https://wiki.swarma.org/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=%E5%B0%8F%E8%B6%A3%E6%9C%A8%E6%9C%A8&feedformat=atom集智百科 - 复杂系统|人工智能|复杂科学|复杂网络|自组织 - 用户贡献 [zh-cn]2024-03-28T20:05:25Z用户贡献MediaWiki 1.35.0https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%AF%B9%E7%A7%B0%E6%80%A7%E7%A0%B4%E7%BC%BA&diff=21074对称性破缺2021-01-21T14:11:39Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由趣木木翻译,翻译字数共549,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}<br />
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{{Short description|Physical process transitioning a system from a symmetric state to a more ordered state}}<br />
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{{expert|Physics|reason=Lacking. It discusses symmetry breaking like a dictionary without saying why its so critically important in nearly every field of physics. Does not even discuss [[Noether's theorem]] here or in subpages. Originally set in May 2014|date=October 2020}}<br />
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[[File:Spontaneous symmetry breaking from an instable equilibrium.svg|thumb|A ball is initially located at the top of the central hill (C). This position is an unstable equilibrium: a very small perturbation will cause it to fall to one of the two stable wells left (L) or right (R). Even if the hill is symmetric and there is no reason for the ball to fall on either side, the observed final state is not symmetric.]]<br />
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A ball is initially located at the top of the central hill (C). This position is an unstable equilibrium: a very small perturbation will cause it to fall to one of the two stable wells left (L) or right (R). Even if the hill is symmetric and there is no reason for the ball to fall on either side, the observed final state is not symmetric.<br />
[[图一:一个小球位于中央山丘的山峰处(C)这是一种不稳定的平衡位置,具体表现为:一个很小的扰动会使它下降到稳定井左(L)或右(R)中的一个。即使山丘是对称的,没有理由让球落在两侧,观察到的最终状态是不对称的]]<br />
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In [[physics]], '''symmetry breaking''' is a [[phenomenon]] in which (infinitesimally) small [[Quantum fluctuation|fluctuation]]s acting on a [[system]] crossing a [[critical point (thermodynamics)|critical point]] decide the system's fate, by determining which branch of a [[Bifurcation theory|bifurcation]] is taken. To an outside observer unaware of the fluctuations (or "[[Thermal noise|noise]]"), the choice will appear arbitrary. This process is called [[symmetry (physics)|symmetry]] "breaking", because such transitions usually bring the system from a symmetric but [[randomness|disorderly]] [[Quantum state|state]] into one or more definite states. Symmetry breaking is thought to play a major role in [[pattern formation]].<br />
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In physics, symmetry breaking is a phenomenon in which (infinitesimally) small fluctuations acting on a system crossing a critical point decide the system's fate, by determining which branch of a bifurcation is taken. To an outside observer unaware of the fluctuations (or "noise"), the choice will appear arbitrary. This process is called symmetry "breaking", because such transitions usually bring the system from a symmetric but disorderly state into one or more definite states. Symmetry breaking is thought to play a major role in pattern formation.<br />
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在物理学中,'''<font color="#ff8000"> 对称性破缺</font>'''是一种现象,在这种现象中,对系统作用一个很小的力使其达到临界点产生波动,从而可以决定去向分岔的哪个方向。对于一个不知道波动(或“噪音”)的外部观察者来说,这个选择看起来是任意的。这个过程被称为对称性破缺,因为这种跃迁通常使系统从一个对称但无序的状态进入一个或多个确定的状态。在'''<font color="#ff8000"> 斑图生成</font>'''中对称性破缺起着重要作用。<br />
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In his 1972 [[Science (journal)|''Science'']] paper titled "More is different"<ref>{{cite journal | last=Anderson | first=P.W. | title=More is Different | journal=Science | volume=177 | issue=4047| pages=393–396 | year=1972 | url=http://robotics.cs.tamu.edu/dshell/cs689/papers/anderson72more_is_different.pdf | doi=10.1126/science.177.4047.393 | pmid=17796623 | format=|bibcode = 1972Sci...177..393A }}</ref> [[Nobel prize in physics|Nobel laureate]] [[Philip Warren Anderson|P.W. Anderson]] used the idea of symmetry breaking to show that even if [[reductionism]] is true, its converse, constructionism, which is the idea that scientists can easily predict complex phenomena given theories describing their components, is not.<br />
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In his 1972 Science paper titled "More is different" Nobel laureate P.W. Anderson used the idea of symmetry breaking to show that even if reductionism is true, its converse, constructionism, which is the idea that scientists can easily predict complex phenomena given theories describing their components, is not.<br />
