集智百科 - 复杂系统|人工智能|复杂科学|复杂网络|自组织 - 用户贡献 [zh-cn]

相变

2020-11-25T03:22:26Z

1220978308：

此词条由Jie翻译

[[文件:Nomenclature for the different phase transitions.png|300px|thumb|right|此图显示了不同相变的命名法]]

The term '''phase transition''' (or '''phase change''') is most commonly used to describe transitions between [[solid]], [[liquid]], and [[gas]]eous [[states of matter]], as well as [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] in rare cases. A phase of a thermodynamic system and the states of matter have uniform [[physical property|physical properties]]. During a phase transition of a given medium, certain properties of the medium change, often discontinuously, as a result of the change of external conditions, such as [[temperature]], [[pressure]], or others. For example, a liquid may become gas upon heating to the [[boiling point]], resulting in an abrupt change in volume. The measurement of the external conditions at which the transformation occurs is termed the phase transition. Phase transitions commonly occur in nature and are used today in many technologies.

The term phase transition (or phase change) is most commonly used to describe transitions between solid, liquid, and gaseous states of matter, as well as plasma in rare cases. A phase of a thermodynamic system and the states of matter have uniform physical properties. During a phase transition of a given medium, certain properties of the medium change, often discontinuously, as a result of the change of external conditions, such as temperature, pressure, or others. For example, a liquid may become gas upon heating to the boiling point, resulting in an abrupt change in volume. The measurement of the external conditions at which the transformation occurs is termed the phase transition. Phase transitions commonly occur in nature and are used today in many technologies.

''' 相变Phase transition (or phase change)'''一词常用于描述物质固态，液态和气态之间的转变，在极少数情况下还涉及到等离子体。热力学系统的相和物质的状态均具有统一的物理特性。由于外部条件（例如温度，压力或其他）的变化，在给定介质的相变过程中，介质的某些属性会发生通常是不连续的变化。例如，液体在被加热到沸点时可能会变成气体，导致体积大小突然发生改变。'''当这种转变发生时，外部条件的度量称为相变'''。相变通常发生在自然界，不过如今越来越多地被用于科技行业。

== Types of phase transition 相变的种类==

[[文件:典型的相图.png|300px|thumb|right|该图为典型的相图。其中虚线部分表示了水的反常行为]]

Examples of phase transitions include:
Examples of phase transitions include:
关于相变的例子包括：

*The transitions between the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of a single component, due to the effects of temperature and/or [[pressure]]:
由于温度和/或压力的影响，单个成分物质在固态，液态和气态之间的转换：

[[文件:物质的相变big.png|500px|thumb|centre|参见蒸汽压和相图]]

[[文件:固体氩快速溶解.jpg|200px|thumb|right|一小块固体氩在快速溶解，同时显示出从固体到液体以及从液体到气体的转变。]]

[[文件:二氧化碳（红色）和水（蓝色）的相图比较.png|thumb|upright=2|二氧化碳（红色）和水（蓝色）的相图比较，解释了它们在1个大气压下的不同相变]]

{{Condensed matter physics}}

* A [[eutectic]] transformation, in which a two-component single-phase liquid is cooled and transforms into two solid phases. The same process, but beginning with a solid instead of a liquid is called a [[eutectoid]] transformation.
''' 共晶转变Eutectic transformation'''，即互溶液体（由两种不同成分组成的单相液体）经过冷却后，转变成为两个不同的固相。同样的过程，由一类固相开始转变成为两个不同的固相，则称为''' 共析转变 Eutectoid transformation'''。

* A [[metastable]] to equilibrium phase transformation. A metastable polymorph which forms rapidly due to lower surface energy will transform to an equilibrium phase given sufficient thermal input to overcome an energetic barrier.
平衡态的亚稳转换。由于较低的表面能而迅速形成的''' 亚稳多晶体Metastable polymorph'''，在有足够的热输入以克服能量位垒时，会逐渐转换为一种平衡相。

* A [[peritectic]] transformation, in which a two-component single-phase solid is heated and transforms into a solid phase and a liquid phase.
''' 包晶转变Peritectic transformation'''，即包含两种不同成分的单相固体经过加热后转变为一种固相和一种液相的过程。

* A [[spinodal decomposition]], in which a single phase is cooled and separates into two different compositions of that same phase.
''' 亚稳相分解Spinodal decomposition'''，即一个单相经过冷却后分离为同相的两种不同成分的物质。

* Transition to a [[mesophase]] between solid and liquid, such as one of the "[[liquid crystal]]" phases.
向在固体和液体之间过渡的''' 中间相Mesophase'''，例如一种“''' 液晶Liquid crystal'''”相，的转换。

* The transition between the [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] and [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] phases of [[magnet]]ic materials at the [[Curie point]].
磁性材料在''' 居里点Curie point'''（居里温度）时，在''' 铁磁Ferromagnetism'''和''' 顺磁Paramagnetism'''相之间的转变。

* The transition between differently ordered, [[ANNNI model|commensurate]] or [[commensurability (mathematics)|incommensurate]], magnetic structures, such as in cerium [[antimonide]].
在不同方式组织的，''' 相称Commensurate'''或''' 不相称Incommensurate'''的磁性结构（如在''' 锑化铈Antimonide'''中）之间的转变。

* The [[martensitic transformation]] which occurs as one of the many phase transformations in carbon steel and stands as a model for [[displacive phase transformations]].
''' 马氏体转变Martensitic transformation'''，碳钢的众多相变之一，也是典型的''' 位移相变Displacive phase transformations'''

* Changes in the [[crystallographic]] structure such as between [[Allotropes of iron|ferrite]] and [[austenite]] of iron.
晶体结构的变化，例如铁在''' 铁素体Ferrite'''和''' 奥氏体Austenite'''之间的转变。

* Order-disorder transitions such as in alpha-[[titanium aluminide]]s.
有序到无序的转变，在α-钛铝化物中发生着这种转变。

* The dependence of the [[adsorption]] geometry on coverage and temperature, such as for [[hydrogen]] on iron (110).
吸附几何结构对覆盖率和温度的依赖性，例如氢对铁（110）的依赖性。

* The emergence of [[superconductivity]] in certain metals and ceramics when cooled below a critical temperature.
当冷却到临界温度以下时，某些金属和陶瓷中''' 超导Superconductivity'''现象的出现。

* The transition between different molecular structures ([[Polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphs]], [[allotropy|allotropes]] or [[polyamorphism|polyamorphs]]), especially of solids, such as between an [[amorphous solid|amorphous]] structure and a [[crystal]] structure, between two different crystal structures, or between two amorphous structures.
不同分子结构（''' 同质多形体Polymorphs'''，''' 同素异形体Allotropes'''或''' 非晶多形体Polyamorphs'''）之间的转变，特别是固体之间的转变，例如非晶结构和晶体结构之间，两种不同晶体结构之间或两种非晶结构之间的转变。

* Quantum condensation of [[boson]]ic fluids ([[Bose–Einstein condensate|Bose–Einstein condensation]]). The [[superfluidity|superfluid]] transition in liquid [[helium]] is an example of this.
''' 玻色子Bosonic'''流体的量子凝聚（''' 玻色–爱因斯坦凝聚Bose–Einstein condensation'''）。液态氦中的超流体转变就是一个例子。

* The [[Symmetry breaking|breaking of symmetries]] in the laws of physics during the early history of the universe as its temperature cooled.
早期的宇宙中随着降温而发生的，物理学定律的''' 对称性破裂Breaking of symmetries'''。

* [[Isotope fractionation]] occurs during a phase transition, the ratio of light to heavy isotopes in the involved molecules changes. When [[water vapor]] condenses (an [[equilibrium fractionation]]), the heavier water isotopes (18O and 2H) become enriched in the liquid phase while the lighter isotopes (16O and 1H) tend toward the vapor phase.
''' 同位素分馏Isotope fractionation'''，发生在相变过程中，所涉及分子的轻同位素与重同位素的比率发生变化。当水蒸气冷凝（平衡分馏）时，较重的水同位素（18O和2H）在液相中富集，而较轻的同位素（16O和1H）则趋向于气相。

Phase transitions occur when the [[thermodynamic free energy]] of a system is [[analytic function|non-analytic]] for some choice of thermodynamic variables (cf. [[phase (matter)|phases]]). This condition generally stems from the interactions of a large number of particles in a system, and does not appear in systems that are too small. It is important to note that phase transitions can occur and are defined for non-thermodynamic systems, where temperature is not a parameter. Examples include: quantum phase transitions, dynamic phase transitions, and topological (structural) phase transitions. In these types of systems other parameters take the place of temperature. For instance, connection probability replaces temperature for percolating networks.

Phase transitions occur when the thermodynamic free energy of a system is non-analytic for some choice of thermodynamic variables (cf. phases). This condition generally stems from the interactions of a large number of particles in a system, and does not appear in systems that are too small. It is important to note that phase transitions can occur and are defined for non-thermodynamic systems, where temperature is not a parameter. Examples include: quantum phase transitions, dynamic phase transitions, and topological (structural) phase transitions. In these types of systems other parameters take the place of temperature. For instance, connection probability replaces temperature for percolating networks.

当一个系统的热力学自由能对于某些热力学变量（参见相）选择不解析时，就会发生相变。这种情况通常是由于系统中存在大量粒子相互作用，如果系统太小，则不会出现。值得注意的是，相变的发生和定义同样可以针对于温度不是参数的非热力学系统。例如：量子相变，动态相变和拓扑（结构）相变。在这些类型的系统中，其他参数代替了温度。例如，在''' 渗滤网络Percolating networks'''中，连接概率代替了温度。

At the phase transition point (for instance, [[boiling point]]) the two phases of a substance, liquid and [[vapor]], have identical free energies and therefore are equally likely to exist. Below the boiling point, the liquid is the more stable state of the two, whereas above the gaseous form is preferred.

At the phase transition point (for instance, boiling point) the two phases of a substance, liquid and vapor, have identical free energies and therefore are equally likely to exist. Below the boiling point, the liquid is the more stable state of the two, whereas above the gaseous form is preferred.

在相变点（如沸点）下，一种物质的两个相（液体和蒸气）具有相同的自由能，因此它们有相同的可能性存在。而当温度低于沸点时，液态在两者中状态更稳定，同时，温度高于沸点时，气态更占优。

It is sometimes possible to change the state of a system [[diabatic]]ally (as opposed to [[adiabatic invariant|adiabatic]]ally) in such a way that it can be brought past a phase transition point without undergoing a phase transition. The resulting state is [[metastable]], i.e., less stable than the phase to which the transition would have occurred, but not unstable either. This occurs in [[superheating]], [[supercooling]], and [[supersaturation]], for example.

It is sometimes possible to change the state of a system diabatically (as opposed to adiabatically) in such a way that it can be brought past a phase transition point without undergoing a phase transition. The resulting state is metastable, i.e., less stable than the phase to which the transition would have occurred, but not unstable either. This occurs in superheating, supercooling, and supersaturation, for example.

有时可以通过传热方式（与绝热方式相对）改变系统状态，使系统状态可以通过相变点而不会经历相变。因此该系统会处于亚稳态（相对于相变发生过后的状态没有那么稳定，但也并非不稳定）。例如，过热、过冷以及过饱和时会发生这种现象。

== Classifications 分类==

=== Ehrenfest classification 埃伦费斯特分类法 ===

[[Paul Ehrenfest]] classified phase transitions based on the behavior of the [[thermodynamic free energy]] as a function of other thermodynamic variables. Under this scheme, phase transitions were labeled by the lowest derivative of the free energy that is discontinuous at the transition. ''First-order phase transitions'' exhibit a discontinuity in the first derivative of the free energy with respect to some thermodynamic variable. The various solid/liquid/gas transitions are classified as first-order transitions because they involve a discontinuous change in density, which is the (inverse of the) first derivative of the free energy with respect to pressure. ''Second-order phase transitions'' are continuous in the first derivative (the [[Phase transition#order parameters|order parameter]], which is the first derivative of the free energy with respect to the external field, is continuous across the transition) but exhibit discontinuity in a second derivative of the free energy. These include the ferromagnetic phase transition in materials such as iron, where the [[magnetization]], which is the first derivative of the free energy with respect to the applied magnetic field strength, increases continuously from zero as the temperature is lowered below the [[Curie temperature]]. The [[magnetic susceptibility]], the second derivative of the free energy with the field, changes discontinuously. Under the Ehrenfest classification scheme, there could in principle be third, fourth, and higher-order phase transitions.

Paul Ehrenfest classified phase transitions based on the behavior of the thermodynamic free energy as a function of other thermodynamic variables. Under this scheme, phase transitions were labeled by the lowest derivative of the free energy that is discontinuous at the transition. First-order phase transitions exhibit a discontinuity in the first derivative of the free energy with respect to some thermodynamic variable. The various solid/liquid/gas transitions are classified as first-order transitions because they involve a discontinuous change in density, which is the (inverse of the) first derivative of the free energy with respect to pressure. Second-order phase transitions are continuous in the first derivative (the order parameter, which is the first derivative of the free energy with respect to the external field, is continuous across the transition) but exhibit discontinuity in a second derivative of the free energy. These include the ferromagnetic phase transition in materials such as iron, where the magnetization, which is the first derivative of the free energy with respect to the applied magnetic field strength, increases continuously from zero as the temperature is lowered below the Curie temperature. The magnetic susceptibility, the second derivative of the free energy with the field, changes discontinuously. Under the Ehrenfest classification scheme, there could in principle be third, fourth, and higher-order phase transitions.

保罗·埃伦费斯特Paul Ehrenfest根据热力学自由能与其他热力学变量的函数关系对相变进行了分类。根据他的方法，可以将相变按照转变时的不连续自由能的最低导数标记。一阶相变相对于某些热力学变量，表现出自由能的一阶导数不连续。各种固/液/气的转变都归为''' 一阶相变First-order phase transitions'''，因为它们都涉及到密度的不连续变化，这是自由能相对于压力的一阶导数（一阶导数的逆函数）。而''' 二阶相变Second-order phase transitions'''在一阶导数中是连续的（有序参数，即自由能相对于外部场的一阶导数，在整个转变过程中是连续的），但在自由能的二阶导数中表现出不连续性。比如包括铁等材料中的铁磁相变，其中磁化强度是自由能相对于施加磁场强度的一阶导数，随着温度降低到居里温度以下，磁化强度将从零开始连续增加。而磁化率，是自由能相对于磁场的二阶导数，它的变化则是不连续的。以此类推，按照埃伦费斯特的分类方法，原则上可以存在第三，第四和更高阶的相变。

The Ehrenfest classification implicitly allows for continuous phase transformations, where the bonding character of a material changes, but there is no discontinuity in any free energy derivative. An example of this occurs at the [[supercritical liquid–gas boundaries]].

The Ehrenfest classification implicitly allows for continuous phase transformations, where the bonding character of a material changes, but there is no discontinuity in any free energy derivative. An example of this occurs at the supercritical liquid–gas boundaries.

''' 埃伦费斯特分类法Ehrenfest classification'''隐含了连续的相变，其中材料的成键特征发生了变化，但任何自由能导数都没有间断。比如说超临界液气的边界。

=== Modern classifications 现代分类法 ===

In the modern classification scheme, phase transitions are divided into two broad categories, named similarly to the Ehrenfest classes:

In the modern classification scheme, phase transitions are divided into two broad categories, named similarly to the Ehrenfest classes:

在现代分类方案中，将相变分为两大类，类似于埃伦费斯特的命名方式：

'''First-order phase transitions''' are those that involve a [[latent heat]]. During such a transition, a system either absorbs or releases a fixed (and typically large) amount of energy per volume. During this process, the temperature of the system will stay constant as heat is added: the system is in a "mixed-phase regime" in which some parts of the system have completed the transition and others have not. Familiar examples are the melting of ice or the boiling of water (the water does not instantly turn into [[water vapor|vapor]], but forms a [[turbulence|turbulent]] mixture of liquid water and vapor bubbles). [[Yoseph Imry|Imry]] and Wortis showed that [[quenched disorder]] can broaden a first-order transition. That is, the transformation is completed over a finite range of temperatures, but phenomena like supercooling and superheating survive and hysteresis is observed on thermal cycling.

First-order phase transitions are those that involve a latent heat. During such a transition, a system either absorbs or releases a fixed (and typically large) amount of energy per volume. During this process, the temperature of the system will stay constant as heat is added: the system is in a "mixed-phase regime" in which some parts of the system have completed the transition and others have not. Familiar examples are the melting of ice or the boiling of water (the water does not instantly turn into vapor, but forms a turbulent mixture of liquid water and vapor bubbles). Imry and Wortis showed that quenched disorder can broaden a first-order transition. That is, the transformation is completed over a finite range of temperatures, but phenomena like supercooling and superheating survive and hysteresis is observed on thermal cycling.

一阶相变是那些涉及潜伏热的相变。在这种相变过程中，系统会吸收或释放每体积固定（通常是大量）的能量。在此过程中，系统的温度将随着热量的增加而保持恒定：系统处于“混合相状态”，其中系统的某些部分已完成转变，而其他部分尚未完成。常见的例子是冰的融化或水的沸腾（水不会立即变成蒸气，而是形成液态水和蒸气气泡的湍流混合物）。物理学家Imry和Wortis研究表明，''' 淬火无序Quenched disorder'''可以视为一阶转变。即在有限的温度范围内完成了相的转变，但是诸如过冷和过热的现象仍然存在，并且在热循环中观察到了滞后。

'''Second-order phase transitions''' are also called ''"continuous phase transitions"''. They are characterized by a divergent susceptibility, an infinite [[Correlation function (statistical mechanics)|correlation length]], and a [[power law]] decay of correlations near [[Critical point (thermodynamics)|criticality]]. Examples of second-order phase transitions are the [[Ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] transition, superconducting transition (for a [[Type-I superconductor]] the phase transition is second-order at zero external field and for a [[Type-II superconductor]] the phase transition is second-order for both normal-state—mixed-state and mixed-state—superconducting-state transitions) and the [[superfluid]] transition. In contrast to viscosity, thermal expansion and heat capacity of amorphous materials show a relatively sudden change at the glass transition temperature which enables accurate detection using [[differential scanning calorimetry]] measurements. [[Lev Landau]] gave a [[Phenomenology (particle physics)|phenomenological]] [[Landau theory|theory]] of second-order phase transitions.

Second-order phase transitions are also called "continuous phase transitions". They are characterized by a divergent susceptibility, an infinite correlation length, and a power law decay of correlations near criticality. Examples of second-order phase transitions are the ferromagnetic transition, superconducting transition (for a Type-I superconductor the phase transition is second-order at zero external field and for a Type-II superconductor the phase transition is second-order for both normal-state—mixed-state and mixed-state—superconducting-state transitions) and the superfluid transition. In contrast to viscosity, thermal expansion and heat capacity of amorphous materials show a relatively sudden change at the glass transition temperature which enables accurate detection using differential scanning calorimetry measurements. Lev Landau gave a phenomenological theory of second-order phase transitions.

二阶相变，或称为“连续相变”，它们的特征是敏感度发散，相关长度无限以及接近临界的相关性幂律衰减。二阶相变的有关例子是铁磁相变，超导相变（对于I型超导体，在零外场下的相变是二阶的;对于II型超导体，常态到混合态，以及混合态到超导状态的转变都是二阶的）和超流体转换。另外，关于非晶体材料。其热膨胀和热容属性在玻璃相变温度下变化相当突然，这与粘度属性恰恰相反，从而可以使用差示扫描量热法来精确检测。列夫·兰道Lev Landau后来研究出二阶相变的现象学理论。

Apart from isolated, simple phase transitions, there exist transition lines as well as [[multicritical point]]s, when varying external parameters like the magnetic field or composition.

Apart from isolated, simple phase transitions, there exist transition lines as well as multicritical points, when varying external parameters like the magnetic field or composition.

当改变诸如磁场或成分之类的外部参数时，除了独立简单的相变之外，还存在跃迁谱线以及多个临界点。

Several transitions are known as ''infinite-order phase transitions''.They are continuous but break no [[#Symmetry|symmetries]]. The most famous example is the [[Kosterlitz–Thouless transition]] in the two-dimensional [[XY model]]. Many [[quantum phase transition]]s, e.g., in [[two-dimensional electron gas]]es, belong to this class.

Several transitions are known as infinite-order phase transitions.They are continuous but break no symmetries. The most famous example is the Kosterlitz–Thouless transition in the two-dimensional XY model. Many quantum phase transitions, e.g., in two-dimensional electron gases, belong to this class.

另外还存在其他相变类型例如无序相变。无序相变是连续的但并不破坏对称性。最著名的例子是二维XY模型中的''' Kosterlitz-Thouless相变'''。除此之外二维电子气中的量子相变也都属于此类。

The [[glass transition|liquid–glass transition]] is observed in many [[polymers]] and other liquids that can be [[supercooling|supercooled]] far below the melting point of the crystalline phase. This is atypical in several respects. It is not a transition between thermodynamic ground states: it is widely believed that the true ground state is always crystalline. Glass is a ''[[quenched disorder]]'' state, and its entropy, density, and so on, depend on the thermal history. Therefore, the glass transition is primarily a dynamic phenomenon: on cooling a liquid, internal degrees of freedom successively fall out of equilibrium. Some theoretical methods predict an underlying phase transition in the hypothetical limit of infinitely long relaxation times. No direct experimental evidence supports the existence of these transitions.

The liquid–glass transition is observed in many polymers and other liquids that can be supercooled far below the melting point of the crystalline phase. This is atypical in several respects. It is not a transition between thermodynamic ground states: it is widely believed that the true ground state is always crystalline. Glass is a quenched disorder state, and its entropy, density, and so on, depend on the thermal history. Therefore, the glass transition is primarily a dynamic phenomenon: on cooling a liquid, internal degrees of freedom successively fall out of equilibrium. Some theoretical methods predict an underlying phase transition in the hypothetical limit of infinitely long relaxation times. No direct experimental evidence supports the existence of these transitions.

