertype]])

** [[Hyponymy]] (and [[subtype]])

* [[Has-a]]

** [[Holonymy]]

** [[Meronymy]]

==Footnotes==

{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==

* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}

* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}

* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}

* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}

* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}

* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}

* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}

* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}

* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}

** Also includes full copies of:

** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}

** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}

==External links==

{{wikiquote}}

* {{commons category-inline}}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]

[[Category:Patterns]]

Category:Patterns

分类: 模式

[[Category:Structure]]

Category:Structure

类别: 结构

[[Category:Political culture]]

Category:Political culture

类别: 政治文化

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This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</noinclude>

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