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1972年,诺贝尔奖得主P·W·安德森(P.W.Anderson)在《科学》(Science)杂志上发表了一篇名为《More is different》的论文,文中利用对称性破缺的概念来表明,即使'''<font color="#ff8000"> 还原论</font>'''是正确的,但与之相反的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 建构主义 Construcism</font>''' 却是错误的。建构主义认为,在给出描述其组成部分的理论的情况下科学家可以轻易地预测复杂现象。<br />
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Symmetry breaking can be distinguished into two types, [[explicit symmetry breaking]] and [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]], characterized by whether the equations of motion fail to be invariant or the [[Vacuum state|ground state]] fails to be invariant.<br />
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Symmetry breaking can be distinguished into two types, explicit symmetry breaking and spontaneous symmetry breaking, characterized by whether the equations of motion fail to be invariant or the ground state fails to be invariant.<br />
对称性破缺可以分为'''<font color="#ff8000">明显对称性破缺</font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">自发对称性破缺</font>'''两种类型,其特征是运动方程是否不变或基态是否不变。<br />
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==Explicit symmetry breaking明显对称性破缺==<br />
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{{main|Explicit symmetry breaking}}<br />
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In explicit symmetry breaking, the [[equations of motion]] describing a system are variant under the broken symmetry. In [[Hamiltonian mechanics]] or [[Lagrangian Mechanics]], this happens when there is at least one term in the Hamiltonian (or Lagrangian) that explicitly breaks the given symmetry.<br />
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In explicit symmetry breaking, the equations of motion describing a system are variant under the broken symmetry. In Hamiltonian mechanics or Lagrangian Mechanics, this happens when there is at least one term in the Hamiltonian (or Lagrangian) that explicitly breaks the given symmetry.<br />
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在20世纪90年代,'''<font color="#ff8000">明显对称性破缺</font>'''描述一个系统的运动方程在对称性破缺的情况下是不同的。在哈密顿力学或拉格朗日力学中,假若系统的哈密顿量或拉格朗日量本身存在一个或多个违反某种对称性的现象,导致系统的物理行为不具备这种对称性,则称此为明显对称性破缺。这术语特别适用于大致具有对称性、违反对称项目很小的系统。<br />
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==Spontaneous symmetry breaking自发对称性破缺==<br />
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{{main|Spontaneous symmetry breaking}}<br />
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In spontaneous symmetry breaking, the [[equations of motion]] of the system are invariant, but the system is not. This is because the background ([[spacetime]]) of the system, its [[Vacuum state|vacuum]], is non-invariant. Such a symmetry breaking is parametrized by an [[order parameter]]. A special case of this type of symmetry breaking is [[dynamical symmetry breaking]].<br />
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In spontaneous symmetry breaking, the equations of motion of the system are invariant, but the system is not. This is because the background (spacetime) of the system, its vacuum, is non-invariant. Such a symmetry breaking is parametrized by an order parameter. A special case of this type of symmetry breaking is dynamical symmetry breaking.<br />
在'''<font color="#ff8000">自发对称性破缺</font>'''中,系统的运动方程是不变的,但系统不是。这是因为系统的背景(时空)是非恒定的。这种对称破缺用序参量进行参数化。这类对称破缺的一个特殊情况是'''<font color="#ff8000">动力学对称性破缺</font>'''。<br />
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== Examples 实例==<br />
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Symmetry breaking can cover any of the following scenarios:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/stars5/astroinfo/gloss/s.html|title=Astronomical Glossary|author=|date=|website=www.angelfire.com}}</ref><br />
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Symmetry breaking can cover any of the following scenarios:<br />
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对称性破缺可以涵盖以下任何一种情况:<br />
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:* The breaking of an exact symmetry of the underlying laws of physics by the apparently random formation of some structure; <br />
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* The breaking of an exact symmetry of the underlying laws of physics by the apparently random formation of some structure; <br />
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* 某些结构的随机形成破坏了物理学基本定律的精确对称性;<br />
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:* A situation in physics in which a [[ground state|minimal energy state]] has less symmetry than the system itself; <br />