在过度冷却至远低于结晶相熔点的聚合物和其他液体中，观察到了液体-玻璃转变。该现象仓多个方面考虑均属于非典型的相变过程。它不是热力学基态之间的转变：人们普遍认为，真正的基态始终是晶体。玻璃是淬火无序状态，其熵，密度等取决于热历史。因此，玻璃相变主要是一种动态现象：冷却液体时，内部自由度会逐渐失去平衡。一些理论方法预测其潜在相变发生在无限长时间的假象极限内。但是目前并不存在直接的实验证据来支持这些相变的存在。

The gelation transition of colloidal particles has been shown to be a second-order phase transition under nonequilibrium conditions.
在非平衡条件下，胶体粒子的凝胶化转变被认为是二级相变。

== Characteristic properties 特征属性 ==

=== Phase coexistence 相共存 ===

A disorder-broadened first-order transition occurs over a finite range of temperatures where the fraction of the low-temperature equilibrium phase grows from zero to one (100%) as the temperature is lowered. This continuous variation of the coexisting fractions with temperature raised interesting possibilities. On cooling, some liquids vitrify into a glass rather than transform to the equilibrium crystal phase. This happens if the cooling rate is faster than a critical cooling rate, and is attributed to the molecular motions becoming so slow that the molecules cannot rearrange into the crystal positions. If the first-order freezing transition occurs over a range of temperatures, and Tg falls within this range, then there is an interesting possibility that the transition is arrested when it is partial and incomplete. Extending these ideas to first-order magnetic transitions being arrested at low temperatures, resulted in the observation of incomplete magnetic transitions, with two magnetic phases coexisting, down to the lowest temperature. First reported in the case of a ferromagnetic to anti-ferromagnetic transition, such persistent phase coexistence has now been reported across a variety of first-order magnetic transitions. These include colossal-magnetoresistance manganite materials,magnetocaloric materials,magnetic shape memory materials,The interesting feature of these observations of Tg falling within the temperature range over which the transition occurs is that the first-order magnetic transition is influenced by magnetic field, just like the structural transition is influenced by pressure. The relative ease with which magnetic fields can be controlled, in contrast to pressure, raises the possibility that one can study the interplay between Tg and Tc in an exhaustive way. Phase coexistence across first-order magnetic transitions will then enable the resolution of outstanding issues in understanding glasses.

A disorder-broadened first-order transition occurs over a finite range of temperatures where the fraction of the low-temperature equilibrium phase grows from zero to one (100%) as the temperature is lowered. This continuous variation of the coexisting fractions with temperature raised interesting possibilities. On cooling, some liquids vitrify into a glass rather than transform to the equilibrium crystal phase. This happens if the cooling rate is faster than a critical cooling rate, and is attributed to the molecular motions becoming so slow that the molecules cannot rearrange into the crystal positions. This slowing down happens below a glass-formation temperature Tg, which may depend on the applied pressure. If the first-order freezing transition occurs over a range of temperatures, and Tg falls within this range, then there is an interesting possibility that the transition is arrested when it is partial and incomplete. Extending these ideas to first-order magnetic transitions being arrested at low temperatures, resulted in the observation of incomplete magnetic transitions, with two magnetic phases coexisting, down to the lowest temperature. First reported in the case of a ferromagnetic to anti-ferromagnetic transition, such persistent phase coexistence has now been reported across a variety of first-order magnetic transitions. These include colossal-magnetoresistance manganite materials, magnetocaloric materials, magnetic shape memory materials, and other materials.The interesting feature of these observations of Tg falling within the temperature range over which the transition occurs is that the first-order magnetic transition is influenced by magnetic field, just like the structural transition is influenced by pressure. The relative ease with which magnetic fields can be controlled, in contrast to pressure, raises the possibility that one can study the interplay between Tg and Tc in an exhaustive way. Phase coexistence across first-order magnetic transitions will then enable the resolution of outstanding issues in understanding glasses.

在有限的温度范围内，胶体粒子的凝胶化转变已显示为bA紊乱-扩展的一阶转变。随着温度降低，低温平衡相的分数从零增加到一（100％）。随温度变化产生的馏分共存的连续变化带来了许多有趣的可能性。比如在冷却时，一些液体会逐渐玻璃化，而不是转变为平衡晶相。这种情况往往发生在冷却速率比临界冷却速率快的时候，归因于分子运动变得非常缓慢，以至于分子无法重新排列到晶体位置。分子运动的减速通常发生在玻璃的形成温度Tg以下，当然该温度同样可能取决于外在施加压力。如果该一阶冻结相变发生在一定温度范围内，并且Tg恰好落在该范围内，则会发生一种有趣的现象，即当转变是不完整时，该转变会停止。同理可以考虑在低温下被阻止的一阶磁相变，会导致观察到不完全的磁相变，即是说同时存在两个磁相直至最低温度。自首次报道关于铁磁到反铁磁相变以来，现在出现了各种关于一阶磁相变的持久相共存现象。包括了庞磁电阻锰矿材料，磁制冷材料，磁性形状记忆材料和其他材料。当Tg落在发生相变的温度范围内时，观测结果显得非常有趣，其一阶磁相变受到了磁场影响，就像结构相变会受到压力影响一样。与压力相比，控制磁场相对容易，于是提高了研究者们运用穷举法研究Tg和Tc之间相互作用的可能性。一阶磁相变的相位共存将有助于解决理解各种玻璃方面的突出问题。

=== Critical points 临界点===

In any system containing liquid and gaseous phases, there exists a special combination of pressure and temperature, known as the [[Critical point (thermodynamics)|critical point]], at which the transition between liquid and gas becomes a second-order transition. Near the critical point, the fluid is sufficiently hot and compressed that the distinction between the liquid and gaseous phases is almost non-existent. This is associated with the phenomenon of [[critical opalescence]], a milky appearance of the liquid due to density fluctuations at all possible wavelengths (including those of visible light).

In any system containing liquid and gaseous phases, there exists a special combination of pressure and temperature, known as the critical point, at which the transition between liquid and gas becomes a second-order transition. Near the critical point, the fluid is sufficiently hot and compressed that the distinction between the liquid and gaseous phases is almost non-existent. This is associated with the phenomenon of critical opalescence, a milky appearance of the liquid due to density fluctuations at all possible wavelengths (including those of visible light).

在任何包含液相和气相的系统中，都存在压力和温度的特殊组合，称为临界点，在该临界点处，液相和气相之间的转变即为二级相变。在临界点附近，如果流体足够热并且被压缩，那么几乎不存在液相和气相之间的区别。这与临界乳光现象有关，这是由于液体在所有可能的波长（包括可见光）处的密度波动引起的乳白色表现。

=== Symmetry 对称性===

Phase transitions often involve a [[symmetry breaking]] process. For instance, the cooling of a fluid into a [[crystalline solid]] breaks continuous [[translation symmetry]]: each point in the fluid has the same properties, but each point in a crystal does not have the same properties (unless the points are chosen from the lattice points of the crystal lattice). Typically, the high-temperature phase contains more symmetries than the low-temperature phase due to [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]], with the exception of certain [[accidental symmetry|accidental symmetries]] (e.g. the formation of heavy [[virtual particles]], which only occurs at low temperatures).

Phase transitions often involve a symmetry breaking process. For instance, the cooling of a fluid into a crystalline solid breaks continuous translation symmetry: each point in the fluid has the same properties, but each point in a crystal does not have the same properties (unless the points are chosen from the lattice points of the crystal lattice). Typically, the high-temperature phase contains more symmetries than the low-temperature phase due to spontaneous symmetry breaking, with the exception of certain accidental symmetries (e.g. the formation of heavy virtual particles, which only occurs at low temperatures).

相变通常涉及到对称破坏。例如，将流体冷却至结晶固体会破坏其连续的平移对称性：流体中的每个点都具有相同的属性，但是晶体中的每个点都不具有相同的属性（除非这些点是从晶格点阵的晶格点中选择的）。通常，由于''' 自发对称性破缺Spontaneous symmetry breaking'''，除了某些偶然的对称性（例如，''' 重虚粒子Virtual particles'''的形成，其仅在低温下发生）外，高温相比低温相具有更多的对称性。

=== Order parameters 序参数 ===

An '''order parameter''' is a measure of the degree of order across the boundaries in a phase transition system; it normally ranges between zero in one phase (usually above the critical point) and nonzero in the other. At the critical point, the order parameter [[susceptibility (disambiguation)|susceptibility]] will usually diverge.

An order parameter is a measure of the degree of order across the boundaries in a phase transition system; it normally ranges between zero in one phase (usually above the critical point) and nonzero in the other. At the critical point, the order parameter susceptibility will usually diverge.

''' 序参数Order parameter'''是相变系统中跨边界的有序/无序度量；它通常在一个为零的阶段（通常在临界点以上）与另一个非零阶段之间。在临界点，序参数的敏感性通常会发散。

An example of an order parameter is the net [[magnetization]] in a [[ferromagnetic]] system undergoing a phase transition. For liquid/gas transitions, the order parameter is the difference of the densities.

An example of an order parameter is the net magnetization in a ferromagnetic system undergoing a phase transition. For liquid/gas transitions, the order parameter is the difference of the densities.

关于序参数的一个示例是，发生相变的铁磁系统中的净磁化强度。对于液/气相变，序参数是它们的密度之差。

From a theoretical perspective, order parameters arise from symmetry breaking. When this happens, one needs to introduce one or more extra variables to describe the state of the system. For example, in the [[ferromagnetic]] phase, one must provide the net [[magnetization]], whose direction was spontaneously chosen when the system cooled below the [[Curie point]]. However, note that order parameters can also be defined for non-symmetry-breaking transitions.

From a theoretical perspective, order parameters arise from symmetry breaking. When this happens, one needs to introduce one or more extra variables to describe the state of the system. For example, in the ferromagnetic phase, one must provide the net magnetization, whose direction was spontaneously chosen when the system cooled below the Curie point. However, note that order parameters can also be defined for non-symmetry-breaking transitions.

从理论的角度来看，序参数来自对称性破坏。当发生这种情况时，需要引入一个或多个其他变量来描述该系统状态。例如，在铁磁相中，必须提供净磁化强度，因为当系统冷却到居里点以下时，会自动选择其磁化方向。但是，值得注意的是序参数也可以为非对称破坏的相变定义。

Some phase transitions, such as [[superconductivity|superconducting]] and ferromagnetic, can have order parameters for more than one degree of freedom. In such phases, the order parameter may take the form of a complex number, a vector, or even a tensor, the magnitude of which goes to zero at the phase transition.

Some phase transitions, such as superconducting and ferromagnetic, can have order parameters for more than one degree of freedom. In such phases, the order parameter may take the form of a complex number, a vector, or even a tensor, the magnitude of which goes to zero at the phase transition.

某些相变，例如''' 超导Superconducting'''和铁磁，可以具有超过一个自由度的多个序参数。在这样的阶段中，序参数可以采用复数，向量甚至张量的形式，其大小在相变时会变为零。

There also exist dual descriptions of phase transitions in terms of disorder parameters. These indicate the presence of line-like excitations such as [[Quantum vortex|vortex]]- or [[Topological defect|defect]] lines.

There also exist dual descriptions of phase transitions in terms of disorder parameters. These indicate the presence of line-like excitations such as vortex- or defect lines.

就无序参数而言，也存在相变的双重描述。这些表明存在''' 线状激励line-like excitations'''，例如''' 涡旋线vortex lines'''或''' 缺陷线defect lines'''。

=== Relevance in cosmology 宇宙学的相关性 ===

Symmetry-breaking phase transitions play an important role in [[physical cosmology|cosmology]]. As the universe expanded and cooled, the vacuum underwent a series of symmetry-breaking phase transitions. For example, the electroweak transition broke the SU(2)×U(1) symmetry of the [[electroweak force|electroweak field]] into the U(1) symmetry of the present-day [[electromagnetic field]]. This transition is important to understanding the asymmetry between the amount of matter and antimatter in the present-day universe (see [[electroweak baryogenesis]]).

Symmetry-breaking phase transitions play an important role in cosmology. As the universe expanded and cooled, the vacuum underwent a series of symmetry-breaking phase transitions. For example, the electroweak transition broke the SU(2)×U(1) symmetry of the electroweak field into the U(1) symmetry of the present-day electromagnetic field. This transition is important to understanding the asymmetry between the amount of matter and antimatter in the present-day universe (see electroweak baryogenesis).

对称破坏性的相变在宇宙学中起着重要作用。随着宇宙的膨胀和冷却，真空经历了一系列对称破坏的相变。例如，电弱过渡将电弱场的''SU（2）×U（1）''对称性破坏为当今电磁场的''U（1）''对称性。这种转变对于理解当今宇宙中物质与反物质之间的不对称性很重要（请参阅''' 弱电重子生成Electroweak baryogenesis'''）。

Progressive phase transitions in an expanding universe are implicated in the development of order in the universe, as is illustrated by the work of [[Eric Chaisson]] and [[David Layzer]].

Progressive phase transitions in an expanding universe are implicated in the development of order in the universe, as is illustrated by the work of Eric Chaisson and David Layzer.

埃里克·蔡森Eric Chaisson和戴维·莱泽David Layzer的研究表明，正在膨胀的宇宙中的渐进相变与宇宙中的秩序发展有关。

See also [[relational order theories]] and [[order and disorder]].

See also relational order theories and order and disorder.

详情另参见关系秩序理论和秩序与无序。

=== Critical exponents and universality classes 临界指数和普适性 ===

Continuous phase transitions are easier to study than first-order transitions due to the absence of [[latent heat]], and they have been discovered to have many interesting properties. The phenomena associated with continuous phase transitions are called critical phenomena, due to their association with critical points.

Continuous phase transitions are easier to study than first-order transitions due to the absence of latent heat, and they have been discovered to have many interesting properties. The phenomena associated with continuous phase transitions are called critical phenomena, due to their association with critical points.

由于不存在''' 潜伏热Latent heat'''，连续相变比一阶相变更容易研究，目前发现它们具有许多有趣的性质。与连续相变有关的现象由于与临界点有关而被称为临界现象。

It turns out that continuous phase transitions can be characterized by parameters known as [[critical exponent]]s. The most important one is perhaps the exponent describing the divergence of the thermal [[correlation length]] by approaching the transition. For instance, let us examine the behavior of the [[heat capacity]] near such a transition. We vary the temperature {{mvar|T}} of the system while keeping all the other thermodynamic variables fixed, and find that the transition occurs at some critical temperature ''Tc'' . When {{mvar|T}} is near ''Tc'' , the heat capacity {{mvar|C}} typically has a [[power law]] behavior,

It turns out that continuous phase transitions can be characterized by parameters known as critical exponents. The most important one is perhaps the exponent describing the divergence of the thermal correlation length by approaching the transition. For instance, let us examine the behavior of the heat capacity near such a transition. We vary the temperature of the system while keeping all the other thermodynamic variables fixed, and find that the transition occurs at some critical temperature Tc . When is near Tc , the heat capacity typically has a power law behavior,

事实证明，连续相变可以通过称为临界指数的参数来表征。其中最重要的一个参数也许是通过描述逼近相变时热相关长度差异的指数来表示。例如，让我们检测接近发生相变时的热容行为。我们在保持所有其他热力学变量不变的情况下，改变系统的温度T，发现相变发生在某个临界温度Tc处。当T接近Tc时，热容C通常具有幂律行为：

<math> C \propto |T_c - T|^{-\alpha}.</math>

The heat capacity of amorphous materials has such a behaviour near the glass transition temperature where the universal critical exponent α = 0.59 A similar behavior, but with the exponent {{mvar|ν}} instead of {{mvar|α}}, applies for the correlation length.

The heat capacity of amorphous materials has such a behaviour near the glass transition temperature where the universal critical exponent α = 0.59 A similar behavior, but with the exponent instead of , applies for the correlation length.

非晶体材料的热容在接近玻璃相变温度时具有这样的行为，其中通用临界指数α= 0.59。类似的行为适用于相关长度，但使用指数需要改为ν而不是α。

The exponent {{mvar|ν}} is positive. This is different with {{mvar|α}}. Its actual value depends on the type of phase transition we are considering.

The exponent is positive. This is different with . Its actual value depends on the type of phase transition we are considering.

这里指数ν为正数。这与α不同。它的实际值取决于我们正在考虑的相变类型。

It is widely believed that the critical exponents are the same above and below the critical temperature. It has now been shown that this is not necessarily true: When a continuous symmetry is explicitly broken down to a discrete symmetry by irrelevant (in the renormalization group sense) anisotropies, then some exponents (such as <math>\gamma </math>, the exponent of the susceptibility) are not identical.

It is widely believed that the critical exponents are the same above and below the critical temperature. It has now been shown that this is not necessarily true: When a continuous symmetry is explicitly broken down to a discrete symmetry by irrelevant (in the renormalization group sense) anisotropies, then some exponents (such as <math>\gamma </math>, the exponent of the susceptibility) are not identical.

之前普遍认为，临界指数在临界温度上下浮动的时候都是相同的。但是现已证明其不一定正确：因不相关的各向异性（在重整化群理论意义上）将连续对称属性清晰地分解为离散对称属性时，则某些指数（例如γ，''' 磁化率指数Exponent of the susceptibility'''）不相同。

For −1 < α < 0, the heat capacity has a "kink" at the transition temperature. This is the behavior of liquid helium at the [[lambda transition]] from a normal state to the [[superfluid]] state, for which experiments have found {{mvar|α}} = -0.013±0.003.At least one experiment was performed in the zero-gravity conditions of an orbiting satellite to minimize pressure differences in the sample.This experimental value of α agrees with theoretical predictions based on variational perturbation theory.

For −1 < α < 0, the heat capacity has a "kink" at the transition temperature. This is the behavior of liquid helium at the lambda transition from a normal state to the superfluid state, for which experiments have found = -0.013±0.003.At least one experiment was performed in the zero-gravity conditions of an orbiting satellite to minimize pressure differences in the sample. This experimental value of α agrees with theoretical predictions based on variational perturbation theory.

当-1 <α<0时，热容在相变温度下具有“扭结”性质。这是液氦在从正常状态到超流体状态的λ相变行为，为此实验发现α= -0.013±0.003。采取了至少一次在轨道卫星的零重力条件下进行，以最小化样品中的压力差。α的这个实验值与基于变分微扰理论的预测相符。

For 0 < {{mvar|α}} < 1, the heat capacity diverges at the transition temperature (though, since {{mvar|α}} < 1, the enthalpy stays finite). An example of such behavior is the 3D ferromagnetic phase transition. In the three-dimensional [[Ising model]] for uniaxial magnets, detailed theoretical studies have yielded the exponent {{mvar|α}} ∼ +0.110.

For 0 < < 1, the heat capacity diverges at the transition temperature (though, since < 1, the enthalpy stays finite). An example of such behavior is the 3D ferromagnetic phase transition. In the three-dimensional Ising model for uniaxial magnets, detailed theoretical studies have yielded the exponent ∼ +0.110.

当0 <α<1时，热容在相变温度处发散（然而由于α<1，焓保持有限）。这种行为的一个例子是3D铁磁相变。在单轴磁体的三维伊辛模型中，进行了详细的理论研究并得出了指数α≈+0.110。

Some model systems do not obey a power-law behavior. For example, mean field theory predicts a finite discontinuity of the heat capacity at the transition temperature, and the two-dimensional Ising model has a [[logarithm]]ic divergence. However, these systems are limiting cases and an exception to the rule. Real phase transitions exhibit power-law behavior.

Some model systems do not obey a power-law behavior. For example, mean field theory predicts a finite discontinuity of the heat capacity at the transition temperature, and the two-dimensional Ising model has a logarithmic divergence. However, these systems are limiting cases and an exception to the rule. Real phase transitions exhibit power-law behavior.

当然也存在一些模型系统不遵循幂律行为。例如，平均场理论预测了相变温度下热容量的有限不连续性，而二维伊辛模型Ising model则具有对数发散。但是，这些系统存在有限，是规则的例外。实际的相变仍然表现出幂律行为。

Several other critical exponents, {{math| ''β, γ, δ, ν''}}, and {{mvar|η}}, are defined, examining the power law behavior of a measurable physical quantity near the phase transition. Exponents are related by scaling relations, such as

Several other critical exponents, , and , are defined, examining the power law behavior of a measurable physical quantity near the phase transition. Exponents are related by scaling relations, such as

另外还存在其他几个关键指数''β，γ，δ，ν''和''η''，主要是定义检查相变附近可测物理量的幂律行为。它们通过比例关系相互联系，例如：

<math>\beta=\gamma/(\delta-1) , \qquad \nu=\gamma/(2-\eta)</math>.

It can be shown that there are only two independent exponents, e.g. {{mvar|ν}} and {{mvar|η}}.
It can be shown that there are only two independent exponents, e.g. and .
上式可以证明只有两个独立的指数，例如 ''ν''和''η''。

It is a remarkable fact that phase transitions arising in different systems often possess the same set of critical exponents. This phenomenon is known as ''universality''. For example, the critical exponents at the liquid–gas critical point have been found to be independent of the chemical composition of the fluid.

It is a remarkable fact that phase transitions arising in different systems often possess the same set of critical exponents. This phenomenon is known as universality. For example, the critical exponents at the liquid–gas critical point have been found to be independent of the chemical composition of the fluid.

值得注意的是，在不同系统中发生的相变通常具有相同的关键指数集。这种现象称为普适性。例如，已发现液气临界点的临界指数与流体的化学组成无关。

More impressively, but understandably from above, they are an exact match for the critical exponents of the ferromagnetic phase transition in uniaxial magnets. Such systems are said to be in the same universality class. Universality is a prediction of the [[renormalization group]] theory of phase transitions, which states that the thermodynamic properties of a system near a phase transition depend only on a small number of features, such as dimensionality and symmetry, and are insensitive to the underlying microscopic properties of the system. Again, the divergence of the correlation length is the essential point.

More impressively, but understandably from above, they are an exact match for the critical exponents of the ferromagnetic phase transition in uniaxial magnets. Such systems are said to be in the same universality class. Universality is a prediction of the renormalization group theory of phase transitions, which states that the thermodynamic properties of a system near a phase transition depend only on a small number of features, such as dimensionality and symmetry, and are insensitive to the underlying microscopic properties of the system. Again, the divergence of the correlation length is the essential point.

以上相关现象很特别但是可以理解，它们与单轴磁体中铁磁相变的临界指数完全匹配。这类系统因此被认为属于同一普适性。这里的普适性是相变的重整化群理论的一种预测，指出系统在相变附近的热力学性质仅取决于少数特征，例如维数和对称性，并且对系统的基本微观特性不敏感。同样，相关长度的差异性也非常重要的。

=== Critical slowing down and other phenomena 临界慢化和其他现象 ===

There are also other critical phenomena; e.g., besides ''static functions'' there is also ''critical dynamics''. As a consequence, at a phase transition one may observe critical slowing down or ''speeding up''. The large ''static universality classes'' of a continuous phase transition split into smaller ''dynamic universality'' classes. In addition to the critical exponents, there are also universal relations for certain static or dynamic functions of the magnetic fields and temperature differences from the critical value.

There are also other critical phenomena; e.g., besides static functions there is also critical dynamics. As a consequence, at a phase transition one may observe critical slowing down or speeding up. The large static universality classes of a continuous phase transition split into smaller dynamic universality classes. In addition to the critical exponents, there are also universal relations for certain static or dynamic functions of the magnetic fields and temperature differences from the critical value.

在相变过程中，还存在其他临界现象。例如除了静态函数外，还存在关键的临界动态。因此在相变发生时，人们可能会观察到严重的减速或加速现象。连续相变的静态普适性可以分成更小的动态普适性。除了临界指数外，磁场的某些静态或动态函数以及与临界值的温差也存在普适性关系。

=== Percolation theory 渗流理论===

Another phenomenon which shows phase transitions and critical exponents is [[percolation theory|percolation]]. The simplest example is perhaps percolation in a two dimensional square lattice. Sites are randomly occupied with probability p. For small values of p the occupied sites form only small clusters. At a certain threshold pc a giant cluster is formed and we have a second-order phase transition. The behavior of P∞ near pc is, P∞~(p-pc)β, where β is a critical exponent.

Another phenomenon which shows phase transitions and critical exponents is percolation. The simplest example is perhaps percolation in a two dimensional square lattice. Sites are randomly occupied with probability p. For small values of p the occupied sites form only small clusters. At a certain threshold pc a giant cluster is formed and we have a second-order phase transition. The behavior of P∞ near pc is, P∞~(p-pc)β, where β is a critical exponent.

显示相变和临界指数的另一种现象是渗流。最简单的例子是发生在二维方格中的渗流。其中每一个格子以概率''p''标记。对于较小的''p''值，标记的格子仅形成较小的团簇。但是当p达到某个阈值''Pc''时会形成一个巨大的团簇，此时发生二阶相变。''Pc''附近的P∞行为是''P∞〜（p − pc）β''，其中β是一个临界指数。

=== Phase transitions in biological systems 生物系统中的相变 ===

Phase transitions play many important roles in biological systems. Examples include the [[lipid bilayer]] formation, the [[Coil–globule transition|coil-globule transition]] in the process of [[protein folding]] and [[DNA melting]], liquid crystal-like transitions in the process of [[DNA condensation]], and cooperative ligand binding to DNA and proteins with the character of phase transition.

Phase transitions play many important roles in biological systems. Examples include the lipid bilayer formation, the coil-globule transition in the process of protein folding and DNA melting, liquid crystal-like transitions in the process of DNA condensation, and cooperative ligand binding to DNA and proteins with the character of phase transition.

相变在生物系统中也起到许多重要的作用。比如包括''' 脂质双层Lipid bilayer'''的形成，''' 蛋白质折叠Protein folding'''和''' DNA解链DNA melting'''过程中的''' 坍塌转变Coil–globule transition'''，''' DNA缩合DNA condensation'''过程中的液晶转变，以及具有相变特征的配体与DNA和蛋白质的结合配体。

In ''biological membranes'', gel to liquid crystalline phase transitions play a critical role in physiological functioning of biomembranes. In gel phase, due to low fluidity of membrane lipid fatty-acyl chains, membrane proteins have restricted movement and thus are restrained in exercise of their physiological role. Plants depend critically on photosynthesis by chloroplast thylakoid membranes which are exposed cold environmental temperatures. Thylakoid membranes retain innate fluidity even at relatively low temperatures because of high degree of fatty-acyl disorder allowed by their high content of linolenic acid, 18-carbon chain with 3-double bonds. Gel-to-liquid crystalline phase transition temperature of biological membranes can be determined by many techniques including calorimetry, fluorescence, [[spin label]] [[electron paramagnetic resonance]] and [[NMR]] by recording measurements of the concerned parameter by at series of sample temperatures. A simple method for its determination from 13-C NMR line intensities has also been proposed.

In biological membranes, gel to liquid crystalline phase transitions play a critical role in physiological functioning of biomembranes. In gel phase, due to low fluidity of membrane lipid fatty-acyl chains, membrane proteins have restricted movement and thus are restrained in exercise of their physiological role. Plants depend critically on photosynthesis by chloroplast thylakoid membranes which are exposed cold environmental temperatures. Thylakoid membranes retain innate fluidity even at relatively low temperatures because of high degree of fatty-acyl disorder allowed by their high content of linolenic acid, 18-carbon chain with 3-double bonds. Gel-to-liquid crystalline phase transition temperature of biological membranes can be determined by many techniques including calorimetry, fluorescence, spin label electron paramagnetic resonance and NMR by recording measurements of the concerned parameter by at series of sample temperatures. A simple method for its determination from 13-C NMR line intensities has also been proposed.

在''' 生物膜Biological membranes'''中，凝胶到液晶的相变在生物膜的生理机能中起关键作用。在凝胶相中，由于膜脂质脂肪酰基链的流动性低，膜蛋白的运动受到限制，因此在行使其生理作用方面受到限制。植物非常依赖于暴露于寒冷环境温度下叶绿体类囊体膜的光合作用。类囊体膜即使在相对较低的温度下也能保持固有的流动性，这是由于其高含量的亚麻酸，带有3个双键的18碳链允许高度的脂肪酰基紊乱。基于众多技术，包括量热法，荧光法，自旋标记电子顺磁共振和NMR，通过记录一系列样品温度下有关参数的测量值，来确定生物膜的凝胶到液晶的相变温度。同时还提出了一种由13-C NMR谱线强度测定的简单方法。

It has been proposed that some biological systems might lie near critical points. Examples include [[neural network]]s in the salamander retina, bird flocks gene expression networks in Drosophila, and protein folding. However, it is not clear whether or not alternative reasons could explain some of the phenomena supporting arguments for criticality. It has also been suggested that biological organisms share two key properties of phase transitions: the change of macroscopic behavior and the coherence of a system at a critical point.

It has been proposed that some biological systems might lie near critical points. Examples include neural networks in the salamander retina, bird flocks gene expression networks in Drosophila, and protein folding. However, it is not clear whether or not alternative reasons could explain some of the phenomena supporting arguments for criticality. It has also been suggested that biological organisms share two key properties of phase transitions: the change of macroscopic behavior and the coherence of a system at a critical point.

曾经有观点认为生物系统可能位于临界点附近。类似包括蝾螈视网膜中的神经网络，果蝇中的鸟群基因表达网络和蛋白质折叠。但是，尚不清楚替代原因是否可以解释某些现象来支持关键性论证。另一个观点认为，生物有机体具有两个重要的相变特性：宏观行为的变化和系统在临界点的一致性。

The characteristic feature of second order phase transitions is the appearance of fractals in some scale-free properties. It has long been known that protein globules are shaped by interactions with water. There are 20 amino acids that form side groups on protein peptide chains range from hydrophilic to hydrophobic, causing the former to lie near the globular surface, while the latter lie closer to the globular center. Twenty fractals were discovered in solvent associated surface areas of > 5000 protein segments [39]. The existence of these fractals proves that proteins function near critical points of second-order phase transitions.

The characteristic feature of second order phase transitions is the appearance of fractals in some scale-free properties. It has long been known that protein globules are shaped by interactions with water. There are 20 amino acids that form side groups on protein peptide chains range from hydrophilic to hydrophobic, causing the former to lie near the globular surface, while the latter lie closer to the globular center. Twenty fractals were discovered in solvent associated surface areas of > 5000 protein segments [39]. The existence of these fractals proves that proteins function near critical points of second-order phase transitions.

二阶相变的特征是在某些无标度特性中出现了分形。众所周知，蛋白质球是通过与水相互作用而形成的。蛋白质肽链上形成侧基的氨基酸有20种，范围从亲水性到疏水性，使前者位于球状表面附近，而后者更靠近球状中心。在与溶剂相关的表面积大于5000个蛋白质片段的区域中发现了二十个分形。这些分形的存在证明了蛋白质在二阶相变的临界点附近起作用。

In groups of organisms in stress (when approaching critical transitions), correlations tend to increase, while at the same time, fluctuations also increase. This effect is supported by many experiments and observations of groups of people, mice, trees, and grassy plants.

In groups of organisms in stress (when approaching critical transitions), correlations tend to increase, while at the same time, fluctuations also increase. This effect is supported by many experiments and observations of groups of people, mice, trees, and grassy plants.

在处于压力下的生物群中（接近关键转变时），相关性趋于增加，而与此同时，波动也会增加。许多人和小鼠，树木和草类植物的实验和观察都支持这种效果。

== Experimental 实验性 ==

A variety of methods are applied for studying the various effects. Selected examples are:
A variety of methods are applied for studying the various effects. Selected examples are:
研究各种效果的方法多种多样。部分示例如下：

* [[Thermogravimetry]] (very common)
* [[X-ray diffraction]]
* [[Neutron diffraction]]
* [[Raman Spectroscopy]]
* [[SQUID]] (measurement of magnetic transitions)
* [[Hall effect]] (measurement of magnetic transitions)
* [[Mössbauer spectroscopy]] (simultaneous measurement of magnetic and non-magnetic transitions. Limited up to about 800-1000 °C)
* [[Perturbed angular correlation]] (simultaneous measurement of magnetic and non-magnetic transitions. No temperature limits. Over 2000 °C already performed, theoretical possible up to the highest crystal material, such as [[tantalum hafnium carbide]] 4215 °C.)

* ''' 热重量分析法（非常常见）Thermogravimetry'''
* ''' X射线衍射法X-ray diffraction'''
* ''' 中子衍射Neutron diffraction'''
* ''' 拉曼光谱法Raman Spectroscopy'''
* ''' SQUID'''（磁跃迁测量）
* ''' 霍尔效应Hall effect'''（磁跃迁测量）
* ''' 穆斯堡尔光谱法Mössbauer spectroscopy'''（同时测量磁性和非磁性跃迁。限制在大约800–1000°C的温度下）
* ''' 扰动角关联Perturbed angular correlation'''（同时测量磁性和非磁性跃迁。没有温度限制。已经执行了超过2000°C的操作，理论上可能达到最高晶体材料，例如钽碳化carbide 4215°C。）

== See also 其他参考资料 ==

* ''' 同素异形体Allotropy '''
* ''' 自动催化反应和序生成Autocatalytic reactions and order creation '''
* ''' 晶体生长Crystal growth '''
** ''' 谷物异常生长Abnormal grain growth '''
* ''' 差示扫描量热法Differential scanning calorimetry '''
* ''' 无扩散相变Diffusionless transformations '''
* ''' 埃伦费斯特方程Ehrenfest equations '''
* ''' 阻塞（物理）Jamming (physics) '''
* ''' 开尔文探针力显微镜Kelvin probe force microscope '''
* ''' 朗道二阶相变理论Landau theory of second order phase transition'''
* ''' 激光加热基座法Laser-heated pedestal growth '''
* ''' 物质状态列表List of states of matter '''
* ''' 微下拉法Micro-pulling-down '''
* ''' 渗流理论Percolation theory '''
** ''' 连续介质渗流理论Continuum percolation theory '''
* ''' 超流体膜Superfluid film '''
* ''' 超辐射相变Superradiant phase transition '''
* ''' 拓扑量子场论Topological quantum field theory '''

{{Div col end}}

== References 参考文献 ==

{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading 扩展阅读 ==

* [[Philip Warren Anderson|Anderson, P.W.]], ''Basic Notions of Condensed Matter Physics'', [[Perseus Publishing]] (1997).

* [[Amir Faghri|Faghri, A.]], and [[Yuwen Zhang|Zhang, Y.]], [https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030221362 Fundamentals of Multiphase Heat Transfer and Flow], [[Springer Nature]] Switzerland AG, 2020.

* {{cite journal | last1 = Fisher | first1 = M.E. | authorlink = Michael E. Fisher | year = 1974 | title = The renormalization group in the theory of critical behavior | url = | journal = Rev. Mod. Phys. | volume = 46 | issue = 4| pages = 597–616 | doi=10.1103/revmodphys.46.597|bibcode = 1974RvMP...46..597F }}

* Goldenfeld, N., ''Lectures on Phase Transitions and the Renormalization Group'', Perseus Publishing (1992).

*{{citation |year=2008 |author=Ivancevic, Vladimir G |author2=Ivancevic, Tijana T |title=Chaos, Phase Transitions, Topology Change and Path Integrals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wpsPgHgtxEYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=complex+nonlinearity |place=Berlin |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-79356-4 |accessdate=14 March 2013 }}

* M.R.Khoshbin-e-Khoshnazar, ''Ice Phase Transition as a sample of finite system phase transition'', (Physics Education(India)Volume 32. No. 2, Apr - Jun 2016)[http://www.physedu.in/uploads/publication/23/371/4.-Ice-Phase-transition-as-a-sample-of-finite-system-phase--transition.pdf]

* [[Hagen Kleinert|Kleinert, H.]], ''Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter'', Vol. I, "[[:de:Supraflüssigkeit|Superfluid]] and [[vortex|Vortex lines]]; Disorder Fields, [[Phase Transition]]s,", pp. 1–742, [https://archive.is/20060514143926/http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/0356.htm World Scientific (Singapore, 1989)]; Paperback {{ISBN|9971-5-0210-0}} (readable online [http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/kleiner_reb1/contents1.html physik.fu-berlin.de])

* [[Hagen Kleinert|Kleinert, H.]] and Verena Schulte-Frohlinde, ''Critical Properties of φ4-Theories'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20080226151023/http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/4733.html World Scientific (Singapore, 2001)]; Paperback {{ISBN|981-02-4659-5}}'' (readable online [http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/b8 here]).''

* {{cite journal | last1 = Kogut | first1 = J. | authorlink2 = Kenneth G. Wilson | last2 = Wilson | first2 = K | year = 1974 | title = The Renormalization Group and the epsilon-Expansion | url = | journal = Phys. Rep. | volume = 12 | issue = 2| pages = 75–199 |bibcode = 1974PhR....12...75W |doi = 10.1016/0370-1573(74)90023-4 }}

* Krieger, Martin H., ''Constitutions of matter : mathematically modelling the most everyday of physical phenomena'', [[University of Chicago Press]], 1996. Contains a detailed pedagogical discussion of [[Lars Onsager|Onsager]]'s solution of the 2-D Ising Model.

* [[Lev Davidovich Landau|Landau, L.D.]] and [[Evgeny Mikhailovich Lifshitz|Lifshitz, E.M.]], ''Statistical Physics Part 1'', vol. 5 of ''[[Course of Theoretical Physics]]'', Pergamon Press, 3rd Ed. (1994).

* Mussardo G., "Statistical Field Theory. An Introduction to Exactly Solved Models of Statistical Physics", Oxford University Press, 2010.

*[[Manfred R. Schroeder|Schroeder, Manfred R.]], ''Fractals, chaos, power laws : minutes from an infinite paradise'', New York: [[W. H. Freeman]], 1991. Very well-written book in "semi-popular" style—not a textbook—aimed at an audience with some training in mathematics and the physical sciences. Explains what scaling in phase transitions is all about, among other things.

* H. E. Stanley, ''Introduction to Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena'' (Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York 1971).

* Yeomans J. M., ''Statistical Mechanics of Phase Transitions'', Oxford University Press, 1992.

* Anderson, P.W., 《凝聚态物理的基本概念》, Perseus Publishing (1997).
* Faghri, A., and Zhang, Y., 《多相传热与流动基础》, Springer Nature Switzerland AG, 2020.
* Fisher, M.E. (1974). “临界行为理论中的再规范化”. Rev. Mod. Phys. 46 (4): 597–616. Bibcode:1974RvMP...46..597F. doi:10.1103/revmodphys.46.597.
* Goldenfeld, N., 《关于相变和重整化群的讲座》, Perseus Publishing (1992).
* Ivancevic, Vladimir G; Ivancevic, Tijana T (2008), 《混沌，相变，拓扑变化和路径积分》, Berlin: Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-79356-4, retrieved 14 March 2013
* M.R.Khoshbin-e-Khoshnazar, 《冰的相变作为有限系统相变的一个样本》, (Physics Education(India)Volume 32. No. 2, Apr - Jun 2016)[1]
* Kleinert, H., 《凝聚物质的规范场》, Vol. I, “超流体和涡旋线；无序场，相变”, pp. 1–742, World Scientific (Singapore, 1989); Paperback ISBN 9971-5-0210-0 (readable online physik.fu-berlin.de)
* Kleinert, H. and Verena Schulte-Frohlinde, 《φ4-理论的临界性质》, World Scientific (Singapore, 2001); Paperback ISBN 981-02-4659-5 (readable online here).
* Kogut, J.; Wilson, K (1974). “重整化群和epsilon扩展”. Phys. Rep. 12 (2): 75–199. Bibcode:1974PhR....12...75W. doi:10.1016/0370-1573(74)90023-4.
* Krieger, Martin H., 《物质的构成：对物理现象进行最日常的数学建模》, University of Chicago Press, 1996. 其中包含对Onsager的二维伊辛模型解决方案的详细教学讨论。
* Landau, L.D. and Lifshitz, E.M., 《统计物理学》 Part 1, vol. 5 of Course of Theoretical Physics, Pergamon Press, 3rd Ed. (1994).
* Mussardo G., “统计场论。统计物理学的精确求解模型导论”，Oxford University Press, 2010.
* Schroeder, Manfred R., 《分形，混沌，幂定律：距离无限天堂的分钟路程》, New York: W. H. Freeman, 1991. 写得很好的“半大众”风格的书，而不是教科书，旨在介绍数学和物理科学方面的知识。解释相变的标定是什么。
* H. E. Stanley, 《相变和临界现象导论》(Oxford University Press, Oxford and New York 1971).
* Yeomans J. M., 《相变的统计力学》, Oxford University Press, 1992.

== External links 相关链接 ==

{{Commons category|Phase changes}}

*[http://www.ibiblio.org/e-notes/Perc/contents.htm Interactive Phase Transitions on lattices] with Java applets 使用Java小程序在晶格上进行交互式相变

*[http://www.sklogwiki.org/SklogWiki/index.php/Universality_classes Universality classes 普适性分类] from Sklogwiki

{{States of matter}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Phase Transition}}

[[Category:Phase transitions| ]]

[[Category:Concepts in physics]]

Category:Concepts in physics

分类: 物理概念

[[Category:Critical phenomena]]

Category:Critical phenomena

范畴: 临界现象

<noinclude>

This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Phase transition]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[相变/edithistory]]</noinclude>

[[Category:待整理页面]]

系统生态学

2020-10-31T02:52:59Z

1220978308：

此词条暂由小竹凉翻译，未经人工审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。{{short description|A holistic approach to the study of ecological systems}}

[[File:Genomics GTL Program Payoffs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Ecological analysis of CO2 in an [[ecosystem]]]]

Ecological analysis of CO2 in an [[ecosystem]]

'''生态系统 Ecosystem'''中CO2的生态学分析

Systems ecology is an [[interdisciplinary]] field of [[ecology]], a subset of [[Earth system science]], that takes a [[holism|holistic]] approach to the study of ecological systems, especially [[ecosystem]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Systems ecology|last=Shugart, Herman H. (Herman Henry), 1944-|last2=O'Neill, R. V. (Robert V.), 1940-|isbn=0-87933-347-2|oclc=4664585}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Ecosystems, systems ecology, and systems ecologists.|last=Van Dyne, George M., 1932-|publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Health Physics Divisions|date=1966|oclc=4247138}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Fundamental processes in ecology : an earth systems approach|last=Wilkinson, David M., 1963-|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2006|isbn=0-19-856846-0|oclc=67383832}}</ref> Systems ecology can be seen as an application of [[general systems theory]] to ecology. Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem is a [[complex system]] exhibiting [[emergent properties]]. Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts from [[thermodynamics]] and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems.

Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecology, a subset of Earth system science, that takes a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems. Systems ecology can be seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology. Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem is a complex system exhibiting emergent properties. Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems.

'''系统生态学 Systems Ecology'''是一个'''跨学科的 Interdisciplinary''' '''生态学 Ecology'''领域，是'''地球系统科学 Earth System Science'''的一个子集，它采用整体的方法研究生态学中的系统，尤其是生态系统。系统生态学可以看作是'''一般系统理论 General System Theroy'''在生态学中的应用。系统生态学方法的核心思想是，生态系统是一个具有'''突显特性 Emergent Properties'''的复杂系统。系统生态学侧重于，生物的系统和生态的系统之间或内部的相互作用和交换，尤其关注人类干预对生态系统功能的影响。它使用并扩展了'''热力学 Thermodynamics'''中的概念，同时开发了其他复杂系统的宏观描述。

==Overview==

==Overview==

概览

Systems ecology seeks a [[Holism|holistic]] view of the interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems. Systems ecologists realise that the function of any ecosystem can be influenced by human economics in fundamental ways. They have therefore taken an additional transdisciplinary step by including economics in the consideration of [[ecological economics|ecological-economic]] systems. In the words of [[R.L. Kitching]]:<ref>{{cite book |title=Systems ecology : an introduction to ecological modelling|last=Kitching, R. L. (Roger Laurence), 1945-|publisher=University of Queensland Press|page=9|date=1983|isbn=0-7022-1813-8|oclc=8845946}}</ref>

Systems ecology seeks a holistic view of the interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems. Systems ecologists realise that the function of any ecosystem can be influenced by human economics in fundamental ways. They have therefore taken an additional transdisciplinary step by including economics in the consideration of ecological-economic systems. In the words of R.L. Kitching:

依照R.L.Kitching所说，系统生态学寻求生物的系统和生态的系统内部，以及它们之间的相互作用和交换的'''整体的 Holistic'''观点。系统生态学家意识到，任何生态系统的功能都可能从根本上受到人类经济学的影响。他们因此采取了额外的跨学科步骤，将经济学纳入'''生态经济 Ecological-economic'''系统的考虑。返回文章页面风筝:

* ''Systems ecology can be defined as the approach to the study of ecology of organisms using the techniques and philosophy of systems analysis: that is, the methods and tools developed, largely in engineering, for studying, characterizing and making predictions about complex entities, that is, systems..