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* A situation in physics in which a minimal energy state has less symmetry than the system itself; <br />
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* 物理学中最小能量状态的对称性不如系统本身的一种情况;<br />
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:* Situations where the actual state of the system does not reflect the underlying symmetries of the dynamics because the manifestly symmetric state is unstable (stability is gained at the cost of [[local property|local]] asymmetry); <br />
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* Situations where the actual state of the system does not reflect the underlying symmetries of the dynamics because the manifestly symmetric state is unstable (stability is gained at the cost of local asymmetry); <br />
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* 系统的实际状态由于明显对称的状态不稳定而不能反映动力学的基本对称性的情况(稳定性是以局部不对称为代价的) ;<br />
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:* Situations where the equations of a theory may have certain symmetries, though their solutions may not (the symmetries are "hidden").<br />
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* Situations where the equations of a theory may have certain symmetries, though their solutions may not (the symmetries are "hidden").<br />
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* 理论方程可能具有某种对称性,但其解可能没有(对称性是“隐藏的”)的情况。<br />
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One of the first cases of broken symmetry discussed in the physics literature is related to the form taken by a uniformly rotating body of [[Incompressible flow|incompressible fluid]] in [[gravitational]] and [[hydrostatic equilibrium]]. [[Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi|Jacobi]]<ref>{{cite journal| last=Jacobi | first=C.G.J. | title=Über die figur des gleichgewichts | journal=[[Annalen der Physik und Chemie]] | volume=109 | issue=33| pages=229–238 | year=1834| doi=10.1002/andp.18341090808 | bibcode=1834AnP...109..229J | url=https://zenodo.org/record/2027349 }}</ref> and soon later [[Liouville]],<ref>{{cite journal| last=Liouville | first=J. | title=Sur la figure d'une masse fluide homogène, en équilibre et douée d'un mouvement de rotation| journal=Journal de l'École Polytechnique | issue=14| pages=289–296 | year=1834}}</ref> in 1834, discussed the fact that a tri-axial ellipsoid was an equilibrium solution for this problem when the kinetic energy compared to the gravitational energy of the rotating body exceeded a certain critical value. The axial symmetry presented by the McLaurin spheroids is broken at this bifurcation point. Furthermore, above this bifurcation point, and for constant angular momentum, the solutions that minimize the kinetic energy are the ''non''-axially symmetric [[Jacobi ellipsoid]]s instead of the [[Maclaurin spheroid]]s.<br />
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One of the first cases of broken symmetry discussed in the physics literature is related to the form taken by a uniformly rotating body of incompressible fluid in gravitational and hydrostatic equilibrium. Jacobi and soon later Liouville, in 1834, discussed the fact that a tri-axial ellipsoid was an equilibrium solution for this problem when the kinetic energy compared to the gravitational energy of the rotating body exceeded a certain critical value. The axial symmetry presented by the McLaurin spheroids is broken at this bifurcation point. Furthermore, above this bifurcation point, and for constant angular momentum, the solutions that minimize the kinetic energy are the non-axially symmetric Jacobi ellipsoids instead of the Maclaurin spheroids.<br />
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在物理学文献中讨论的首批对称性破缺案例之一,与不可压缩流体在重力和流体静力平衡中的均匀旋转物体的形式有关。在1834年,Jacobi 和后来的 Liouville 讨论了这样一个事实: 当旋转物体的动能相对于引力势能超过一定的临界值时,这个问题的平衡解是三轴椭球。在这个分叉点上,麦克劳林椭球体的轴对称性被破坏。此外,在这个分叉点之上,对于常数角动量,使动能最小化的解是非轴对称的 Jacobi 椭球,而不是 Maclaurin 椭球。<br />
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==See also==<br />
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*[[Higgs mechanism]]<br />
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*[[QCD vacuum]]<br />
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*[[Goldstone boson]]<br />
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*[[1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers]]<br />
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*[[希格斯机制]]<br />
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*[[QCD真空]]<br />
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*[[戈德斯通玻色子]]<br />
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*[[1964年PRL对称性破缺论文]]<br />