* ''In any study of an ecological system, an essential early procedure is to draw a diagram of the system of interest ... diagrams indicate the system's '''boundaries''' by a solid line. Within these boundaries, series of components are isolated which have been chosen to represent that portion of the world in which the systems analyst is interested ... If there are no connections across the systems' boundaries with the surrounding '''systems environments''', the systems are described as ''closed''. Ecological work, however, deals almost exclusively with ''open'' systems.''<ref>{{cite book |title=Systems ecology : an introduction to ecological modelling|last=Kitching, R. L. (Roger Laurence), 1945-|publisher=University of Queensland Press|page=11|date=1983|isbn=0-7022-1813-8|oclc=8845946}}</ref>

As a mode of scientific enquiry, a central feature of Systems Ecology is the general application of the [[principles of energetics]] to all systems at any scale. Perhaps the most notable proponent of this view was [[Howard T. Odum]] - sometimes considered the father of ecosystems ecology. In this approach the principles of energetics constitute [[ecosystem principles]]. Reasoning by [[formal analogy]] from one system to another enables the Systems Ecologist to see principles functioning in an analogous manner across system-scale boundaries. H.T. Odum commonly used the [[Energy Systems Language]] as a tool for making systems diagrams and flow charts.

As a mode of scientific enquiry, a central feature of Systems Ecology is the general application of the principles of energetics to all systems at any scale. Perhaps the most notable proponent of this view was Howard T. Odum - sometimes considered the father of ecosystems ecology. In this approach the principles of energetics constitute ecosystem principles. Reasoning by formal analogy from one system to another enables the Systems Ecologist to see principles functioning in an analogous manner across system-scale boundaries. H.T. Odum commonly used the Energy Systems Language as a tool for making systems diagrams and flow charts.

作为一种科学探究方式，系统生态学的一个核心特征就是'''能量学原理 Principles of Energetics'''在任何尺度的所有系统中的普遍应用。这个观点最著名的支持者是Howard T. Odum，他有时被认为是生态系统生态学之父。在这种方法中，能量学原理构成了'''生态系统原理 Ecosystem Principles'''。通过从一个系统到另一个系统的形式进行类比推理，系统生态学家可以看到生态系统原理以类似的方式，跨越系统的尺度边界而发挥作用。H.t.Odum 通常将'''能源系统语言 Energy Systems Language'''作为制作系统图和流程图的一个工具。

The fourth of these principles, the [[Maximum power principle|principle of maximum power efficiency]], takes central place in the analysis and synthesis of ecological systems. The fourth principle suggests that the most evolutionarily advantageous system function occurs when the environmental load matches the internal resistance of the system. The further the environmental load is from matching the internal resistance, the further the system is away from its sustainable steady state. Therefore, the systems ecologist engages in a task of resistance and impedance matching in [[ecological engineering]], just as the [[electronic engineer]] would do.

The fourth of these principles, the principle of maximum power efficiency, takes central place in the analysis and synthesis of ecological systems. The fourth principle suggests that the most evolutionarily advantageous system function occurs when the environmental load matches the internal resistance of the system. The further the environmental load is from matching the internal resistance, the further the system is away from its sustainable steady state. Therefore, the systems ecologist engages in a task of resistance and impedance matching in ecological engineering, just as the electronic engineer would do.

原理中的第四条，'''最大功率效率原理 Principle of Maximum Power Efficiency'''，在生态系统的分析和综合的过程中中占据中心地位。第四项原理认为，当环境负荷与系统内部阻力相匹配时，系统功能将发生于进化最有利的改变。环境负荷与内阻的匹配性越差，系统离可持续稳定状态越远。因此，系统生态学家像'''电子工程师 Electronic Engineer'''一样，在生态工程中从事匹配电阻和阻抗的工作。

==Closely related fields==

==Closely related fields==

密切相关的领域

===Deep ecology===

===Deep ecology===

深层生态学

{{Main article|Deep ecology}}

Deep ecology is an ideology whose metaphysical underpinnings are deeply concerned with the science of ecology. The term was coined by [[Arne Næss|Arne Naess]], a Norwegian philosopher, [[Gandhi]]an scholar, and [[environmental activist]]. He argues that the prevailing approach to [[environmental management]] is [[anthropocentric]], and that the natural environment is not only "more complex than we imagine, it is more complex than we can imagine."<ref>A statement attributed to British biologist [[J.B.S. Haldane]]</ref> Naess formulated deep ecology in 1973 at an environmental conference in Budapest.

Deep ecology is an ideology whose metaphysical underpinnings are deeply concerned with the science of ecology. The term was coined by Arne Naess, a Norwegian philosopher, Gandhian scholar, and environmental activist. He argues that the prevailing approach to environmental management is anthropocentric, and that the natural environment is not only "more complex than we imagine, it is more complex than we can imagine." Naess formulated deep ecology in 1973 at an environmental conference in Budapest.

深层生态学是一种与生态学密切相关的形而上学的基础意识形态。这个术语是由一位挪威哲学家、甘地学者，同时也是'''环境活动家 Environmental Activist'''——Arne Naess创造的。他认为，目前流行的'''环境管理 Environmental Management'''方法是'''人本位的 Anthropocentric'''，自然环境不仅“比我们想象的更复杂，而是比我们能想象到的更复杂”Naess 于1973年在布达佩斯的一次环境会议上提出了深层生态学的概念。

[[Joanna Macy]], [[John Seed]], and others developed Naess' thesis into a branch they called ''experiential deep ecology''. Their efforts were motivated by a need they perceived for the development of an "[[ecological self]]", which views the human ego as an integrated part of a living system that encompasses the individual. They sought to transcend [[altruism]] with a deeper self-interest based on [[biospherical equality]] beyond human chauvinism.

Joanna Macy, John Seed, and others developed Naess' thesis into a branch they called experiential deep ecology. Their efforts were motivated by a need they perceived for the development of an "ecological self", which views the human ego as an integrated part of a living system that encompasses the individual. They sought to transcend altruism with a deeper self-interest based on biospherical equality beyond human chauvinism.

Joanna Macy、John Seed和其他人将Naess的论点发展成他们称为经验性深层生态学的一个分支。他们之所以作出这些努力，是因为他们认为需要发展“生态自我” ，将人的自我视为包括个人在内的生命系统的一个组成部分。他们试图超越'''利他主义 Altruism'''，以超越人类沙文主义的'''生物学的平等 Biospherical Equality'''为基础，实现更深层次的自我利益。

===Earth systems engineering and management===

===Earth systems engineering and management===

地球系统工程与管理

{{Main article|Earth systems engineering and management}}

Earth systems engineering and management (ESEM) is a discipline used to analyze, design, engineer and manage [[Complexity|complex]] [[Natural environment|environmental]] [[system]]s. It entails a wide range of subject areas including anthropology, engineering, [[environmental science]], ethics and philosophy. At its core, ESEM looks to "rationally design and manage coupled human-natural systems in a highly integrated and ethical fashion"

Earth systems engineering and management (ESEM) is a discipline used to analyze, design, engineer and manage complex environmental systems. It entails a wide range of subject areas including anthropology, engineering, environmental science, ethics and philosophy. At its core, ESEM looks to "rationally design and manage coupled human-natural systems in a highly integrated and ethical fashion"

地球系统工程与管理(ESEM)是一门用于分析、设计、工程和管理'''复杂环境系统 Complex Environmental Systems'''的学科。它广泛涉及多个学科领域，包括人类学、工程学、'''环境科学 Environmental Science'''、伦理学和哲学。ESEM 的核心是“以具有高度整合性并且道德的方式，合理地设计并管理人与自然的耦合系统”

===Ecological economics===

===Ecological economics===

生态经济学

{{Main article|Ecological economics}}

Ecological economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic research that addresses the dynamic and spatial interdependence between human economies and natural [[ecosystem]]s. Ecological economics brings together and connects different disciplines, within the natural and social sciences but especially between these broad areas. As the name suggests, the field is made up of researchers with a background in [[economics]] and [[ecology]]. An important motivation for the emergence of ecological economics has been criticism on the assumptions and approaches of traditional (mainstream) [[Environmental economics|environmental and resource economics]].

Ecological economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic research that addresses the dynamic and spatial interdependence between human economies and natural ecosystems. Ecological economics brings together and connects different disciplines, within the natural and social sciences but especially between these broad areas. As the name suggests, the field is made up of researchers with a background in economics and ecology. An important motivation for the emergence of ecological economics has been criticism on the assumptions and approaches of traditional (mainstream) environmental and resource economics.

生态经济学是学术研究中，研究人类经济和自然'''生态系统 Ecosystem'''之间动态和空间相互依存关系的一个跨学科领域。生态经济学把自然科学和社会科学的不同学科联系在一起，尤其是在广泛的领域之间。顾名思义，这个领域会由具有'''经济学 Economics'''和'''生态学 Ecology'''相关背景的研究人员组成。生态经济学产生的一个重要动因是对传统(主流)'''环境资源经济学 Environmental and Resource Economics'''的假设和方法的批判。

===Ecological energetics===

===Ecological energetics===

生态能量学

{{Main article|Ecological energetics}}

Ecological energetics is the quantitative study of the flow of energy through ecological systems. It aims to uncover the [[Scientific law|principles]] which describe the propensity of such energy flows through the trophic, or 'energy availing' levels of ecological networks. In systems ecology the principles of ecosystem energy flows or "ecosystem laws" (i.e. principles of ecological energetics) are considered formally analogous to the [[principles of energetics]].

Ecological energetics is the quantitative study of the flow of energy through ecological systems. It aims to uncover the principles which describe the propensity of such energy flows through the trophic, or 'energy availing' levels of ecological networks. In systems ecology the principles of ecosystem energy flows or "ecosystem laws" (i.e. principles of ecological energetics) are considered formally analogous to the principles of energetics.

生态能量学是对生态系统中能量流动的定量研究。它旨在揭示描述这种能量流通过营养或生态网络时的能量利用水平的倾向的'''原理 Principles'''。在系统生态学中，生态系统能量流动原理或“生态系统规律”(即:生态能量学原理)被认为在形式上类似于'''能量学原理 Principles of Energetics'''。

===Ecological humanities===

===Ecological humanities===

生态人文学科

{{Main article|Ecological humanities}}

Ecological humanities aims to bridge the divides between the sciences and the humanities, and between [[Western culture|Western]], [[Eastern culture|Eastern]] and [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous]] ways of knowing nature. Like ecocentric political theory, the ecological humanities are characterised by a connectivity ontology and a commitment to two fundamental axioms relating to the need to submit to [[Ecology|ecological]] laws and to see humanity as part of a larger living system.

Ecological humanities aims to bridge the divides between the sciences and the humanities, and between Western, Eastern and Indigenous ways of knowing nature. Like ecocentric political theory, the ecological humanities are characterised by a connectivity ontology and a commitment to two fundamental axioms relating to the need to submit to ecological laws and to see humanity as part of a larger living system.

生态人文旨在弥合科学与人文之间的沟壑，弥合西方、东方和'''本土 Indigenous'''对自然的认识方式。就像生态中心的政治理论一样，生态人文学科的特点是将本体论和对两个基本公理，即必须服从生态法则，并将人类视为更大的生命系统的一部分，的承诺连接起来。

===Ecosystem ecology===

===Ecosystem ecology===

生态系统生态学

[[File:Ecoecolfigure1.jpg|thumb|right|A [[riparian forest]] in the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Mountains]], [[New Hampshire]] (USA)]]

A [[riparian forest in the White Mountains, New Hampshire (USA)]]

[[新罕布什尔州怀特山脉的河岸森林]

{{Main article|Ecosystem ecology}}

Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of [[Life|biotic]] and [[abiotic]] components of [[ecosystem]]s and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This [[science]] examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as [[chemical]]s, [[bedrock]], [[soil]], [[plant]]s, and [[animal]]s. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact.

Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact.

生态系统生态学是生态系统的'''生物 Biotic'''和'''非生物 Abiotic'''组成部分及其在生态系统框架内的相互作用的综合研究。它主要研究生态系统是如何工作的，并将其与'''化学物质 Chemical'''、'''基岩 Bedrock'''、'''土壤 Soil'''、'''植物 Plant'''和'''动物 Animal'''等组成部分联系起来。生态系统生态学研究物理和生物结构以及这些生态系统特征是如何相互作用的。

The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. Much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. Ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. However, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. Whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems.

The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. Much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. Ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. However, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. Whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems.

系统生态学和生态系统生态学之间的关系是复杂的。许多系统生态学可以被认为是生态系统生态学的一个子集。生态系统生态学也使用了一些与系统生态学的整体方法无关的方法。然而，系统生态学更积极地考虑外部影响，比如经济学，它通常超出了生态系统生态学的范围。生态系统生态学可以被定义为生态系统的科学研究，而系统生态学更多算是采用某种特殊的方法来研究生态系统和与这些系统相互作用的现象。

===Industrial ecology===

===Industrial ecology===

工业生态学

{{Main article|Industrial ecology}}

Industrial ecology is the study of [[industrial process]]es as linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for new processes.

Industrial ecology is the study of industrial processes as linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for new processes.

工业生态学研究作为线性(开放式循环)系统的'''工业过程 Industrial Process'''，其中资源和资本投资的流动通过该系统变成废料，接着进入一个封闭式循环系统，废料便成为新一次过程的投入。

==See also==

==See also==

参见

{{Portal|Earth sciences|Ecology|Geography|Systems science}}

{{div col}}

* [[Agroecology]] 农业生态学

* [[Earth system science]] 地球系统科学

* [[Ecosystem ecology]] 生态系统生态学

* [[Ecological literacy]] 生态素养

* [[Emergy]] 能值

* [[Energetics]] 能量学

* [[Energy Systems Language]] 能源系统语言

* [[Holism in science]] 科学中的整体论

* [[Holon (philosophy)]] 整体单元（哲学）

* [[Holistic management]] 整体管理

* [[Landscape ecology]] 景观生态学

* [[Antireductionism]] 反还原论

* [[Biosemiotics]] 生物符号学

* [[Ecosemiotics]] 生态符号学

* [[MuSIASEM]] 社会生态系统代谢多尺度综合评估

{{div col end}}

==References==

==References==

参考资料

{{reflist}}

==Literature==

==Literature==

文学

* [[Gregory Bateson]], ''Steps to an Ecology of Mind'', 2000.

* Kenneth Edmund Ferguson, ''Systems Analysis in Ecology'', WATT, 1966, 276 pp.

* Efraim Halfon, ''Theoretical Systems Ecology: Advances and Case Studies'', 1979.

* J. W. Haefner, ''Modeling Biological Systems: Principles and Applications'', London., UK, Chapman and Hall 1996, 473 pp.

* Richard F Johnston, Peter W Frank, Charles Duncan Michener, ''Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics'', 1976, 307 pp.

* Jorgensen, Sven E., "Introduction to Systems Ecology", CRC Press, 2012.

* R.L. Kitching, ''Systems ecology'', University of Queensland Press, 1983.

* [[Howard T. Odum]], ''Systems Ecology: An Introduction'', Wiley-Interscience, 1983.

* [[Howard T. Odum]], ''Ecological and General Systems: An Introduction to Systems Ecology''. University Press of Colorado, Niwot, CO, 1994.

* Friedrich Recknagel, ''Applied Systems Ecology: Approach and Case Studies in Aquatic Ecology'', 1989.

* James. Sanderson & Larry D. Harris, ''Landscape Ecology: A Top-down Approach'', 2000, 246 pp.

* Sheldon Smith, ''Human Systems Ecology: Studies in the Integration of Political Economy'', 1989.

* Shugart, H.H., O’Neil, R.V. (Eds.) ''Systems Ecology'', Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., 1979.

* Van Dyne, George M., ''Ecosystems, Systems Ecology, and Systems Ecologists'', ORNL- 3975. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, pp. 1–40, 1966.

* Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 1, Academic Press, 1971.

* Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 2, Academic Press, 1972.

* Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 3, Academic Press, 1975.

* Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 4, Academic Press, 1976.

==External links==

==External links==

外部链接

{{Commonscat}}

:Organisations

Organisations

机构

*[http://www.ecology.su.se/ Systems Ecology Department] at the Stockholm University.

*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080603214448/http://www.falw.vu.nl/Onderzoeksinstituten/index.cfm/home_subsection.cfm/subsectionid/55B99586-E22B-4B5C-89C65764F35DDB54 Systems Ecology Department] at the University of Amsterdam.

*[http://www.esf.edu/efb/hall/se/ Systems ecology Lab] at SUNY-ESF.

*[http://www.ees.ufl.edu/homepp/brown/syseco/ Systems Ecology program] at the University of Florida

*[http://www.dbs.umt.edu/systemsecology/ Systems Ecology program] at the University of Montana

*[http://www.sysecol.ethz.ch/ Terrestrial Systems Ecology] of ETH Zürich.

{{modelling ecosystems|expanded=other}}

{{Systems}}

{{Environmental science}}

{{Environmental social science}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Systems Ecology}}

[[Category:Systems ecology| ]]

[[Category:Environmental science]]

Category:Environmental science

类别: 环境科学

[[Category:Environmental social science]]

Category:Environmental social science

类别: 环境社会科学

[[Category:Formal sciences]]

Category:Formal sciences

类别: 正规科学

[[Category:Systems theory|Ecology]]

Ecology

生态学

[[Category:Subfields of ecology]]

Category:Subfields of ecology

分类: 生态学的子领域

<noinclude>

This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Systems ecology]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[系统生态学/edithistory]]</noinclude>

[[Category:待整理页面]]

系统生态学

2020-10-31T02:51:33Z

1220978308：

此词条暂由小竹凉翻译，未经人工审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。{{short description|A holistic approach to the study of ecological systems}}

[[File:Genomics GTL Program Payoffs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Ecological analysis of CO2 in an [[ecosystem]]]]

Ecological analysis of CO2 in an [[ecosystem]]

'''生态系统 Ecosystem'''中CO2的生态学分析

'''Systems ecology''' is an [[interdisciplinary]] field of [[ecology]], a subset of [[Earth system science]], that takes a [[holism|holistic]] approach to the study of ecological systems, especially [[ecosystem]]s.<ref>{{cite book |title=Systems ecology|last=Shugart, Herman H. (Herman Henry), 1944-|last2=O'Neill, R. V. (Robert V.), 1940-|isbn=0-87933-347-2|oclc=4664585}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Ecosystems, systems ecology, and systems ecologists.|last=Van Dyne, George M., 1932-|publisher=Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Health Physics Divisions|date=1966|oclc=4247138}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Fundamental processes in ecology : an earth systems approach|last=Wilkinson, David M., 1963-|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2006|isbn=0-19-856846-0|oclc=67383832}}</ref> Systems ecology can be seen as an application of [[general systems theory]] to ecology. Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem is a [[complex system]] exhibiting [[emergent properties]]. Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts from [[thermodynamics]] and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems.

Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecology, a subset of Earth system science, that takes a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems. Systems ecology can be seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology. Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem is a complex system exhibiting emergent properties. Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems.

'''系统生态学 Systems Ecology'''是一个'''跨学科的 Interdisciplinary''' '''生态学 Ecology'''领域，是'''地球系统科学 Earth System Science'''的一个子集，它采用整体的方法研究生态学中的系统，尤其是生态系统。系统生态学可以看作是'''一般系统理论 General System Theroy'''在生态学中的应用。系统生态学方法的核心思想是，生态系统是一个具有'''突显特性 Emergent Properties'''的复杂系统。系统生态学侧重于，生物的系统和生态的系统之间或内部的相互作用和交换，尤其关注人类干预对生态系统功能的影响。它使用并扩展了'''热力学 Thermodynamics'''中的概念，同时开发了其他复杂系统的宏观描述。

==Overview==

==Overview==

概览

Systems ecology seeks a [[Holism|holistic]] view of the interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems. Systems ecologists realise that the function of any ecosystem can be influenced by human economics in fundamental ways. They have therefore taken an additional transdisciplinary step by including economics in the consideration of [[ecological economics|ecological-economic]] systems. In the words of [[R.L. Kitching]]:<ref>{{cite book |title=Systems ecology : an introduction to ecological modelling|last=Kitching, R. L. (Roger Laurence), 1945-|publisher=University of Queensland Press|page=9|date=1983|isbn=0-7022-1813-8|oclc=8845946}}</ref>

Systems ecology seeks a holistic view of the interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems. Systems ecologists realise that the function of any ecosystem can be influenced by human economics in fundamental ways. They have therefore taken an additional transdisciplinary step by including economics in the consideration of ecological-economic systems. In the words of R.L. Kitching:

依照R.L.Kitching所说，系统生态学寻求生物的系统和生态的系统内部，以及它们之间的相互作用和交换的'''整体的 Holistic'''观点。系统生态学家意识到，任何生态系统的功能都可能从根本上受到人类经济学的影响。他们因此采取了额外的跨学科步骤，将经济学纳入'''生态经济 Ecological-economic'''系统的考虑。返回文章页面风筝:

* ''Systems ecology can be defined as the approach to the study of ecology of organisms using the techniques and philosophy of systems analysis: that is, the methods and tools developed, largely in engineering, for studying, characterizing and making predictions about complex entities, that is, systems..

* ''In any study of an ecological system, an essential early procedure is to draw a diagram of the system of interest ... diagrams indicate the system's '''boundaries''' by a solid line. Within these boundaries, series of components are isolated which have been chosen to represent that portion of the world in which the systems analyst is interested ... If there are no connections across the systems' boundaries with the surrounding '''systems environments''', the systems are described as ''closed''. Ecological work, however, deals almost exclusively with ''open'' systems.''<ref>{{cite book |title=Systems ecology : an introduction to ecological modelling|last=Kitching, R. L. (Roger Laurence), 1945-|publisher=University of Queensland Press|page=11|date=1983|isbn=0-7022-1813-8|oclc=8845946}}</ref>

As a mode of scientific enquiry, a central feature of Systems Ecology is the general application of the [[principles of energetics]] to all systems at any scale. Perhaps the most notable proponent of this view was [[Howard T. Odum]] - sometimes considered the father of ecosystems ecology. In this approach the principles of energetics constitute [[ecosystem principles]]. Reasoning by [[formal analogy]] from one system to another enables the Systems Ecologist to see principles functioning in an analogous manner across system-scale boundaries. H.T. Odum commonly used the [[Energy Systems Language]] as a tool for making systems diagrams and flow charts.

As a mode of scientific enquiry, a central feature of Systems Ecology is the general application of the principles of energetics to all systems at any scale. Perhaps the most notable proponent of this view was Howard T. Odum - sometimes considered the father of ecosystems ecology. In this approach the principles of energetics constitute ecosystem principles. Reasoning by formal analogy from one system to another enables the Systems Ecologist to see principles functioning in an analogous manner across system-scale boundaries. H.T. Odum commonly used the Energy Systems Language as a tool for making systems diagrams and flow charts.

作为一种科学探究方式，系统生态学的一个核心特征就是'''能量学原理 Principles of Energetics'''在任何尺度的所有系统中的普遍应用。这个观点最著名的支持者是Howard T. Odum，他有时被认为是生态系统生态学之父。在这种方法中，能量学原理构成了'''生态系统原理 Ecosystem Principles'''。通过从一个系统到另一个系统的形式进行类比推理，系统生态学家可以看到生态系统原理以类似的方式，跨越系统的尺度边界而发挥作用。H.t.Odum 通常将'''能源系统语言 Energy Systems Language'''作为制作系统图和流程图的一个工具。

The fourth of these principles, the [[Maximum power principle|principle of maximum power efficiency]], takes central place in the analysis and synthesis of ecological systems. The fourth principle suggests that the most evolutionarily advantageous system function occurs when the environmental load matches the internal resistance of the system. The further the environmental load is from matching the internal resistance, the further the system is away from its sustainable steady state. Therefore, the systems ecologist engages in a task of resistance and impedance matching in [[ecological engineering]], just as the [[electronic engineer]] would do.

The fourth of these principles, the principle of maximum power efficiency, takes central place in the analysis and synthesis of ecological systems. The fourth principle suggests that the most evolutionarily advantageous system function occurs when the environmental load matches the internal resistance of the system. The further the environmental load is from matching the internal resistance, the further the system is away from its sustainable steady state. Therefore, the systems ecologist engages in a task of resistance and impedance matching in ecological engineering, just as the electronic engineer would do.

原理中的第四条，'''最大功率效率原理 Principle of Maximum Power Efficiency'''，在生态系统的分析和综合的过程中中占据中心地位。第四项原理认为，当环境负荷与系统内部阻力相匹配时，系统功能将发生于进化最有利的改变。环境负荷与内阻的匹配性越差，系统离可持续稳定状态越远。因此，系统生态学家像'''电子工程师 Electronic Engineer'''一样，在生态工程中从事匹配电阻和阻抗的工作。

==Closely related fields==

==Closely related fields==

密切相关的领域

===Deep ecology===

===Deep ecology===

深层生态学

{{Main article|Deep ecology}}

Deep ecology is an ideology whose metaphysical underpinnings are deeply concerned with the science of ecology. The term was coined by [[Arne Næss|Arne Naess]], a Norwegian philosopher, [[Gandhi]]an scholar, and [[environmental activist]]. He argues that the prevailing approach to [[environmental management]] is [[anthropocentric]], and that the natural environment is not only "more complex than we imagine, it is more complex than we can imagine."<ref>A statement attributed to British biologist [[J.B.S. Haldane]]</ref> Naess formulated deep ecology in 1973 at an environmental conference in Budapest.

Deep ecology is an ideology whose metaphysical underpinnings are deeply concerned with the science of ecology. The term was coined by Arne Naess, a Norwegian philosopher, Gandhian scholar, and environmental activist. He argues that the prevailing approach to environmental management is anthropocentric, and that the natural environment is not only "more complex than we imagine, it is more complex than we can imagine." Naess formulated deep ecology in 1973 at an environmental conference in Budapest.

深层生态学是一种与生态学密切相关的形而上学的基础意识形态。这个术语是由一位挪威哲学家、甘地学者，同时也是'''环境活动家 Environmental Activist'''——Arne Naess创造的。他认为，目前流行的'''环境管理 Environmental Management'''方法是'''人本位的 Anthropocentric'''，自然环境不仅“比我们想象的更复杂，而是比我们能想象到的更复杂”Naess 于1973年在布达佩斯的一次环境会议上提出了深层生态学的概念。

[[Joanna Macy]], [[John Seed]], and others developed Naess' thesis into a branch they called ''experiential deep ecology''. Their efforts were motivated by a need they perceived for the development of an "[[ecological self]]", which views the human ego as an integrated part of a living system that encompasses the individual. They sought to transcend [[altruism]] with a deeper self-interest based on [[biospherical equality]] beyond human chauvinism.

Joanna Macy, John Seed, and others developed Naess' thesis into a branch they called experiential deep ecology. Their efforts were motivated by a need they perceived for the development of an "ecological self", which views the human ego as an integrated part of a living system that encompasses the individual. They sought to transcend altruism with a deeper self-interest based on biospherical equality beyond human chauvinism.

Joanna Macy、John Seed和其他人将Naess的论点发展成他们称为经验性深层生态学的一个分支。他们之所以作出这些努力，是因为他们认为需要发展“生态自我” ，将人的自我视为包括个人在内的生命系统的一个组成部分。他们试图超越'''利他主义 Altruism'''，以超越人类沙文主义的'''生物学的平等 Biospherical Equality'''为基础，实现更深层次的自我利益。

===Earth systems engineering and management===

===Earth systems engineering and management===

地球系统工程与管理

{{Main article|Earth systems engineering and management}}

Earth systems engineering and management (ESEM) is a discipline used to analyze, design, engineer and manage [[Complexity|complex]] [[Natural environment|environmental]] [[system]]s. It entails a wide range of subject areas including anthropology, engineering, [[environmental science]], ethics and philosophy. At its core, ESEM looks to "rationally design and manage coupled human-natural systems in a highly integrated and ethical fashion"

Earth systems engineering and management (ESEM) is a discipline used to analyze, design, engineer and manage complex environmental systems. It entails a wide range of subject areas including anthropology, engineering, environmental science, ethics and philosophy. At its core, ESEM looks to "rationally design and manage coupled human-natural systems in a highly integrated and ethical fashion"

地球系统工程与管理(ESEM)是一门用于分析、设计、工程和管理'''复杂环境系统 Complex Environmental Systems'''的学科。它广泛涉及多个学科领域，包括人类学、工程学、'''环境科学 Environmental Science'''、伦理学和哲学。ESEM 的核心是“以具有高度整合性并且道德的方式，合理地设计并管理人与自然的耦合系统”

===Ecological economics===

===Ecological economics===

生态经济学

{{Main article|Ecological economics}}

Ecological economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic research that addresses the dynamic and spatial interdependence between human economies and natural [[ecosystem]]s. Ecological economics brings together and connects different disciplines, within the natural and social sciences but especially between these broad areas. As the name suggests, the field is made up of researchers with a background in [[economics]] and [[ecology]]. An important motivation for the emergence of ecological economics has been criticism on the assumptions and approaches of traditional (mainstream) [[Environmental economics|environmental and resource economics]].

Ecological economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic research that addresses the dynamic and spatial interdependence between human economies and natural ecosystems. Ecological economics brings together and connects different disciplines, within the natural and social sciences but especially between these broad areas. As the name suggests, the field is made up of researchers with a background in economics and ecology. An important motivation for the emergence of ecological economics has been criticism on the assumptions and approaches of traditional (mainstream) environmental and resource economics.

生态经济学是学术研究中，研究人类经济和自然'''生态系统 Ecosystem'''之间动态和空间相互依存关系的一个跨学科领域。生态经济学把自然科学和社会科学的不同学科联系在一起，尤其是在广泛的领域之间。顾名思义，这个领域会由具有'''经济学 Economics'''和'''生态学 Ecology'''相关背景的研究人员组成。生态经济学产生的一个重要动因是对传统(主流)'''环境资源经济学 Environmental and Resource Economics'''的假设和方法的批判。

===Ecological energetics===

===Ecological energetics===

生态能量学

{{Main article|Ecological energetics}}

Ecological energetics is the quantitative study of the flow of energy through ecological systems. It aims to uncover the [[Scientific law|principles]] which describe the propensity of such energy flows through the trophic, or 'energy availing' levels of ecological networks. In systems ecology the principles of ecosystem energy flows or "ecosystem laws" (i.e. principles of ecological energetics) are considered formally analogous to the [[principles of energetics]].

Ecological energetics is the quantitative study of the flow of energy through ecological systems. It aims to uncover the principles which describe the propensity of such energy flows through the trophic, or 'energy availing' levels of ecological networks. In systems ecology the principles of ecosystem energy flows or "ecosystem laws" (i.e. principles of ecological energetics) are considered formally analogous to the principles of energetics.

生态能量学是对生态系统中能量流动的定量研究。它旨在揭示描述这种能量流通过营养或生态网络时的能量利用水平的倾向的'''原理 Principles'''。在系统生态学中，生态系统能量流动原理或“生态系统规律”(即:生态能量学原理)被认为在形式上类似于'''能量学原理 Principles of Energetics'''。

===Ecological humanities===

===Ecological humanities===

生态人文学科

{{Main article|Ecological humanities}}

Ecological humanities aims to bridge the divides between the sciences and the humanities, and between [[Western culture|Western]], [[Eastern culture|Eastern]] and [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous]] ways of knowing nature. Like ecocentric political theory, the ecological humanities are characterised by a connectivity ontology and a commitment to two fundamental axioms relating to the need to submit to [[Ecology|ecological]] laws and to see humanity as part of a larger living system.

Ecological humanities aims to bridge the divides between the sciences and the humanities, and between Western, Eastern and Indigenous ways of knowing nature. Like ecocentric political theory, the ecological humanities are characterised by a connectivity ontology and a commitment to two fundamental axioms relating to the need to submit to ecological laws and to see humanity as part of a larger living system.

生态人文旨在弥合科学与人文之间的沟壑，弥合西方、东方和'''本土 Indigenous'''对自然的认识方式。就像生态中心的政治理论一样，生态人文学科的特点是将本体论和对两个基本公理，即必须服从生态法则，并将人类视为更大的生命系统的一部分，的承诺连接起来。

===Ecosystem ecology===

===Ecosystem ecology===

生态系统生态学

[[File:Ecoecolfigure1.jpg|thumb|right|A [[riparian forest]] in the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Mountains]], [[New Hampshire]] (USA)]]

A [[riparian forest in the White Mountains, New Hampshire (USA)]]

[[新罕布什尔州怀特山脉的河岸森林]

{{Main article|Ecosystem ecology}}

Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of [[Life|biotic]] and [[abiotic]] components of [[ecosystem]]s and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This [[science]] examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as [[chemical]]s, [[bedrock]], [[soil]], [[plant]]s, and [[animal]]s. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact.

Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact.

生态系统生态学是生态系统的'''生物 Biotic'''和'''非生物 Abiotic'''组成部分及其在生态系统框架内的相互作用的综合研究。它主要研究生态系统是如何工作的，并将其与'''化学物质 Chemical'''、'''基岩 Bedrock'''、'''土壤 Soil'''、'''植物 Plant'''和'''动物 Animal'''等组成部分联系起来。生态系统生态学研究物理和生物结构以及这些生态系统特征是如何相互作用的。

The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. Much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. Ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. However, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. Whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems.

The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. Much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. Ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. However, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. Whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems.

系统生态学和生态系统生态学之间的关系是复杂的。许多系统生态学可以被认为是生态系统生态学的一个子集。生态系统生态学也使用了一些与系统生态学的整体方法无关的方法。然而，系统生态学更积极地考虑外部影响，比如经济学，它通常超出了生态系统生态学的范围。生态系统生态学可以被定义为生态系统的科学研究，而系统生态学更多算是采用某种特殊的方法来研究生态系统和与这些系统相互作用的现象。

===Industrial ecology===

===Industrial ecology===

工业生态学

{{Main article|Industrial ecology}}

Industrial ecology is the study of [[industrial process]]es as linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for new processes.

Industrial ecology is the study of industrial processes as linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for new processes.

工业生态学研究作为线性(开放式循环)系统的'''工业过程 Industrial Process'''，其中资源和资本投资的流动通过该系统变成废料，接着进入一个封闭式循环系统，废料便成为新一次过程的投入。

==See also==

==See also==

参见

{{Portal|Earth sciences|Ecology|Geography|Systems science}}

{{div col}}

* [[Agroecology]] 农业生态学

* [[Earth system science]] 地球系统科学

* [[Ecosystem ecology]] 生态系统生态学

* [[Ecological literacy]] 生态素养

* [[Emergy]] 能值

* [[Energetics]] 能量学

* [[Energy Systems Language]] 能源系统语言

* [[Holism in science]] 科学中的整体论

* [[Holon (philosophy)]] 整体单元（哲学）

* [[Holistic management]] 整体管理

* [[Landscape ecology]] 景观生态学

* [[Antireductionism]] 反还原论

* [[Biosemiotics]] 生物符号学

* [[Ecosemiotics]] 生态符号学

* [[MuSIASEM]] 社会生态系统代谢多尺度综合评估

{{div col end}}

==References==

==References==

参考资料

{{reflist}}

==Literature==

==Literature==

文学

* [[Gregory Bateson]], ''Steps to an Ecology of Mind'', 2000.

* Kenneth Edmund Ferguson, ''Systems Analysis in Ecology'', WATT, 1966, 276 pp.

* Efraim Halfon, ''Theoretical Systems Ecology: Advances and Case Studies'', 1979.

* J. W. Haefner, ''Modeling Biological Systems: Principles and Applications'', London., UK, Chapman and Hall 1996, 473 pp.

* Richard F Johnston, Peter W Frank, Charles Duncan Michener, ''Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics'', 1976, 307 pp.

* Jorgensen, Sven E., "Introduction to Systems Ecology", CRC Press, 2012.

* R.L. Kitching, ''Systems ecology'', University of Queensland Press, 1983.

* [[Howard T. Odum]], ''Systems Ecology: An Introduction'', Wiley-Interscience, 1983.

* [[Howard T. Odum]], ''Ecological and General Systems: An Introduction to Systems Ecology''. University Press of Colorado, Niwot, CO, 1994.

* Friedrich Recknagel, ''Applied Systems Ecology: Approach and Case Studies in Aquatic Ecology'', 1989.

* James. Sanderson & Larry D. Harris, ''Landscape Ecology: A Top-down Approach'', 2000, 246 pp.

* Sheldon Smith, ''Human Systems Ecology: Studies in the Integration of Political Economy'', 1989.

* Shugart, H.H., O’Neil, R.V. (Eds.) ''Systems Ecology'', Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., 1979.

* Van Dyne, George M., ''Ecosystems, Systems Ecology, and Systems Ecologists'', ORNL- 3975. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, pp. 1–40, 1966.

* Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 1, Academic Press, 1971.

* Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 2, Academic Press, 1972.

* Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 3, Academic Press, 1975.

* Patten, Bernard C. (editor), "Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology", Volume 4, Academic Press, 1976.

==External links==

==External links==

外部链接

{{Commonscat}}

:Organisations

Organisations

机构

*[http://www.ecology.su.se/ Systems Ecology Department] at the Stockholm University.

*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080603214448/http://www.falw.vu.nl/Onderzoeksinstituten/index.cfm/home_subsection.cfm/subsectionid/55B99586-E22B-4B5C-89C65764F35DDB54 Systems Ecology Department] at the University of Amsterdam.

*[http://www.esf.edu/efb/hall/se/ Systems ecology Lab] at SUNY-ESF.

*[http://www.ees.ufl.edu/homepp/brown/syseco/ Systems Ecology program] at the University of Florida

*[http://www.dbs.umt.edu/systemsecology/ Systems Ecology program] at the University of Montana

*[http://www.sysecol.ethz.ch/ Terrestrial Systems Ecology] of ETH Zürich.

{{modelling ecosystems|expanded=other}}

{{Systems}}

{{Environmental science}}

{{Environmental social science}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Systems Ecology}}

[[Category:Systems ecology| ]]

[[Category:Environmental science]]

Category:Environmental science

类别: 环境科学

[[Category:Environmental social science]]

Category:Environmental social science

类别: 环境社会科学

[[Category:Formal sciences]]

Category:Formal sciences

类别: 正规科学

[[Category:Systems theory|Ecology]]

Ecology

生态学

[[Category:Subfields of ecology]]

Category:Subfields of ecology

分类: 生态学的子领域

<noinclude>

This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Systems ecology]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[系统生态学/edithistory]]</noinclude>

[[Category:待整理页面]]

美狄亚假说

2020-10-22T03:03:27Z

1220978308：

此词条暂由Henry翻译。The '''Medea hypothesis''' is a term coined by [[paleontologist]] [[Peter Ward (paleontologist)|Peter Ward]]<ref>Peter Ward (2009), ''The Medea Hypothesis: Is Life on Earth Ultimately Self-Destructive?'', {{ISBN|0-691-13075-2}}</ref> for the anti-[[Gaia hypothesis|Gaian hypothesis]] that [[multicellular life]], understood as a [[superorganism]], is suicidal. In this view, microbial-triggered [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]] are attempts to return the Earth to the microbial-dominated state it has been for most of its history.<ref>[https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20227131.400-gaias-evil-twin-is-life-its-own-worst-enemy.html Gaia's evil twin: Is life its own worst enemy?] The New Scientist. Volume 202, Issue 2713, 17 June 2009, pages 28–31 (Cover story)</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Bennett|first=Drake|authorlink= |title=Dark green: A scientist argues that the natural world isn't benevolent and sustaining: it's bent on self-destruction|newspaper=Boston.com|publisher=[[The Boston Globe]]|date=2009-01-11|url=http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/01/11/dark_green/|format= |accessdate=2010-02-26}}</ref><ref name="Review">{{Cite web|last=Grey|first=William|authorlink= |title=Gaia theory – Reflections on life on earth|work=Australian Review of Public Affairs|publisher=[[University of Sydney]]|date=February 2010|url=http://www.australianreview.net/digest/2010/02/grey.html|accessdate=2010-02-26}}</ref> The metaphor refers to the mythological [[Medea]] (representing the Earth), who kills her own children (multicellular life).

The Medea hypothesis is a term coined by paleontologist Peter Ward for the anti-Gaian hypothesis that multicellular life, understood as a superorganism, is suicidal. In this view, microbial-triggered mass extinctions are attempts to return the Earth to the microbial-dominated state it has been for most of its history. The metaphor refers to the mythological Medea (representing the Earth), who kills her own children (multicellular life).

''' 美狄亚假说Medea hypothesis'''是古生物学家彼得·沃德为'''反盖亚假说'''创造的一个术语，该假说认为多细胞生命（也被理解为超有机体），具有自杀倾向。按照这种观点，微生物引发的大规模物种灭绝是试图使地球恢复到历史上大部分时间以微生物为主的状态。这个比喻指的是神话中的美狄亚(代表地球) ，她杀死了自己的孩子(代表多细胞生命)。

Past "suicide attempts" include:

Past "suicide attempts" include:

以往的「自杀企图」包括:

*[[Methane poisoning]], 3.5 billion years ago

''' 甲烷中毒Methane poisoning'''，35亿年前

*The [[Great Oxygenation Event|oxygen catastrophe]], 2.45 billion years ago
''' 大氧化事件reat Oxygenation Event'''|氧气灾难，24.5亿年前

*[[Snowball Earth]], twice, [[Huronian glaciation|2.4–2.1 billion years ago]] and 790–630 million years ago
雪球化地球，两次（''' 休伦冰河时期Huronian glaciation'''|24亿年前到21亿年前，7.96亿年前到6.3亿年前）

*At least five putative [[hydrogen sulfide]]-induced mass extinctions, such as the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event|Great Dying]], {{Ma|252.28}}

至少五次公认的硫化氢导致的大灭绝，比如''' 二叠纪-三叠纪灭绝事件Permian–Triassic extinction event'''

The list does not include the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]], since this was, at least partially, externally induced by a [[meteor impact]].

The list does not include the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, since this was, at least partially, externally induced by a meteor impact.

这份名单不包括''' 白垩纪-古近纪大灭绝事件Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event'''，因为这次事件至少部分是由流星撞击引起的。

Peter Ward also believes that the current [[man-made climate change]] and mass extinction event may be considered to be the most recent Medean event. As these events are anthropogenic, he postulates that Medean events are not necessarily caused by microbes, but by intelligent life as well. He believes that the final mass extinction of complex life, roughly about 500 million years in the future, will also be considered a Medean event. Plant life that still exists by then will be forced to adapt to a warming and expanding Sun, causing them to remove even more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (which in turn will have already be due to the increasing heat from the Sun gradually speeding up the weathering process that removes them from the atmosphere), and ultimately accelerating the complete extinction of complex life by making carbon dioxide levels drop down to just 10 ppm, below which plants can no longer survive. However, Ward simultaneously argues that intelligent life such as humans may not necessarily just trigger future Medean events, but may eventually prevent them from occurring.

Peter Ward also believes that the current man-made climate change and mass extinction event may be considered to be the most recent Medean event. As these events are anthropogenic, he postulates that Medean events are not necessarily caused by microbes, but by intelligent life as well. He believes that the final mass extinction of complex life, roughly about 500 million years in the future, will also be considered a Medean event. Plant life that still exists by then will be forced to adapt to a warming and expanding Sun, causing them to remove even more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (which in turn will have already be due to the increasing heat from the Sun gradually speeding up the weathering process that removes them from the atmosphere), and ultimately accelerating the complete extinction of complex life by making carbon dioxide levels drop down to just 10 ppm, below which plants can no longer survive. However, Ward simultaneously argues that intelligent life such as humans may not necessarily just trigger future Medean events, but may eventually prevent them from occurring.