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==References==<br />
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{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Symmetry Breaking}}<br />
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[[Category:Symmetry]]<br />
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Category:Symmetry<br />
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范畴: 对称<br />
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[[Category:Pattern formation]]<br />
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Category:Pattern formation<br />
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类别: 模式形成<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Symmetry breaking]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[对称性破缺/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90_Abiogenesis&diff=21028生命起源 Abiogenesis2021-01-20T08:54:52Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由Solitude初步翻译。正由Steve Luo审校,给您阅读带来不便,还请谅解。<br />
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{{short description|The natural process by which life arises from non-living matter}}<br />
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{{Redirect|Origin of life|non-scientific views on the origins of life|Creation myth}}<br />
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{{distinguish|Biogenesis}}<br />
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{{For|the oldest life forms| Earliest known life forms}}<br />
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{{Use American English|date=December 2019}}<br />
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[[File:Champagne vent white smokers.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The [[earliest known life forms|earliest known life-forms]] on [[Earth]] are putative fossilized [[microorganism]]s, found in [[Hydrothermal vent|hydrothermal vent precipitates]], that may have lived as early as 4.28 Gya (billion years ago), relatively soon after the [[ocean]]s [[Origin of water on Earth#Water in the development of Earth|formed 4.41 Gya]], and not long after the [[Age of the Earth|formation of the Earth]] 4.54 Gya.<ref name="NAT-20170301" /><ref name="NYT-20170301" />]]<br />
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The earliest known life-forms on Earth are putative fossilized microorganisms, found in hydrothermal vent precipitates, that may have lived as early as 4.28 Gya (billion years ago), relatively soon after the oceans formed 4.41 Gya, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 Gya.<br />
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地球上已知最早的生命形式是在热液喷口沉淀物中发现的假定化石微生物,它们可能早在42.8亿年前就已活着,相对而言,是在44.1亿年前海洋形成的不久之后,以及是45.4亿年前地球形成的不长时间后。<br />
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In [[evolutionary biology]], '''abiogenesis''', or informally the '''origin of life''' (OoL),<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Oparin| first1 = Aleksandr Ivanovich| author-link1 = Alexander Oparin| translator1-last = Morgulis| translator1-first = Sergius| year = 1938| title = The Origin of Life| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Jv8psJCtI0gC| series = Phoenix Edition Series| edition = 2| location = Mineola, New York| publisher = Courier Corporation| publication-date = 2003| isbn = 978-0486495224| access-date = 2018-06-16}}</ref><ref name=Pereto /><ref name="AST-20151218">Compare: {{cite journal |author= Scharf, Caleb |title= A Strategy for Origins of Life Research |date= 18 December 2015 |journal= [[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |volume= 15 |issue= 12 |pages= 1031–1042 |doi= 10.1089/ast.2015.1113 |display-authors= etal |pmid= 26684503 |pmc= 4683543|bibcode= 2015AsBio..15.1031S | quote = What do we mean by the origins of life (OoL)? [...] Since the early 20th century the phrase OoL has been used to refer to the events that occurred during the transition from non-living to living systems on Earth, i.e., the origin of terrestrial biology (Oparin, 1924; Haldane, 1929). The term has largely replaced earlier concepts such as abiogenesis (Kamminga, 1980; Fry, 2000).}}</ref>{{efn|Also occasionally called biopoiesis (Bernal, 1960, p. 30)}} is the [[natural]] process by which [[life]] has arisen from non-living matter, such as simple [[organic compound]]s.