彼得沃德还认为，目前人为导致的气候变化和大规模物种灭绝事件可能被认为是最近的美狄亚事件。由于这些事件是人为的，他假定美狄亚事件不一定是由微生物引起的，也可能由智慧生命引起。他认为，复杂生命的最终大规模灭绝，大约在未来5亿年左右，这也将被视为美狄亚事件。到那时仍然存在的植物将被迫适应日益变暖和膨胀的太阳，从而使它们从大气中吸收更多的二氧化碳(反过来，这也由于太阳不断增加的热量导致逐渐加快的风化过程，使二氧化碳从大气中消失) ，并最终通过使二氧化碳浓度降低到只有10ppm(低于这个浓度，植物将无法存活)来加速复杂生命的完全灭绝。然而，沃德同时认为，像人类这样的智慧生命可能不一定只是触发未来的美狄亚事件，也有可能最终阻止它们的发生。

==See also==

==See also==

参见

*[[Fermi paradox]]
''' 费米悖论'''

*[[Future of Earth#Climate impact]]
地球的未来，气候影响

==References==

==References==

参考资料

{{reflist}}

==External links==

==External links==

外部链接

*[http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/peter_ward_on_mass_extinctions.html Peter Ward's lecture]

*[http://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/Bright-Green/2010/0212/The-Medea-Hypothesis-A-response-to-the-Gaia-hypothesis/%28page%29/1 The Medea Hypothesis: A response to the Gaia hypothesis] Review of Ward's book, February 12, 2010 .

*[http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2010/01/13/paleontologist-peter-wards-medea-hypothesis-life-is-out-to-get-you/ Paleontologist Peter Ward’s “Medea hypothesis”: Life is out to get you] Scientific American review, January 13, 2010

*[http://www.astrobiologysociety.org/book-reviews-mainmenu-39/297-the-medea-hypothesis.html The Medea Hypothesis] Review by the [[Astrobiology Society of Britain]].

*[http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=408337&sectioncode=26 The Medea Hypothesis: Is Life on Earth Ultimately Self-Destructive? Outlook for the world is still grim] Review in the [[Times Educational Supplement]]

{{ExtEvent nav}}

[[Category:Events that forced the climate]]

Category:Events that forced the climate

类别: 强迫气候变化的事件

[[Category:Cybernetics]]

Category:Cybernetics

类别: 控制论

[[Category:Earth sciences]]

Category:Earth sciences

类别: 地球科学

[[Category:Ecological theories]]

Category:Ecological theories

范畴: 生态学理论

[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]

Category:Evolutionary biology

分类: 进化生物学

[[Category:Extinction events]]

Category:Extinction events

分类: 灭绝事件

[[Category:Climate history]]

Category:Climate history

分类: 气候史

[[Category:Hypotheses]]

Category:Hypotheses

类别: 假设

[[Category:Superorganisms]]

Category:Superorganisms

类别: 超级有机体

[[Category:Planetary science]]

Category:Planetary science

类别: 行星科学

[[Category:Biological hypotheses]]

Category:Biological hypotheses

类别: 生物学假说

[[Category:Meteorological hypotheses]]

Category:Meteorological hypotheses

类别: 气象假说

<noinclude>

This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Medea hypothesis]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[美狄亚假说/edithistory]]</noinclude>

[[Category:待整理页面]]

美狄亚假说

2020-10-22T03:01:55Z

1220978308：

此词条暂由Henry翻译。The '''Medea hypothesis''' is a term coined by [[paleontologist]] [[Peter Ward (paleontologist)|Peter Ward]]<ref>Peter Ward (2009), ''The Medea Hypothesis: Is Life on Earth Ultimately Self-Destructive?'', {{ISBN|0-691-13075-2}}</ref> for the anti-[[Gaia hypothesis|Gaian hypothesis]] that [[multicellular life]], understood as a [[superorganism]], is suicidal. In this view, microbial-triggered [[Extinction event|mass extinctions]] are attempts to return the Earth to the microbial-dominated state it has been for most of its history.<ref>[https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20227131.400-gaias-evil-twin-is-life-its-own-worst-enemy.html Gaia's evil twin: Is life its own worst enemy?] The New Scientist. Volume 202, Issue 2713, 17 June 2009, pages 28–31 (Cover story)</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Bennett|first=Drake|authorlink= |title=Dark green: A scientist argues that the natural world isn't benevolent and sustaining: it's bent on self-destruction|newspaper=Boston.com|publisher=[[The Boston Globe]]|date=2009-01-11|url=http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/ideas/articles/2009/01/11/dark_green/|format= |accessdate=2010-02-26}}</ref><ref name="Review">{{Cite web|last=Grey|first=William|authorlink= |title=Gaia theory – Reflections on life on earth|work=Australian Review of Public Affairs|publisher=[[University of Sydney]]|date=February 2010|url=http://www.australianreview.net/digest/2010/02/grey.html|accessdate=2010-02-26}}</ref> The metaphor refers to the mythological [[Medea]] (representing the Earth), who kills her own children (multicellular life).

The Medea hypothesis is a term coined by paleontologist Peter Ward for the anti-Gaian hypothesis that multicellular life, understood as a superorganism, is suicidal. In this view, microbial-triggered mass extinctions are attempts to return the Earth to the microbial-dominated state it has been for most of its history. The metaphor refers to the mythological Medea (representing the Earth), who kills her own children (multicellular life).

''' 美狄亚假说Medea hypothesis'''是古生物学家彼得·沃德为'''反盖亚假说'''创造的一个术语，该假说认为多细胞生命（也被理解为超有机体），具有自杀倾向。按照这种观点，微生物引发的大规模物种灭绝是试图使地球恢复到历史上大部分时间以微生物为主的状态。这个比喻指的是神话中的美狄亚(代表地球) ，她杀死了自己的孩子(代表多细胞生命)。

Past "suicide attempts" include:

Past "suicide attempts" include:

以往的「自杀企图」包括:

*[[Methane poisoning]], 3.5 billion years ago

''' 甲烷中毒Methane poisoning'''，35亿年前

*The [[Great Oxygenation Event|oxygen catastrophe]], 2.45 billion years ago
''' 大氧化事件reat Oxygenation Event'''|氧气灾难，24.5亿年前

*[[Snowball Earth]], twice, [[Huronian glaciation|2.4–2.1 billion years ago]] and 790–630 million years ago
雪球化地球，两次（ 休伦冰河时期Huronian glaciation|24亿年前到21亿年前，7.96亿年前到6.3亿年前）

*At least five putative [[hydrogen sulfide]]-induced mass extinctions, such as the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event|Great Dying]], {{Ma|252.28}}

至少五次公认的硫化氢导致的大灭绝，比如 二叠纪-三叠纪灭绝事件Permian–Triassic extinction event

The list does not include the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]], since this was, at least partially, externally induced by a [[meteor impact]].

The list does not include the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, since this was, at least partially, externally induced by a meteor impact.

这份名单不包括 白垩纪-古近纪大灭绝事件Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event，因为这次至少部分是由流星撞击引起的。

Peter Ward also believes that the current [[man-made climate change]] and mass extinction event may be considered to be the most recent Medean event. As these events are anthropogenic, he postulates that Medean events are not necessarily caused by microbes, but by intelligent life as well. He believes that the final mass extinction of complex life, roughly about 500 million years in the future, will also be considered a Medean event. Plant life that still exists by then will be forced to adapt to a warming and expanding Sun, causing them to remove even more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (which in turn will have already be due to the increasing heat from the Sun gradually speeding up the weathering process that removes them from the atmosphere), and ultimately accelerating the complete extinction of complex life by making carbon dioxide levels drop down to just 10 ppm, below which plants can no longer survive. However, Ward simultaneously argues that intelligent life such as humans may not necessarily just trigger future Medean events, but may eventually prevent them from occurring.

Peter Ward also believes that the current man-made climate change and mass extinction event may be considered to be the most recent Medean event. As these events are anthropogenic, he postulates that Medean events are not necessarily caused by microbes, but by intelligent life as well. He believes that the final mass extinction of complex life, roughly about 500 million years in the future, will also be considered a Medean event. Plant life that still exists by then will be forced to adapt to a warming and expanding Sun, causing them to remove even more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (which in turn will have already be due to the increasing heat from the Sun gradually speeding up the weathering process that removes them from the atmosphere), and ultimately accelerating the complete extinction of complex life by making carbon dioxide levels drop down to just 10 ppm, below which plants can no longer survive. However, Ward simultaneously argues that intelligent life such as humans may not necessarily just trigger future Medean events, but may eventually prevent them from occurring.

彼得沃德还认为，目前人为导致的气候变化和大规模物种灭绝事件可能被认为是最近的美狄亚事件。由于这些事件是人为的，他假定美狄亚事件不一定是由微生物引起的，也可能由智慧生命引起。他认为，复杂生命的最终大规模灭绝，大约在未来5亿年左右，这也将被视为美狄亚事件。到那时仍然存在的植物将被迫适应日益变暖和膨胀的太阳，从而使它们从大气中吸收更多的二氧化碳(反过来，这也由于太阳不断增加的热量导致逐渐加快的风化过程，使二氧化碳从大气中消失) ，并最终通过使二氧化碳浓度降低到只有10ppm(低于这个浓度，植物将无法存活)来加速复杂生命的完全灭绝。然而，沃德同时认为，像人类这样的智慧生命可能不一定只是触发未来的美狄亚事件，也有可能最终阻止它们的发生。

==See also==

==See also==

参见

*[[Fermi paradox]]
 费米悖论

*[[Future of Earth#Climate impact]]
地球的未来，气候影响

==References==

==References==

参考资料

{{reflist}}

==External links==

==External links==

外部链接

*[http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/peter_ward_on_mass_extinctions.html Peter Ward's lecture]

*[http://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/Bright-Green/2010/0212/The-Medea-Hypothesis-A-response-to-the-Gaia-hypothesis/%28page%29/1 The Medea Hypothesis: A response to the Gaia hypothesis] Review of Ward's book, February 12, 2010 .

*[http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2010/01/13/paleontologist-peter-wards-medea-hypothesis-life-is-out-to-get-you/ Paleontologist Peter Ward’s “Medea hypothesis”: Life is out to get you] Scientific American review, January 13, 2010

*[http://www.astrobiologysociety.org/book-reviews-mainmenu-39/297-the-medea-hypothesis.html The Medea Hypothesis] Review by the [[Astrobiology Society of Britain]].

*[http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?storyCode=408337&sectioncode=26 The Medea Hypothesis: Is Life on Earth Ultimately Self-Destructive? Outlook for the world is still grim] Review in the [[Times Educational Supplement]]

{{ExtEvent nav}}

[[Category:Events that forced the climate]]

Category:Events that forced the climate

类别: 强迫气候变化的事件

[[Category:Cybernetics]]

Category:Cybernetics

类别: 控制论

[[Category:Earth sciences]]

Category:Earth sciences

类别: 地球科学

[[Category:Ecological theories]]

Category:Ecological theories

范畴: 生态学理论

[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]

Category:Evolutionary biology

分类: 进化生物学

[[Category:Extinction events]]

Category:Extinction events

分类: 灭绝事件

[[Category:Climate history]]

Category:Climate history

分类: 气候史

[[Category:Hypotheses]]

Category:Hypotheses

类别: 假设

[[Category:Superorganisms]]

Category:Superorganisms

类别: 超级有机体

[[Category:Planetary science]]

Category:Planetary science

类别: 行星科学

[[Category:Biological hypotheses]]

Category:Biological hypotheses

类别: 生物学假说

[[Category:Meteorological hypotheses]]

Category:Meteorological hypotheses

类别: 气象假说

<noinclude>

This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Medea hypothesis]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[美狄亚假说/edithistory]]</noinclude>

[[Category:待整理页面]]

顶点

2020-09-28T10:46:08Z

1220978308：

此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。

本词条由[[鲁鱼陶阴]]第一次整理，尚不完善，请见谅。

{{Other uses|Vertex (disambiguation)}}

{{more footnotes|date=February 2014}}

''' 橙'''

''' 绿'''

[[Image:6n-graf.svg.png|thumb|A graph with 6 vertices and 7 edges where the vertex number 6 on the far-left is a leaf vertex or a pendant vertex
一个具有6个''' 顶点'''和7条边的图，其中最左边数字6的顶点是''' 叶顶点 Leaf Vertex'''或叫做''' 悬挂点 Pendant Vertex''']]

A graph with 6 vertices and 7 edges where the vertex number 6 on the far-left is a leaf vertex or a pendant vertex

一个具有6个''' 顶点'''和7条边的图，其中最左边数字6的结点是''' 叶顶点 Leaf Vertex'''或叫做''' 悬挂点 Pendant Vertex'''

In [[mathematics]], and more specifically in [[graph theory]], a '''vertex''' (plural '''vertices''') or '''node''' is the fundamental unit of which graphs are formed: an [[undirected graph]] consists of a set of vertices and a set of [[Edge (graph theory)|edges]] (unordered pairs of vertices), while a [[directed graph]] consists of a set of vertices and a set of arcs (ordered pairs of vertices). In a diagram of a graph, a vertex is usually represented by a circle with a label, and an edge is represented by a line or arrow extending from one vertex to another.

In mathematics, and more specifically in graph theory, a vertex (plural vertices) or node is the fundamental unit of which graphs are formed: an undirected graph consists of a set of vertices and a set of edges (unordered pairs of vertices), while a directed graph consists of a set of vertices and a set of arcs (ordered pairs of vertices). In a diagram of a graph, a vertex is usually represented by a circle with a label, and an edge is represented by a line or arrow extending from one vertex to another.

在数学上，更具体地说在图论中，''' 顶点'''或''' 节点'''是形成图的基本单位: ''' 无向图'''由一组''' 顶点'''和一组边(无序''' 顶点'''对)组成，而''' [[有向图]]'''由一组''' 顶点'''和一组弧(有序''' 顶点'''对)组成。在图的图解表示中，''' 顶点'''通常用带标签的圆来表示，而边则用从一个''' 顶点'''延伸到另一个''' 顶点'''的直线或箭头来表示。

From the point of view of graph theory, vertices are treated as featureless and indivisible objects, although they may have additional structure depending on the application from which the graph arises; for instance, a [[semantic network]] is a graph in which the vertices represent concepts or classes of objects.

From the point of view of graph theory, vertices are treated as featureless and indivisible objects, although they may have additional structure depending on the application from which the graph arises; for instance, a semantic network is a graph in which the vertices represent concepts or classes of objects.

从图论的观点来看，''' 顶点'''被视为无特征且不可分割的对象。但是根据图的应用场景，''' 顶点'''可能有额外的结构。例如：''' [[语义网络(计算机科学)]] ,其中的''' 顶点'''表示概念或对象的类。'''

The two vertices forming an edge are said to be the endpoints of this edge, and the edge is said to be incident to the vertices. A vertex ''w'' is said to be adjacent to another vertex ''v'' if the graph contains an edge (''v'',''w''). The [[neighborhood (graph theory)|neighborhood]] of a vertex ''v'' is an [[induced subgraph]] of the graph, formed by all vertices adjacent to ''v''.

The two vertices forming an edge are said to be the endpoints of this edge, and the edge is said to be incident to the vertices. A vertex w is said to be adjacent to another vertex v if the graph contains an edge (v,w). The neighborhood of a vertex v is an induced subgraph of the graph, formed by all vertices adjacent to v.

形成边的两个''' 顶点'''被称为这条边的''' 端点'''，这条边称为''' 关联Incident'''于这两个''' 顶点'''的边。如果图包含一条边(''v''，''w'') ，则称一个''' 顶点'''''w'' 与另一个''' 顶点''' ''v'' '''相邻接 Adjacent '''。''' 顶点''' v 的[[邻域]]（neighborhood）是该图的一个''' 导出子图'''（induced subgraph），由邻接于 "v" 的所有''' 顶点'''构成。

==Types of vertices==

[[File:Small Network.png|alt=A small example network with 8 vertices and 10 edges.|thumb|Example network with 8 vertices (of which one is isolated) and 10 edges.]]

Example network with 8 vertices (of which one is isolated) and 10 edges.

用具有8个顶点(其中一个是孤立的)和10条边的网络示意。

The [[degree (graph theory)|degree]] of a vertex, denoted 𝛿(v) in a graph is the number of edges incident to it. An '''isolated vertex''' is a vertex with degree zero; that is, a vertex that is not an endpoint of any edge (the example image illustrates one isolated vertex).<ref>[[:File:Small Network.png]]; example image of a network with 8 vertices and 10 edges</ref> A '''leaf vertex''' (also '''pendant vertex''') is a vertex with degree one. In a directed graph, one can distinguish the outdegree (number of outgoing edges), denoted 𝛿 +(v), from the indegree (number of incoming edges), denoted 𝛿−(v); a '''source vertex''' is a vertex with indegree zero, while a '''sink vertex''' is a vertex with outdegree zero. A '''simplicial vertex''' is one whose neighbors form a [[clique (graph theory)|clique]]: every two neighbors are adjacent. A [[universal vertex]] is a vertex that is adjacent to every other vertex in the graph.

The degree of a vertex, denoted 𝛿(v) in a graph is the number of edges incident to it. An isolated vertex is a vertex with degree zero; that is, a vertex that is not an endpoint of any edge (the example image illustrates one isolated vertex). A leaf vertex (also pendant vertex) is a vertex with degree one. In a directed graph, one can distinguish the outdegree (number of outgoing edges), denoted 𝛿 +(v), from the indegree (number of incoming edges), denoted 𝛿−(v); a source vertex is a vertex with indegree zero, while a sink vertex is a vertex with outdegree zero. A simplicial vertex is one whose neighbors form a clique: every two neighbors are adjacent. A universal vertex is a vertex that is adjacent to every other vertex in the graph.

图中顶点的'''度数'''（用𝛿(v)表示）是关联到它的边的数目。一个'''孤立顶点'''是一个度为零的顶点，也就是说，是一个不是任何边的端点的顶点(示例图片中有一个'''孤立顶点'''的例子)。'''叶顶点'''(也称作'''悬挂点''')是度数为1的顶点。在有向图中，我们可以区分外度(外出边数)（用 𝛿 +(v) 表示），和外度(外入边数) （用𝛿−(v)表示） ; 源顶点是外度为零的顶点，而汇顶点是具有外度为零的顶点。单纯形顶点是邻接成团的顶点：每两个邻接都是相邻的。通用顶点是在图中与其他所有顶点都相邻的顶点。

A [[cut vertex]] is a vertex the removal of which would disconnect the remaining graph; a [[vertex separator]] is a collection of vertices the removal of which would disconnect the remaining graph into small pieces. A [[k-vertex-connected graph]] is a graph in which removing fewer than ''k'' vertices always leaves the remaining graph connected. An [[Independent set (graph theory)|independent set]] is a set of vertices no two of which are adjacent, and a [[vertex cover]] is a set of vertices that includes at least one endpoint of each edge in the graph. The [[vertex space]] of a graph is a vector space having a set of basis vectors corresponding with the graph's vertices.

A cut vertex is a vertex the removal of which would disconnect the remaining graph; a vertex separator is a collection of vertices the removal of which would disconnect the remaining graph into small pieces. A k-vertex-connected graph is a graph in which removing fewer than k vertices always leaves the remaining graph connected. An independent set is a set of vertices no two of which are adjacent, and a vertex cover is a set of vertices that includes at least one endpoint of each edge in the graph. The vertex space of a graph is a vector space having a set of basis vectors corresponding with the graph's vertices.

'''割点'''是一类顶点，如果去掉它，就会断开剩余图的连接; 顶点分隔符是一组顶点的集合，如果去掉这些顶点，就会将剩余图断裂成小片段。一个k- 顶点连通图是指一类去掉少于 k 个顶点后，剩余部分仍然连通的图。一个独立的集合是一组任意二者均不相邻的顶点群。顶点覆盖是一组顶点，它们均包含图中任意边的至少一个端点。图的'''顶点空间'''是一个向量空间，它的基向量与图的顶点相对应。

A graph is [[vertex-transitive graph|vertex-transitive]] if it has symmetries that map any vertex to any other vertex. In the context of [[graph enumeration]] and [[graph isomorphism]] it is important to distinguish between '''labeled vertices''' and '''unlabeled vertices'''. A labeled vertex is a vertex that is associated with extra information that enables it to be distinguished from other labeled vertices; two graphs can be considered isomorphic only if the correspondence between their vertices pairs up vertices with equal labels. An unlabeled vertex is one that can be substituted for any other vertex based only on its [[Adjacency (graph theory)|adjacencies]] in the graph and not based on any additional information.

A graph is vertex-transitive if it has symmetries that map any vertex to any other vertex. In the context of graph enumeration and graph isomorphism it is important to distinguish between labeled vertices and unlabeled vertices. A labeled vertex is a vertex that is associated with extra information that enables it to be distinguished from other labeled vertices; two graphs can be considered isomorphic only if the correspondence between their vertices pairs up vertices with equal labels. An unlabeled vertex is one that can be substituted for any other vertex based only on its adjacencies in the graph and not based on any additional information.

如果一个图具有将任何顶点映射到任何其他顶点的对称性，则该图是'''顶点传递'''的。在图计数和'''图同构'''的情况下，区分'''标记顶点'''和'''非标记顶点'''非常重要。'''标记顶点'''是与能使其区别于其他'''标记顶点'''的额外信息相关联的顶点; 只有当其顶点之间的对应关系与有相同标记的顶点配对时，两个图才可以被认为是同构的。'''非标记顶点'''是仅基于其在图中的邻接顶点而不基于任何其他信息就能被其他任意顶点替换的一类顶点。

Vertices in graphs are analogous to, but not the same as, [[vertex (geometry)|vertices of polyhedra]]: the [[skeleton (topology)|skeleton]] of a polyhedron forms a graph, the vertices of which are the vertices of the polyhedron, but polyhedron vertices have additional structure (their geometric location) that is not assumed to be present in graph theory. The [[vertex figure]] of a vertex in a polyhedron is analogous to the neighborhood of a vertex in a graph.

Vertices in graphs are analogous to, but not the same as, vertices of polyhedra: the skeleton of a polyhedron forms a graph, the vertices of which are the vertices of the polyhedron, but polyhedron vertices have additional structure (their geometric location) that is not assumed to be present in graph theory. The vertex figure of a vertex in a polyhedron is analogous to the neighborhood of a vertex in a graph.

在图中的顶点类似但不等同于多面体的顶点：多面体的骨架构成一个图，其顶点是多面体的顶点，但多面体的顶点有无法在图论中假定存在的其他结构(几何位置) 。多面体中顶点的顶点图形类似于图中顶点的邻域。

==See also==

* [[Node (computer science)]]

* [[Graph theory]]

* [[Glossary of graph theory]]

==References==

{{reflist}}

* {{cite journal

| last = Gallo

| last = Gallo

| last = Gallo

| first = Giorgio

| first = Giorgio

| first = Giorgio

| last2 = Pallotino

| last2 = Pallotino

2 = Pallotino

| first2 = Stefano

| first2 = Stefano

2 = Stefano

| title = Shortest path algorithms

| title = Shortest path algorithms

最短路径算法

| journal = Annals of Operations Research

| journal = Annals of Operations Research

运筹学年报

| volume = 13

| volume = 13

13

| issue = 1

| issue = 1

1

| pages = 1–79 

| pages = 1–79 

| pages = 1-79 < ! ! ——内联引用引用第4页 -- >

| year = 1988

| year = 1988

1988年

| doi = 10.1007/BF02288320

| doi = 10.1007/BF02288320

| doi = 10.1007/BF02288320

| ref=harv

| ref=harv

= harv

}}

}}

}}

* [[Claude Berge|Berge, Claude]], ''Théorie des graphes et ses applications''. Collection Universitaire de Mathématiques, II Dunod, Paris 1958, viii+277 pp. (English edition, Wiley 1961; Methuen & Co, New York 1962; Russian, Moscow 1961; Spanish, Mexico 1962; Roumanian, Bucharest 1969; Chinese, Shanghai 1963; Second printing of the 1962 first English edition. Dover, New York 2001)

* {{Cite book | last=Chartrand | first=Gary | authorlink=Gary Chartrand | title=Introductory graph theory | date=1985 | publisher=Dover | location=New York | isbn=0-486-24775-9 | pages= | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/introductorygrap0000char }}

* {{Cite book |author1=Biggs, Norman |author2=Lloyd, E. H. |author3=Wilson, Robin J. | title=Graph theory, 1736-1936 | date=1986 | publisher=Clarendon Press | location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] | isbn=0-19-853916-9 | pages=|title-link=Graph Theory, 1736–1936}}

* {{Cite book | last=Harary | first=Frank | authorlink=Frank Harary | title=Graph theory | date=1969 | publisher=Addison-Wesley Publishing | location=Reading, Mass. | isbn=0-201-41033-8 | pages=}}

* {{Cite book |author1=Harary, Frank |author2=Palmer, Edgar M. | title=Graphical enumeration | date=1973 | publisher=New York, Academic Press | location= | isbn=0-12-324245-2 | pages=}}

==External links==

*{{mathworld | title = Graph Vertex | urlname = GraphVertex}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vertex (Graph Theory)}}

[[Category:Graph theory]]

Category:Graph theory

范畴: 图论

<noinclude>

This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Vertex (graph theory)]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[顶点/edithistory]]</noinclude>

[[Category:待整理页面]]

顶点

2020-09-28T10:44:51Z

1220978308：

此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。

本词条由[[鲁鱼陶阴]]第一次整理，尚不完善，请见谅。

{{Other uses|Vertex (disambiguation)}}

{{more footnotes|date=February 2014}}

''' 橙'''

''' 绿'''

[[Image:6n-graf.svg.png|thumb|A graph with 6 vertices and 7 edges where the vertex number 6 on the far-left is a leaf vertex or a pendant vertex
一个具有6个''' 顶点'''和7条边的图，其中最左边数字6的顶点是''' 叶顶点 Leaf Vertex'''或叫做''' 悬挂点 Pendant Vertex''']]

A graph with 6 vertices and 7 edges where the vertex number 6 on the far-left is a leaf vertex or a pendant vertex

一个具有6个''' 顶点'''和7条边的图，其中最左边数字6的结点是''' 叶顶点 Leaf Vertex'''或叫做''' 悬挂点 Pendant Vertex'''

In [[mathematics]], and more specifically in [[graph theory]], a '''vertex''' (plural '''vertices''') or '''node''' is the fundamental unit of which graphs are formed: an [[undirected graph]] consists of a set of vertices and a set of [[Edge (graph theory)|edges]] (unordered pairs of vertices), while a [[directed graph]] consists of a set of vertices and a set of arcs (ordered pairs of vertices). In a diagram of a graph, a vertex is usually represented by a circle with a label, and an edge is represented by a line or arrow extending from one vertex to another.

In mathematics, and more specifically in graph theory, a vertex (plural vertices) or node is the fundamental unit of which graphs are formed: an undirected graph consists of a set of vertices and a set of edges (unordered pairs of vertices), while a directed graph consists of a set of vertices and a set of arcs (ordered pairs of vertices). In a diagram of a graph, a vertex is usually represented by a circle with a label, and an edge is represented by a line or arrow extending from one vertex to another.

在数学上，更具体地说在图论中，''' 顶点'''或''' 节点'''是形成图的基本单位: ''' 无向图'''由一组''' 顶点'''和一组边(无序''' 顶点'''对)组成，而''' [[有向图]]'''由一组''' 顶点'''和一组弧(有序''' 顶点'''对)组成。在图的图解表示中，''' 顶点'''通常用带标签的圆来表示，而边则用从一个''' 顶点'''延伸到另一个''' 顶点'''的直线或箭头来表示。

From the point of view of graph theory, vertices are treated as featureless and indivisible objects, although they may have additional structure depending on the application from which the graph arises; for instance, a [[semantic network]] is a graph in which the vertices represent concepts or classes of objects.

From the point of view of graph theory, vertices are treated as featureless and indivisible objects, although they may have additional structure depending on the application from which the graph arises; for instance, a semantic network is a graph in which the vertices represent concepts or classes of objects.

从图论的观点来看，''' 顶点'''被视为无特征且不可分割的对象。但是根据图的应用场景，''' 顶点'''可能有额外的结构。例如：''' [[语义网络(计算机科学)]] ,其中的''' 顶点'''表示概念或对象的类。'''

The two vertices forming an edge are said to be the endpoints of this edge, and the edge is said to be incident to the vertices. A vertex ''w'' is said to be adjacent to another vertex ''v'' if the graph contains an edge (''v'',''w''). The [[neighborhood (graph theory)|neighborhood]] of a vertex ''v'' is an [[induced subgraph]] of the graph, formed by all vertices adjacent to ''v''.

The two vertices forming an edge are said to be the endpoints of this edge, and the edge is said to be incident to the vertices. A vertex w is said to be adjacent to another vertex v if the graph contains an edge (v,w). The neighborhood of a vertex v is an induced subgraph of the graph, formed by all vertices adjacent to v.

形成边的两个''' 顶点'''被称为这条边的''' 端点'''，这条边称为''' 关联Incident'''于这两个''' 顶点'''的边。如果图包含一条边(''v''，''w'') ，则称一个''' 顶点'''''w'' 与另一个''' 顶点''' ''v'' '''相邻接 Adjacent '''。''' 顶点''' v 的[[邻域]]（neighborhood）是该图的一个''' 导出子图'''（induced subgraph），由邻接于 "v" 的所有''' 顶点'''构成。

==Types of vertices==

[[File:Small Network.png|alt=A small example network with 8 vertices and 10 edges.|thumb|Example network with 8 vertices (of which one is isolated) and 10 edges.]]

Example network with 8 vertices (of which one is isolated) and 10 edges.

用具有8个顶点(其中一个是孤立的)和10条边的网络示意。

The [[degree (graph theory)|degree]] of a vertex, denoted 𝛿(v) in a graph is the number of edges incident to it. An '''isolated vertex''' is a vertex with degree zero; that is, a vertex that is not an endpoint of any edge (the example image illustrates one isolated vertex).<ref>[[:File:Small Network.png]]; example image of a network with 8 vertices and 10 edges</ref> A '''leaf vertex''' (also '''pendant vertex''') is a vertex with degree one. In a directed graph, one can distinguish the outdegree (number of outgoing edges), denoted 𝛿 +(v), from the indegree (number of incoming edges), denoted 𝛿−(v); a '''source vertex''' is a vertex with indegree zero, while a '''sink vertex''' is a vertex with outdegree zero. A '''simplicial vertex''' is one whose neighbors form a [[clique (graph theory)|clique]]: every two neighbors are adjacent. A [[universal vertex]] is a vertex that is adjacent to every other vertex in the graph.

The degree of a vertex, denoted 𝛿(v) in a graph is the number of edges incident to it. An isolated vertex is a vertex with degree zero; that is, a vertex that is not an endpoint of any edge (the example image illustrates one isolated vertex). A leaf vertex (also pendant vertex) is a vertex with degree one. In a directed graph, one can distinguish the outdegree (number of outgoing edges), denoted 𝛿 +(v), from the indegree (number of incoming edges), denoted 𝛿−(v); a source vertex is a vertex with indegree zero, while a sink vertex is a vertex with outdegree zero. A simplicial vertex is one whose neighbors form a clique: every two neighbors are adjacent. A universal vertex is a vertex that is adjacent to every other vertex in the graph.

图中顶点的’’’度数’’’（用𝛿(v)表示）是关联到它的边的数目。一个’’’孤立顶点’’’是一个度为零的顶点，也就是说，是一个不是任何边的端点的顶点(示例图片中有一个’’’孤立顶点’’’的例子)。’’’叶顶点’’’(也称作’’’悬挂点’’’)是度数为1的顶点。在有向图中，我们可以区分外度(外出边数)（用 𝛿 +(v) 表示），和外度(外入边数) （用𝛿−(v)表示） ; 源顶点是外度为零的顶点，而汇顶点是具有外度为零的顶点。单纯形顶点是邻接成团的顶点：每两个邻接都是相邻的。通用顶点是在图中与其他所有顶点都相邻的顶点。

A [[cut vertex]] is a vertex the removal of which would disconnect the remaining graph; a [[vertex separator]] is a collection of vertices the removal of which would disconnect the remaining graph into small pieces. A [[k-vertex-connected graph]] is a graph in which removing fewer than ''k'' vertices always leaves the remaining graph connected. An [[Independent set (graph theory)|independent set]] is a set of vertices no two of which are adjacent, and a [[vertex cover]] is a set of vertices that includes at least one endpoint of each edge in the graph. The [[vertex space]] of a graph is a vector space having a set of basis vectors corresponding with the graph's vertices.

A cut vertex is a vertex the removal of which would disconnect the remaining graph; a vertex separator is a collection of vertices the removal of which would disconnect the remaining graph into small pieces. A k-vertex-connected graph is a graph in which removing fewer than k vertices always leaves the remaining graph connected. An independent set is a set of vertices no two of which are adjacent, and a vertex cover is a set of vertices that includes at least one endpoint of each edge in the graph. The vertex space of a graph is a vector space having a set of basis vectors corresponding with the graph's vertices.

’’’割点’’’是一类顶点，如果去掉它，就会断开剩余图的连接; 顶点分隔符是一组顶点的集合，如果去掉这些顶点，就会将剩余图断裂成小片段。一个k- 顶点连通图是指一类去掉少于 k 个顶点后，剩余部分仍然连通的图。一个独立的集合是一组任意二者均不相邻的顶点群。顶点覆盖是一组顶点，它们均包含图中任意边的至少一个端点。图的’’’顶点空间’’’是一个向量空间，它的基向量与图的顶点相对应。

A graph is [[vertex-transitive graph|vertex-transitive]] if it has symmetries that map any vertex to any other vertex. In the context of [[graph enumeration]] and [[graph isomorphism]] it is important to distinguish between '''labeled vertices''' and '''unlabeled vertices'''. A labeled vertex is a vertex that is associated with extra information that enables it to be distinguished from other labeled vertices; two graphs can be considered isomorphic only if the correspondence between their vertices pairs up vertices with equal labels. An unlabeled vertex is one that can be substituted for any other vertex based only on its [[Adjacency (graph theory)|adjacencies]] in the graph and not based on any additional information.

A graph is vertex-transitive if it has symmetries that map any vertex to any other vertex. In the context of graph enumeration and graph isomorphism it is important to distinguish between labeled vertices and unlabeled vertices. A labeled vertex is a vertex that is associated with extra information that enables it to be distinguished from other labeled vertices; two graphs can be considered isomorphic only if the correspondence between their vertices pairs up vertices with equal labels. An unlabeled vertex is one that can be substituted for any other vertex based only on its adjacencies in the graph and not based on any additional information.

如果一个图具有将任何顶点映射到任何其他顶点的对称性，则该图是’’’顶点传递’’’的。在图计数和’’’图同构’’’的情况下，区分’’’标记顶点’’’和’’’非标记顶点’’’非常重要。’’’标记顶点’’’是与能使其区别于其他’’’标记顶点’’’的额外信息相关联的顶点; 只有当其顶点之间的对应关系与有相同标记的顶点配对时，两个图才可以被认为是同构的。’’’非标记顶点’’’是仅基于其在图中的邻接顶点而不基于任何其他信息就能被其他任意顶点替换的一类顶点。

Vertices in graphs are analogous to, but not the same as, [[vertex (geometry)|vertices of polyhedra]]: the [[skeleton (topology)|skeleton]] of a polyhedron forms a graph, the vertices of which are the vertices of the polyhedron, but polyhedron vertices have additional structure (their geometric location) that is not assumed to be present in graph theory. The [[vertex figure]] of a vertex in a polyhedron is analogous to the neighborhood of a vertex in a graph.

Vertices in graphs are analogous to, but not the same as, vertices of polyhedra: the skeleton of a polyhedron forms a graph, the vertices of which are the vertices of the polyhedron, but polyhedron vertices have additional structure (their geometric location) that is not assumed to be present in graph theory. The vertex figure of a vertex in a polyhedron is analogous to the neighborhood of a vertex in a graph.

在图中的顶点类似但不等同于多面体的顶点：多面体的骨架构成一个图，其顶点是多面体的顶点，但多面体的顶点有无法在图论中假定存在的其他结构(几何位置) 。多面体中顶点的顶点图形类似于图中顶点的邻域。

==See also==

* [[Node (computer science)]]

* [[Graph theory]]

* [[Glossary of graph theory]]

==References==

{{reflist}}

* {{cite journal

| last = Gallo

| last = Gallo

| last = Gallo

| first = Giorgio

| first = Giorgio

| first = Giorgio

| last2 = Pallotino

| last2 = Pallotino

2 = Pallotino

| first2 = Stefano

| first2 = Stefano

2 = Stefano

| title = Shortest path algorithms

| title = Shortest path algorithms

最短路径算法

| journal = Annals of Operations Research

| journal = Annals of Operations Research

运筹学年报

| volume = 13

| volume = 13

13

| issue = 1

| issue = 1

1

| pages = 1–79 

| pages = 1–79 

| pages = 1-79 < ! ! ——内联引用引用第4页 -- >

| year = 1988

| year = 1988

1988年

| doi = 10.1007/BF02288320

| doi = 10.1007/BF02288320

| doi = 10.1007/BF02288320

| ref=harv

| ref=harv

= harv

}}

}}

}}

* [[Claude Berge|Berge, Claude]], ''Théorie des graphes et ses applications''. Collection Universitaire de Mathématiques, II Dunod, Paris 1958, viii+277 pp. (English edition, Wiley 1961; Methuen & Co, New York 1962; Russian, Moscow 1961; Spanish, Mexico 1962; Roumanian, Bucharest 1969; Chinese, Shanghai 1963; Second printing of the 1962 first English edition. Dover, New York 2001)

* {{Cite book | last=Chartrand | first=Gary | authorlink=Gary Chartrand | title=Introductory graph theory | date=1985 | publisher=Dover | location=New York | isbn=0-486-24775-9 | pages= | url-access=registration | url=https://archive.org/details/introductorygrap0000char }}

* {{Cite book |author1=Biggs, Norman |author2=Lloyd, E. H. |author3=Wilson, Robin J. | title=Graph theory, 1736-1936 | date=1986 | publisher=Clarendon Press | location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] | isbn=0-19-853916-9 | pages=|title-link=Graph Theory, 1736–1936}}

* {{Cite book | last=Harary | first=Frank | authorlink=Frank Harary | title=Graph theory | date=1969 | publisher=Addison-Wesley Publishing | location=Reading, Mass. | isbn=0-201-41033-8 | pages=}}

* {{Cite book |author1=Harary, Frank |author2=Palmer, Edgar M. | title=Graphical enumeration | date=1973 | publisher=New York, Academic Press | location= | isbn=0-12-324245-2 | pages=}}

==External links==

*{{mathworld | title = Graph Vertex | urlname = GraphVertex}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vertex (Graph Theory)}}

[[Category:Graph theory]]

Category:Graph theory

范畴: 图论

<noinclude>

This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Vertex (graph theory)]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[顶点/edithistory]]</noinclude>

[[Category:待整理页面]]

社会控制论

2020-09-19T10:04:43Z

1220978308：

此词条暂由嘉树初步翻译，未经审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。{{About|an academic discipline| use of the similar term, Sociocyberneering, as a socioeconomic governing technique |Jacque Fresco#Sociocyberneering, Inc.{{!}}Jacque Fresco}}

'''Sociocybernetics''' is an independent chapter of science in sociology based upon the [[general systems theory]] and [[cybernetics]].

Sociocybernetics is an independent chapter of science in sociology based upon the general systems theory and cybernetics.

'''社会控制论Sociocybernetics'''是建立在'''一般系统论general systems theory'''和'''控制论cybernetics'''基础之上的一个社会科学独立分支。

It also has a basis in [[organizational development]] (OD) consultancy practice and in theories of [[communication]], theories of [[psychotherapy|psychotherapies]] and [[computer sciences]]. The International Sociological Association has a specialist research committee in the area – RC51 – which publishes the (electronic) ''Journal of Sociocybernetics''.

It also has a basis in organizational development (OD) consultancy practice and in theories of communication, theories of psychotherapies and computer sciences. The International Sociological Association has a specialist research committee in the area – RC51 – which publishes the (electronic) Journal of Sociocybernetics.

'''它也在组织发展organizational development(OD)咨询实践和传播理论，心理治疗理论和计算机科学具有一定基础'''。 '''国际社会学协会The International Sociological Association''' 在该领域有一个专家研究委员会（RC51），委员会出版（电子）期刊《'''社会控制论Journal of Sociocybernetics'''》。

The term "socio" in the name of sociocybernetics refers to any [[social system]] (as defined, among others, by [[Talcott Parsons]] and [[Niklas Luhmann]]).

The term "socio" in the name of sociocybernetics refers to any social system (as defined, among others, by Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann).

“社会控制论”中的“社会”指的是所有社会系统（如 Talcott Parsons 和 Niklas Luhmann 等人所定义的那样）。

The idea to study society as a system can be traced back to the origin of sociology when the emergent idea of functional differentiation has been applied for the first time to society by [[Auguste Comte]].

The idea to study society as a system can be traced back to the origin of sociology when the emergent idea of functional differentiation has been applied for the first time to society by Auguste Comte.

将社会作为一个系统来研究的思想可以追溯到社会学的起源，即'''孔德Auguste Comte''' 第一次将'''功能分化functional differentiation'''的新兴概念应用于社会的时候。

The basic goal for which sociocybernetics was created, is the production of a theoretical framework as well as information technology tools for responding to the basic challenges individuals, couples, families, groups, companies, organizations, countries, international affairs are facing today.

The basic goal for which sociocybernetics was created, is the production of a theoretical framework as well as information technology tools for responding to the basic challenges individuals, couples, families, groups, companies, organizations, countries, international affairs are facing today.

创建社会控制论的基本目标是建立一个理论框架和信息技术工具，以应对个人、夫妻、家庭、团体、公司、组织、国家和国际事务在今天所面临的基本挑战。

==Analysis of social forces社会力量分析==

One of the tasks of sociocybernetics is to map, measure, harness, and find ways of intervening in the parallel network of social forces that influence human behavior. Sociocyberneticists' task is to understand the guidance and control mechanisms that govern the operation of society (and the behavior of individuals more generally) in practice and then to devise better ways of harnessing and intervening in them – that is to say to devise more effective ways to operate these mechanisms, or to modify them according to the opinions of the cyberneticist.

One of the tasks of sociocybernetics is to map, measure, harness, and find ways of intervening in the parallel network of social forces that influence human behavior. Sociocyberneticists' task is to understand the guidance and control mechanisms that govern the operation of society (and the behavior of individuals more generally) in practice and then to devise better ways of harnessing and intervening in them – that is to say to devise more effective ways to operate these mechanisms, or to modify them according to the opinions of the cyberneticist.

社会控制论的任务之一是对影响人类行为的'''社会力量social forces'''的'''并行网络parallel network'''进行测绘、测量、控制和干预。社会控制论者的任务是理解在实践中对社会运作（更广泛地说，也包括个人行为）有支配作用的引导和控制机制，然后设计更好的方法来控制和干预这些机制。也就是说，设计更有效的方法来运作这些机制，或者根据控制论者的意见调整这些机制。

== General theoretical framework 一般理论框架==

Sociocybernetics aims to generate a general theoretical framework for understanding cooperative behavior. It claims to give a deep understanding of the general [[Evolution theory|theory of evolution]].

Sociocybernetics aims to generate a general theoretical framework for understanding cooperative behavior. It claims to give a deep understanding of the general theory of evolution.

社会控制论旨在为理解合作行为提供一个普遍的理论框架。它声称能对进化论的一般理论给出深刻的理解。

The outlook that sociocybernetics uses when analyzing any [[living system]] lies in a basic law of sociocybernetics.

The outlook that sociocybernetics uses when analyzing any living system lies in a basic law of sociocybernetics.

社会控制论在分析任何'''生命系统living systems'''时所采用的观点，也是它的一个基本法则。

It says: All [[living systems]] go through six levels of interrelations (social contracts) of its subsystems:

It says: All living systems go through six levels of interrelations (social contracts) of its subsystems:

它的内容是：所有的生命系统都要经过其子系统的六个层次的相互关系（社会契约）：

*A. [[Aggression]]: survive or die

*B. Bureaucracy: follow the norms and rules

*C. Competition: my gain is your loss

*D. Decision: disclosing individual feelings, intentions

*E. [[Empathy]]: cooperation in one unified interest

*F. [[Free will]]: The ability for any species, regardless of type, race, sex, creed, belief, genetics, make, model, or sentience to govern their own existence and not be controlled. "To be free to choose how to live life without discrimination or interference."