<ref name=Oparin>{{harvnb|Oparin|1953|p=vi}}</ref><ref name=Pereto>{{cite journal|last= Peretó |first= Juli |year= 2005 |title= Controversies on the origin of life |url= http://www.im.microbios.org/0801/0801023.pdf |journal= [[International Microbiology]] |volume= 8 |issue= 1 |pages= 23–31 |pmid= 15906258 |accessdate= 2015-06-01 |url-status= dead |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20150824074726/http://www.im.microbios.org/0801/0801023.pdf |archivedate= 24 August 2015 |quote = Ever since the historical contributions by Aleksandr I. Oparin, in the 1920s, the intellectual challenge of the origin of life enigma has unfolded based on the assumption that life originated on Earth through physicochemical processes that can be supposed, comprehended, and simulated; that is, there were neither miracles nor spontaneous generations.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Warmflash |first1= David |last2= Warmflash |first2= Benjamin |date= November 2005 |title= Did Life Come from Another World? |journal= [[Scientific American]] |volume= 293 |issue= 5 |pages= 64–71 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican1105-64|pmid= 16318028 |bibcode= 2005SciAm.293e..64W | quote = According to the conventional hypothesis, the earliest living cells emerged as a result of chemical evolution on our planet billions of years ago in a process called abiogenesis.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yarus|2010|p=47}}</ref> While the details of this process are still unknown, the prevailing scientific hypothesis is that the transition from non-living to living entities was not a single event, but an evolutionary process of increasing complexity that involved molecular [[self-replication]], [[self-assembly]], [[autocatalysis]], and the emergence of [[cell membrane]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.biocommunication.at/pdf/publications/biosystems_2016.pdf |title=Crucial steps to life: From chemical reactions to code using agents|journal=Biosystems|volume=140|pages=49–57|doi=10.1016/j.biosystems.2015.12.007|pmid=26723230|year=2016|last1=Witzany|first1=Guenther}}</ref><ref name="AB-20141208">{{cite web |last= Howell |first= Elizabeth |title= How Did Life Become Complex, And Could It Happen Beyond Earth? |url= https://www.astrobio.net/origin-and-evolution-of-life/life-become-complex-happen-beyond-earth/ |date= 8 December 2014 |work= [[Astrobiology Magazine]] |accessdate= 14 February 2018 }}</ref><ref name="EA-20150420">{{Cite book |last= Tirard |first= Stephane |title= Abiogenesis – Definition|date= 20 April 2015 |doi= 10.1007/978-3-642-27833-4_2-4 |journal= Encyclopedia of Astrobiology|pages= 1 | quote = Thomas Huxley (1825–1895) used the term abiogenesis in an important text published in 1870. He strictly made the difference between spontaneous generation, which he did not accept, and the possibility of the evolution of matter from inert to living, without any influence of life. [...] Since the end of the nineteenth century, evolutive abiogenesis means increasing complexity and evolution of matter from inert to living state in the abiotic context of evolution of primitive Earth. |isbn= 978-3-642-27833-4 }}</ref> Although the occurrence of abiogenesis is uncontroversial among scientists, its possible mechanisms are poorly understood. There are several principles and hypotheses for {{em|how}} abiogenesis could have occurred.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Rethinking evolution: the revolution that's hiding in plain sight |last=Levinson |first=Gene |publisher=World Scientific |year=2020 |isbn=978-1786347268 |url=https://rethinkingevolution.com/}}</ref><br />
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In evolutionary biology, abiogenesis, or informally the origin of life (OoL), is the natural process by which life has arisen from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds. While the details of this process are still unknown, the prevailing scientific hypothesis is that the transition from non-living to living entities was not a single event, but an evolutionary process of increasing complexity that involved molecular self-replication, self-assembly, autocatalysis, and the emergence of cell membranes. Although the occurrence of abiogenesis is uncontroversial among scientists, its possible mechanisms are poorly understood. There are several principles and hypotheses for abiogenesis could have occurred.<br />
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在进化生物学中,自然发生,或通俗地称为生命起源(OoL),是生命从非生命物质(如简单的有机化合物)中产生的自然过程。 虽然这一过程的细节仍未可知,但主流的科学假说认为,从非生命实体到生命实体的转变不是一个单一的事件,而是一个复杂度逐渐增加的进化过程,其中包括分子的自复制、自组装、自催化和细胞膜的出现。虽然自然发生的发生在科学家中是没有争议的,但其可能的机制我们却不甚了解。关于自然发生如何发生,有几种原理和假说。<br />