* A. '''攻击''' ：生存或死亡

* B. '''官僚主义Bureaucracy'''：遵守规范和准则

*C. '''竞争Competition'''：我的收益就是你的损失

* D. '''决策Decision'''：公开个人感受与意图

* E. '''同理心Empathy'''：为一个统一的利益进行合作

* F. '''自由意志Free will'''：任何物种，不论类别、种族、性别、教义、信仰、遗传、'''结构make'''、模式或知觉，都有能力支配自己的存在而不受他人控制。”自由选择如何在没有歧视和干涉的情况下生活。”

Going through these six phases of relationship theoretically gives the framework for the sociocybernetic study of any evolutionary system. It serves as an "equation for life."

Going through these six phases of relationship theoretically gives the framework for the sociocybernetic study of any evolutionary system. It serves as an "equation for life."

这六个阶段的关系从理论上为任何'''进化系统volutionary system'''的社会控制论研究提供了框架。它作为一个“'''生活方程式equation for life'''”而出现。

Sociocybernetics can be defined as "Systems Science in Sociology and Other Social Sciences" – [[systems science]], because sociocybernetics is not limited to theory but includes application, empirical research, methodology, [[axiology]] (i.e., ethics and value research), and [[epistemology]]. In general use, "systems theory" and "cybernetics" are frequently interchangeable or appear in combination. Hence, they can be considered as synonyms, although the two terms come from different traditions and are not used uniformly in different languages and national traditions. Sociocybernetics includes both what are called first order cybernetics and second order cybernetics. Cybernetics, according to [[Norbert Wiener|Wiener]]'s original definition, is the science of "control and communication in the animal and the machine". [[Heinz von Foerster]] went on to distinguish a first order cybernetics, "the study of observed systems", and a second order cybernetics, "the study of observing systems". Second order cybernetics is explicitly based on a [[constructivist epistemology]] and is concerned with issues of self-reference, paying particular attention to the observer-dependence of knowledge, including scientific theories.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Verwey, S., & Davis, C.|date=2011|title=Sociocybernetics and autopoiesis-new laws of organisational form?|url=|journal=Communicare: Journal for Communication Sciences in Southern Africa|volume=30|pages=1–26|via=}}</ref> In the [[interdisciplinary]] and holistic spirit of systems science, although sociology is clearly at the centre of interest of sociocybernetics, the other social sciences, such as psychology, anthropology, political science, economics, are addressed as well, with emphases depending on the particular research question to be dealt with.

Sociocybernetics can be defined as "Systems Science in Sociology and Other Social Sciences" – systems science, because sociocybernetics is not limited to theory but includes application, empirical research, methodology, axiology (i.e., ethics and value research), and epistemology. In general use, "systems theory" and "cybernetics" are frequently interchangeable or appear in combination. Hence, they can be considered as synonyms, although the two terms come from different traditions and are not used uniformly in different languages and national traditions. Sociocybernetics includes both what are called first order cybernetics and second order cybernetics. Cybernetics, according to Wiener's original definition, is the science of "control and communication in the animal and the machine". Heinz von Foerster went on to distinguish a first order cybernetics, "the study of observed systems", and a second order cybernetics, "the study of observing systems". Second order cybernetics is explicitly based on a constructivist epistemology and is concerned with issues of self-reference, paying particular attention to the observer-dependence of knowledge, including scientific theories. In the interdisciplinary and holistic spirit of systems science, although sociology is clearly at the centre of interest of sociocybernetics, the other social sciences, such as psychology, anthropology, political science, economics, are addressed as well, with emphases depending on the particular research question to be dealt with.

社会控制论可以被定义为“社会学和其他社会科学中的系统科学”-系统科学，因为社会控制论并不局限于理论，还包括应用、经验主义研究、方法论、价值论（即伦理和'''价值研究value research'''）以及认识论。一般来说，“系统论”和“控制论”经常可以互换，或者组合起来出现。因此，它们可以被视为同义词，尽管这两个术语出自不同的传统，而且在不同的语言和民族传统中的用法也不一致。社会控制论包括'''一阶控制论first order cybernetics'''和'''二阶控制论second order cybernetics'''。根据'''维纳Wiener'''最初的定义，控制论是研究“在动物和机器中的控制和交流”的科学。Heinz von Foerster 继续区分了一阶控制论，即“对被观测系统的研究” ，和二阶控制论，即“对观测系统的过程的研究”。二阶控制论明确地以'''建构主义认识论constructivist epistemology'''为基础，涉及'''自我参照self-reference'''的问题，特别关注知识（包括科学理论）的'''观察者依赖性observer-dependence'''。在系统科学具有的跨学科和整体的精神中，尽管社会学明显处于社会控制论的兴趣中心，但其他社会科学，如心理学、人类学、政治科学、经济学，也同样被关注，而重点则取决于要处理的具体问题。

==Issues and challenges问题和挑战==

Recent research from the [[Santa Fe Institute]] presents the idea that social systems like cities don't behave like organisms as has been proposed by some in sociocybernetics.<ref>Luís M. A. Bettencourt, José Lobo, Dirk Helbing, Christian Kühnert, and Geoffrey B. West. Growth, innovation, scaling and the pace of life in cities. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0610172104v1</ref>

Recent research from the Santa Fe Institute presents the idea that social systems like cities don't behave like organisms as has been proposed by some in sociocybernetics.

'''圣塔菲研究所the Santa Fe Institute'''最近的研究表明，像城市这样的社会系统并不像在社会控制论中提出的有机体那样运作。

==See also参见==

{{col-begin}}

{{col-break}}

* [[Anthropology]] 人类学

* '''[[Autopoiesis]] 自生系统论'''

* [[Cliodynamics]] 历史动力学

* [[Complex systems]] 复杂系统

* '''[[Dynastic cycle]] 王朝循环'''

* [[General systems theory]] 一般系统理论

* [[List of cycles]] 生命循环

* [[Psychology]] 心理学

* '''[[Social cycle theory]] 社会循环理论'''

* [[Sociocracy]] 社会政体

* [[Sociology]] 社会学

{{col-break}}

{{col-begin}}

{{col-break}}

* [[Superorganisms]] 超有机体

* [[Systems philosophy]] 系统哲学

* [[Systems thinking]] 系统思考

* [[War cycles]] 战争循环

* [[World-systems theory]] 世界-系统理论

{{col-break}}

{{col-end}}

{{col-end}}

==References参考资料==

{{reflist}}

==Further reading==

* [[Béla H. Bánáthy]] (2000). ''Guided Evolution of Society: A Systems View''. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York.

* [[Felix Geyer]] and [[Johannes van der Zouwen]] (1992). "[http://www.unizar.es/sociocybernetics/chen/felix/pfge8.html Sociocybernetics]" in: ''Handbook of Cybernetics'' (C.V. Negoita, ed.). New York: Marcel Dekker, 1992, pp. 95–124.

* [[Felix Geyer]] (1994). "[http://www.unizar.es/sociocybernetics/chen/felix/pfge2.html The Challenge of Sociocybernetics]". In: ''Kybernetes''. 24(4):6-32, 1995. Copyright MCB University Press1995

* [[Felix Geyer]] (2001). "[http://www.unizar.es/sociocybernetics/chen/felix/pfge16.pdf Sociocybernetics]" In: ''Kybernetes'', Vol. 31 No. 7/8, 2002, pp. 1021–1042.

* Raven, J. (1994). ''Managing Education for Effective Schooling: The Most Important Problem Is to Come to Terms with Values.'' Unionville, New York: Trillium Press. (OCLC 34483891)

* Raven, J. (1995). ''The New Wealth of Nations: A New Enquiry into the Nature and Origins of the Wealth of Nations and the Societal Learning Arrangements Needed for a Sustainable Society''. Unionville, New York: Royal Fireworks Press; Sudbury, Suffolk: Bloomfield Books. ({{ISBN|0-89824-232-0}})

==External links外部链接==

*[https://www.socioinfocyber.org/ Center for Sociocybernetics Studies Bonn]

*[http://www.well.com/~kbk/dissertation/ Cybernetic Principles for Effective Control in Complex Organizations]

*[https://papiro.unizar.es/ojs/index.php/rc51-jos/index Journal of Sociocybernetics]

{{Cybernetics}}

[[Category:Cybernetics]]

Category:Cybernetics

类别: 控制论

[[Category:Systems theory]]

Category:Systems theory

范畴: 系统论

<noinclude>

This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Sociocybernetics]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[社会控制论/edithistory]]</noinclude>

[[Category:待整理页面]]

社会控制论

2020-09-19T09:12:37Z

1220978308：

此词条暂由嘉树初步翻译，未经审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。{{About|an academic discipline| use of the similar term, Sociocyberneering, as a socioeconomic governing technique |Jacque Fresco#Sociocyberneering, Inc.{{!}}Jacque Fresco}}

'''Sociocybernetics''' is an independent chapter of science in sociology based upon the [[general systems theory]] and [[cybernetics]].

Sociocybernetics is an independent chapter of science in sociology based upon the general systems theory and cybernetics.

'''社会控制论Sociocybernetics'''是建立在'''一般系统论general systems theory'''和'''控制论cybernetics'''基础之上的一个社会科学独立分支。

It also has a basis in [[organizational development]] (OD) consultancy practice and in theories of [[communication]], theories of [[psychotherapy|psychotherapies]] and [[computer sciences]]. The International Sociological Association has a specialist research committee in the area – RC51 – which publishes the (electronic) ''Journal of Sociocybernetics''.

It also has a basis in organizational development (OD) consultancy practice and in theories of communication, theories of psychotherapies and computer sciences. The International Sociological Association has a specialist research committee in the area – RC51 – which publishes the (electronic) Journal of Sociocybernetics.

'''它也在组织发展organizational development(OD)咨询实践和传播理论，心理治疗理论和计算机科学具有一定基础'''。 '''国际社会学协会The International Sociological Association''' 在该领域有一个专家研究委员会（RC51），委员会出版（电子）期刊《'''社会控制论Journal of Sociocybernetics'''》。

The term "socio" in the name of sociocybernetics refers to any [[social system]] (as defined, among others, by [[Talcott Parsons]] and [[Niklas Luhmann]]).

The term "socio" in the name of sociocybernetics refers to any social system (as defined, among others, by Talcott Parsons and Niklas Luhmann).

“社会控制论”中的“社会”指的是所有社会系统（如 Talcott Parsons 和 Niklas Luhmann 等人所定义的那样）。

The idea to study society as a system can be traced back to the origin of sociology when the emergent idea of functional differentiation has been applied for the first time to society by [[Auguste Comte]].

The idea to study society as a system can be traced back to the origin of sociology when the emergent idea of functional differentiation has been applied for the first time to society by Auguste Comte.

将社会作为一个系统来研究的思想可以追溯到社会学的起源，即'''孔德Auguste Comte''' 第一次将'''功能分化functional differentiation'''的新兴概念应用于社会的时候。

The basic goal for which sociocybernetics was created, is the production of a theoretical framework as well as information technology tools for responding to the basic challenges individuals, couples, families, groups, companies, organizations, countries, international affairs are facing today.

The basic goal for which sociocybernetics was created, is the production of a theoretical framework as well as information technology tools for responding to the basic challenges individuals, couples, families, groups, companies, organizations, countries, international affairs are facing today.

创建社会控制论的基本目标是建立一个理论框架和信息技术工具，以应对个人、夫妻、家庭、团体、公司、组织、国家和国际事务在今天所面临的基本挑战。

==Analysis of social forces社会力量分析==

One of the tasks of sociocybernetics is to map, measure, harness, and find ways of intervening in the parallel network of social forces that influence human behavior. Sociocyberneticists' task is to understand the guidance and control mechanisms that govern the operation of society (and the behavior of individuals more generally) in practice and then to devise better ways of harnessing and intervening in them – that is to say to devise more effective ways to operate these mechanisms, or to modify them according to the opinions of the cyberneticist.

One of the tasks of sociocybernetics is to map, measure, harness, and find ways of intervening in the parallel network of social forces that influence human behavior. Sociocyberneticists' task is to understand the guidance and control mechanisms that govern the operation of society (and the behavior of individuals more generally) in practice and then to devise better ways of harnessing and intervening in them – that is to say to devise more effective ways to operate these mechanisms, or to modify them according to the opinions of the cyberneticist.

社会控制论的任务之一是对影响人类行为的'''社会力量social forces'''的'''并行网络parallel network'''进行测绘、测量、控制和干预。社会控制论者的任务是理解在实践中对社会运作（更广泛地说，也包括个人行为）有支配作用的引导和控制机制，然后设计更好的方法来控制和干预这些机制。也就是说，设计更有效的方法来运作这些机制，或者根据控制论者的意见调整这些机制。

== General theoretical framework 一般理论框架==

Sociocybernetics aims to generate a general theoretical framework for understanding cooperative behavior. It claims to give a deep understanding of the general [[Evolution theory|theory of evolution]].

Sociocybernetics aims to generate a general theoretical framework for understanding cooperative behavior. It claims to give a deep understanding of the general theory of evolution.

社会控制论旨在为理解合作行为提供一个普遍的理论框架。它声称能对进化论的一般理论给出深刻的理解。

The outlook that sociocybernetics uses when analyzing any [[living system]] lies in a basic law of sociocybernetics.

The outlook that sociocybernetics uses when analyzing any living system lies in a basic law of sociocybernetics.

社会控制论在分析任何'''生命系统living systems'''时所采用的观点，也是它的一个基本法则。

It says: All [[living systems]] go through six levels of interrelations (social contracts) of its subsystems:

It says: All living systems go through six levels of interrelations (social contracts) of its subsystems:

它的内容是：所有的生命系统都要经过其子系统的六个层次的相互关系（社会契约）：

*A. [[Aggression]]: survive or die

*B. Bureaucracy: follow the norms and rules

*C. Competition: my gain is your loss

*D. Decision: disclosing individual feelings, intentions

*E. [[Empathy]]: cooperation in one unified interest

*F. [[Free will]]: The ability for any species, regardless of type, race, sex, creed, belief, genetics, make, model, or sentience to govern their own existence and not be controlled. "To be free to choose how to live life without discrimination or interference."

* A. '''攻击''' ：生存或死亡

* B. '''官僚主义Bureaucracy'''：遵守规范和准则

*C. '''竞争Competition'''：我的收益就是你的损失

* D. '''决策Decision'''：公开个人感受、意图

* E. '''同理心Empathy'''：为一个统一的利益进行合作

* F. '''自由意志Free will'''：任何物种，不论类别、种族、性别、信条、信仰、遗传、'''结构make'''、模式或感知觉，都有能力支配自己的存在而不受控制。”自由选择如何在没有歧视和干涉的情况下生活。”

Going through these six phases of relationship theoretically gives the framework for the sociocybernetic study of any evolutionary system. It serves as an "equation for life."

Going through these six phases of relationship theoretically gives the framework for the sociocybernetic study of any evolutionary system. It serves as an "equation for life."

这六个阶段的关系从理论上为任何'''进化系统volutionary system'''的社会控制论研究提供了框架。它作为一个“'''生活方程式equation for life'''”而出现。

Sociocybernetics can be defined as "Systems Science in Sociology and Other Social Sciences" – [[systems science]], because sociocybernetics is not limited to theory but includes application, empirical research, methodology, [[axiology]] (i.e., ethics and value research), and [[epistemology]]. In general use, "systems theory" and "cybernetics" are frequently interchangeable or appear in combination. Hence, they can be considered as synonyms, although the two terms come from different traditions and are not used uniformly in different languages and national traditions. Sociocybernetics includes both what are called first order cybernetics and second order cybernetics. Cybernetics, according to [[Norbert Wiener|Wiener]]'s original definition, is the science of "control and communication in the animal and the machine". [[Heinz von Foerster]] went on to distinguish a first order cybernetics, "the study of observed systems", and a second order cybernetics, "the study of observing systems". Second order cybernetics is explicitly based on a [[constructivist epistemology]] and is concerned with issues of self-reference, paying particular attention to the observer-dependence of knowledge, including scientific theories.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Verwey, S., & Davis, C.|date=2011|title=Sociocybernetics and autopoiesis-new laws of organisational form?|url=|journal=Communicare: Journal for Communication Sciences in Southern Africa|volume=30|pages=1–26|via=}}</ref> In the [[interdisciplinary]] and holistic spirit of systems science, although sociology is clearly at the centre of interest of sociocybernetics, the other social sciences, such as psychology, anthropology, political science, economics, are addressed as well, with emphases depending on the particular research question to be dealt with.

Sociocybernetics can be defined as "Systems Science in Sociology and Other Social Sciences" – systems science, because sociocybernetics is not limited to theory but includes application, empirical research, methodology, axiology (i.e., ethics and value research), and epistemology. In general use, "systems theory" and "cybernetics" are frequently interchangeable or appear in combination. Hence, they can be considered as synonyms, although the two terms come from different traditions and are not used uniformly in different languages and national traditions. Sociocybernetics includes both what are called first order cybernetics and second order cybernetics. Cybernetics, according to Wiener's original definition, is the science of "control and communication in the animal and the machine". Heinz von Foerster went on to distinguish a first order cybernetics, "the study of observed systems", and a second order cybernetics, "the study of observing systems". Second order cybernetics is explicitly based on a constructivist epistemology and is concerned with issues of self-reference, paying particular attention to the observer-dependence of knowledge, including scientific theories. In the interdisciplinary and holistic spirit of systems science, although sociology is clearly at the centre of interest of sociocybernetics, the other social sciences, such as psychology, anthropology, political science, economics, are addressed as well, with emphases depending on the particular research question to be dealt with.

社会控制论可以被定义为“社会学和其他社会科学中的系统科学”-系统科学，因为社会控制论并不局限于理论，还包括应用、实证研究、方法论、价值论（即伦理和'''价值研究value research'''）以及认识论。一般来说，“系统论”和“控制论”经常可以互换，或者组合起来出现。因此，它们可以被视为同义词，尽管这两个术语来自不同的传统，而且在不同的语言和民族传统中的使用也不一致。社会控制论包括'''一阶控制论first order cybernetics'''和'''二阶控制论second order cybernetics'''。根据'''维纳Wiener'''最初的定义，控制论是“在动物和机器中的控制和交流”的科学。Heinz von Foerster 继续区分了一阶控制论，即“对被观察的系统的研究” ，和二阶控制论，即“对系统的观察过程的研究”。二阶控制论明确地以'''建构主义认识论constructivist epistemology'''为基础，关注'''自我参照self-reference'''的问题，特别关注知识（包括科学理论）的'''观察者依赖性observer-dependence'''。在系统科学具有的跨学科和整体的精神中，尽管社会学显然处于社会控制论的兴趣中心，但其他社会科学，如心理学、人类学、政治科学、经济学，也被关注。兴趣的重点取决于要处理的具体研究问题。

==Issues and challenges问题和挑战==

Recent research from the [[Santa Fe Institute]] presents the idea that social systems like cities don't behave like organisms as has been proposed by some in sociocybernetics.<ref>Luís M. A. Bettencourt, José Lobo, Dirk Helbing, Christian Kühnert, and Geoffrey B. West. Growth, innovation, scaling and the pace of life in cities. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0610172104v1</ref>

Recent research from the Santa Fe Institute presents the idea that social systems like cities don't behave like organisms as has been proposed by some in sociocybernetics.

'''圣塔菲研究所the Santa Fe Institute'''最近的研究表明，像城市这样的社会系统并不像在社会控制论中提出的有些有机体那样运作。

==See also参见==

{{col-begin}}

{{col-break}}

* [[Anthropology]] 人类学

* '''[[Autopoiesis]] 自生系统论'''

* [[Cliodynamics]] 历史动力学

* [[Complex systems]] 复杂系统

* '''[[Dynastic cycle]] 王朝循环'''

* [[General systems theory]] 一般系统理论

* [[List of cycles]] 生命循环

* [[Psychology]] 心理学

* '''[[Social cycle theory]] 社会循环理论'''

* [[Sociocracy]] 社会政体

* [[Sociology]] 社会学

{{col-break}}

{{col-begin}}

{{col-break}}

* [[Superorganisms]] 超有机体

* [[Systems philosophy]] 系统哲学

* [[Systems thinking]] 系统思考

* [[War cycles]] 战争循环

* [[World-systems theory]] 世界-系统理论

{{col-break}}

{{col-end}}

{{col-end}}

==References参考资料==

{{reflist}}

==Further reading==

* [[Béla H. Bánáthy]] (2000). ''Guided Evolution of Society: A Systems View''. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York.

* [[Felix Geyer]] and [[Johannes van der Zouwen]] (1992). "[http://www.unizar.es/sociocybernetics/chen/felix/pfge8.html Sociocybernetics]" in: ''Handbook of Cybernetics'' (C.V. Negoita, ed.). New York: Marcel Dekker, 1992, pp. 95–124.

* [[Felix Geyer]] (1994). "[http://www.unizar.es/sociocybernetics/chen/felix/pfge2.html The Challenge of Sociocybernetics]". In: ''Kybernetes''. 24(4):6-32, 1995. Copyright MCB University Press1995

* [[Felix Geyer]] (2001). "[http://www.unizar.es/sociocybernetics/chen/felix/pfge16.pdf Sociocybernetics]" In: ''Kybernetes'', Vol. 31 No. 7/8, 2002, pp. 1021–1042.

* Raven, J. (1994). ''Managing Education for Effective Schooling: The Most Important Problem Is to Come to Terms with Values.'' Unionville, New York: Trillium Press. (OCLC 34483891)

* Raven, J. (1995). ''The New Wealth of Nations: A New Enquiry into the Nature and Origins of the Wealth of Nations and the Societal Learning Arrangements Needed for a Sustainable Society''. Unionville, New York: Royal Fireworks Press; Sudbury, Suffolk: Bloomfield Books. ({{ISBN|0-89824-232-0}})

==External links外部链接==

*[https://www.socioinfocyber.org/ Center for Sociocybernetics Studies Bonn]

*[http://www.well.com/~kbk/dissertation/ Cybernetic Principles for Effective Control in Complex Organizations]

*[https://papiro.unizar.es/ojs/index.php/rc51-jos/index Journal of Sociocybernetics]

{{Cybernetics}}

[[Category:Cybernetics]]

Category:Cybernetics

类别: 控制论

[[Category:Systems theory]]

Category:Systems theory

范畴: 系统论

<noinclude>

This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Sociocybernetics]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[社会控制论/edithistory]]</noinclude>

[[Category:待整理页面]]