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The study of abiogenesis aims to determine how pre-life [[chemical reaction]]s gave rise to life under conditions strikingly different from those on Earth today.<ref>{{harvnb|Voet|Voet|2004|p=29}}</ref> It primarily uses tools from [[biology]], [[chemistry]], and [[geophysics]],<ref name="Dyson 1999">{{harvnb|Dyson|1999}}</ref> with more recent approaches attempting a synthesis of all three:<ref>{{cite book |author= Davies, Paul |date= 1998 |title= The Fifth Miracle, Search for the origin and meaning of life |publisher= Penguin}}{{page needed|date=February 2017}}</ref> more specifically, [[astrobiology]], [[biochemistry]], [[biophysics]], [[geochemistry]], [[molecular biology]], [[oceanography]] and [[paleontology]]. Life functions through the specialized chemistry of [[carbon]] and [[water]] and builds largely upon four key families of chemicals: [[lipids]] (cell membranes), [[carbohydrates]] (sugars, cellulose), [[amino acid]]s (protein metabolism), and [[nucleic acids]] (DNA and RNA). Any successful theory of abiogenesis must explain the origins and interactions of these classes of molecules.<ref>{{cite book |author1= Ward, Peter|author2= Kirschvink, Joe |date= 2015 |title= A New History of Life: the radical discoveries about the origins and evolution of life on earth |publisher= Bloomsbury Press |pages= 39–40 |isbn= 978-1608199105}}</ref> Many approaches to abiogenesis investigate how [[Self-replication|self-replicating]] [[molecule]]s, or their components, came into existence. Researchers generally think that current life descends from an [[RNA world]],<ref name="RNA" /> although other self-replicating molecules may have preceded RNA.<ref name="Robertson2012" /><ref name="Cech2012" /><br />
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The study of abiogenesis aims to determine how pre-life chemical reactions gave rise to life under conditions strikingly different from those on Earth today. It primarily uses tools from biology, chemistry, and geophysics, with more recent approaches attempting a synthesis of all three: more specifically, astrobiology, biochemistry, biophysics, geochemistry, molecular biology, oceanography and paleontology. Life functions through the specialized chemistry of carbon and water and builds largely upon four key families of chemicals: lipids (cell membranes), carbohydrates (sugars, cellulose), amino acids (protein metabolism), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Any successful theory of abiogenesis must explain the origins and interactions of these classes of molecules. Many approaches to abiogenesis investigate how self-replicating molecules, or their components, came into existence. Researchers generally think that current life descends from an RNA world, although other self-replicating molecules may have preceded RNA.<br />
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对自然发生的研究旨在确定生命前的化学反应是如何在与今天地球上截然不同的条件下产生生命的。它主要使用生物学、化学和地球物理学的工具,最近的研究方法试图将这三者综合起来:更具体地说,就是天体生物学、生物化学、生物物理学、地球化学、分子生物学、海洋学和古生物学。生命的功能是通过碳和水的专门化学作用来实现的,并主要建立在四个关键的化学家族之上:脂类(细胞膜)、碳水化合物(糖类、纤维素)、氨基酸(蛋白质代谢)和核酸(DNA和RNA)。任何成功的自然发生理论都必须解释这些类分子的起源和相互作用.许多自然发生的方法都在研究自我复制的分子或它们的组成部分是如何产生的。研究者普遍认为,目前的生命是从RNA世界中诞生的,尽管在RNA之前可能还有其他自我复制分子。<br />
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[[File:Miller-Urey experiment JP.png|thumb|'''Miller–Urey experiment''' Synthesis of small organic molecules in a mixture of simple gases that is placed in a thermal gradient by heating (left) and cooling (right) the mixture at the same time, a mixture that is also subject to electrical discharges]]<br />
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Miller–Urey experiment Synthesis of small organic molecules in a mixture of simple gases that is placed in a thermal gradient by heating (left) and cooling (right) the mixture at the same time, a mixture that is also subject to electrical discharges<br />
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米勒-尤里Miller–Urey实验 在简单气体混合物中合成小有机分子,将混合物置于热梯度中,同时加热(左)和冷却(右),这种混合物也会受到电的作用<br />
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The classic 1952 [[Miller–Urey experiment]] and similar research demonstrated that most amino acids, the chemical constituents of the [[protein]]s used in all living organisms, can be synthesized from [[inorganic compound]]s under conditions intended to replicate those of the [[History of Earth|early Earth]]. Scientists have proposed various external sources of energy that may have triggered these reactions, including [[lightning]] and [[radiation]]. Other approaches ("metabolism-first" hypotheses) focus on understanding how [[catalysis]] in chemical systems on the early Earth might have provided the [[Precursor (chemistry)|precursor molecules]] necessary for self-replication.<ref name="Ralser 2014">{{cite journal |last1= Keller |first1= Markus A. |last2= Turchyn |first2= Alexandra V. |last3= Ralser |first3= Markus |date= 25 March 2014 |title= Non‐enzymatic glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathway‐like reactions in a plausible Archean ocean |journal= [[Molecular Systems Biology]] |volume= 10 |issue= 725 |page= 725 |doi= 10.1002/msb.20145228 |pmc= 4023395 |pmid= 24771084}}</ref><br />
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The classic 1952 Miller–Urey experiment and similar research demonstrated that most amino acids, the chemical constituents of the proteins used in all living organisms, can be synthesized from inorganic compounds under conditions intended to replicate those of the early Earth. Scientists have proposed various external sources of energy that may have triggered these reactions, including lightning and radiation. Other approaches ("metabolism-first" hypotheses) focus on understanding how catalysis in chemical systems on the early Earth might have provided the precursor molecules necessary for self-replication.<br />
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1952年经典的Miller-Urey实验和类似的研究表明,大多数氨基酸,即所有生物体中使用的蛋白质的化学成分,可以在旨在复制早期地球的条件下从无机化合物中合成。科学家们提出了各种可能引发这些反应的外部能量来源,包括闪电和辐射。其他方法("新陈代谢优先 "假说)则侧重于了解早期地球化学系统中的催化作用如何提供自我复制所需的前体分子。<br />
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The alternative [[panspermia hypothesis]]<ref name="USRA-2010">{{cite conference|last=Rampelotto|first=Pabulo Henrique|date=26 April 2010|title=Panspermia: A Promising Field of Research|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/abscicon2010/pdf/5224.pdf|url-status=live|conference=Astrobiology Science Conference 2010|location=Houston, TX|publisher=[[Lunar and Planetary Institute]]|page=5224|bibcode=2010LPICo1538.5224R|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327005016/http://www.lpi.usra.edu//meetings/abscicon2010/pdf/5224.pdf|archivedate=27 March 2016|accessdate=2014-12-03|conference-url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/abscicon2010/}} Conference held at League City, TX</ref> speculates that [[Microorganism|microscopic life]] arose outside Earth by unknown mechanisms, and spread to the early Earth on [[space dust]]<ref name="ARX-20171106">{{cite journal |last= Berera |first= Arjun |title= Space dust collisions as a planetary escape mechanism |journal= Astrobiology |date= 6 November 2017 |arxiv= 1711.01895 |bibcode= 2017AsBio..17.1274B |doi= 10.1089/ast.2017.1662 |pmid= 29148823 |volume= 17 |issue= 12 |pages= 1274–1282|s2cid= 126012488 }}</ref> and [[meteoroid]]s.<ref name="SA-20180110">{{cite journal|last1=Chan|first1=Queenie H.S.|date=10 January 2018|title=Organic matter in extraterrestrial water-bearing salt crystals|journal=[[Science Advances]]|volume=4|page=eaao3521|bibcode=2018SciA....4O3521C|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aao3521|pmc=5770164|pmid=29349297|number=1, eaao3521}}</ref> It is known that complex [[List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules|organic molecules]] occur in the [[Solar System]] and in [[interstellar space]], and these molecules may have provided [[Precursor (chemistry)|starting material]] for the development of life on Earth.<ref name="Ehrenfreund2010" /><ref name="Science 2015">{{cite news|url=http://news.sciencemag.org/chemistry/2015/04/organic-molecules-found-circling-nearby-star?rss=1|title=Organic molecules found circling nearby star|last=Perkins|first=Sid|date=8 April 2015|work=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|accessdate=2015-06-02|publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]|location=Washington, DC|type=News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2015/04/meteorites-may-have-delivered-chemicals-started-life-earth|title=Chemicals formed on meteorites may have started life on Earth|last=King|first=Anthony|date=14 April 2015|work=[[Chemistry World]]|accessdate=2015-04-17|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417142723/http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2015/04/meteorites-may-have-delivered-chemicals-started-life-earth|archivedate=17 April 2015|url-status=live|publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry]]|location=London|type=News}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Saladino|first1=Raffaele|last2=Carota|first2=Eleonora|last3=Botta|first3=Giorgia|last4=Kapralov|first4=Mikhail|last5=Timoshenko|first5=Gennady N.|last6=Rozanov|first6=Alexei Y.|last7=Krasavin|first7=Eugene|last8=Di Mauro|first8=Ernesto|display-authors=3|date=13 April 2015|title=Meteorite-catalyzed syntheses of nucleosides and of other prebiotic compounds from formamide under proton irradiation|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.]]|volume=112|issue=21|pages=E2746–E2755|bibcode=2015PNAS..112E2746S|doi=10.1073/pnas.1422225112|pmc=4450408|pmid=25870268}}</ref><br />
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The alternative panspermia hypothesis speculates that microscopic life arose outside Earth by unknown mechanisms, and spread to the early Earth on space dust and meteoroids. It is known that complex organic molecules occur in the Solar System and in interstellar space, and these molecules may have provided starting material for the development of life on Earth.<br />
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另一种泛种论假说推测,微生物通过未知的机制在地球以外产生,并通过太空尘埃和流星体传播到早期地球。众所周知,太阳系和星际空间中存在复杂的有机分子,这些分子可能为地球上生命的发展提供了起始物质。<br />
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Earth remains the only place in the [[universe]] known to harbour life,<ref name="NASA-1990">{{cite web |url= https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19900013148.pdf |title= Extraterrestrial Life in the Universe |last= Graham |first= Robert W. |date= February 1990 |place= [[Glenn Research Center|Lewis Research Center]], Cleveland, Ohio |publisher= [[NASA]] |type= NASA Technical Memorandum 102363 |accessdate= 2015-06-02 |url-status= live |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140903100534/http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19900013148.pdf |archivedate= 3 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Altermann|2009|p=xvii}}</ref> and [[Earliest known life forms|fossil evidence from the Earth]] informs most studies of abiogenesis. The [[age of the Earth]] is 4.54 Gy (Giga or billion year);<ref name="USGS1997">{{cite web |url= http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title= Age of the Earth |date= 9 July 2007 |publisher= [[United States Geological Survey]] |accessdate= 2006-01-10 |url-status= live |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20051223072700/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |archivedate= 23 December 2005}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Dalrymple|2001|pp= 205–221}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Manhesa |first1= Gérard |last2= Allègre |first2= Claude J. |authorlink2= Claude Allègre |last3= Dupréa |first3= Bernard |last4= Hamelin |first4= Bruno |date= May 1980 |title= Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics |journal= [[Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |volume= 47 |issue= 3 |pages= 370–382 |bibcode= 1980E&PSL..47..370M |doi= 10.1016/0012-821X(80)90024-2 }}</ref> the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 Gya (Gy ago),<ref name="Origin1">{{cite journal |last1= Schopf |first1= J. William |authorlink1= J. William Schopf |last2= Kudryavtsev |first2= Anatoliy B. |last3= Czaja |first3= Andrew D. |last4= Tripathi |first4= Abhishek B. |date= 5 October 2007 |title= Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils |journal= [[Precambrian Research]] |volume= 158 |pages= 141–155 |issue= 3–4 |doi= 10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009 |bibcode= 2007PreR..158..141S }}</ref><ref name="Origin2">{{cite journal |last= Schopf |first= J. William |date= 29 June 2006 |title= Fossil evidence of Archaean life |journal= [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B]] |volume= 361 |issue= 1470 |pages= 869–885 |doi= 10.1098/rstb.2006.1834 |pmid= 16754604 |pmc=1578735}}</ref><ref name="RavenJohnson2002">{{harvnb|Raven|Johnson|2002|p=68}}</ref> and possibly as early as the [[Eoarchean]] Era (3.6-4.0 Gya). In 2017 scientists found possible evidence of early life [[Evolutionary history of life#Colonization of land|on land]] in 3.48 Gyo (Gy old) [[geyserite]] and other related mineral deposits (often found around [[hot spring]]s and [[geyser]]s) uncovered in the [[Pilbara Craton]] of [[Western Australia]].<ref name="PO-20170509">{{cite news |author= Staff |title= Oldest evidence of life on land found in 3.48-billion-year-old Australian rocks |url= https://phys.org/news/2017-05-oldest-evidence-life-billion-year-old-australian.html |date= 9 May 2017 |work= [[Phys.org]] |accessdate= 13 May 2017 |url-status= live |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20170510013721/https://phys.org/news/2017-05-oldest-evidence-life-billion-year-old-australian.html |archivedate= 10 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="NC-20170509">{{cite journal |last1= Djokic |first1= Tara |last2= Van Kranendonk |first2= Martin J. |last3= Campbell |first3= Kathleen A. |last4= Walter |first4= Malcolm R. |last5= Ward |first5= Colin R. |title= Earliest signs of life on land preserved in ca. 3.5 Gao hot spring deposits |date= 9 May 2017 |journal= [[Nature Communications]] |doi= 10.1038/ncomms15263 |pmid= 28486437 |pmc= 5436104 |volume= 8 |page= 15263 |bibcode= 2017NatCo...815263D}}</ref><ref name="PNAS-2017">{{cite journal |last1= Schopf |first1= J. William |last2= Kitajima |first2= Kouki |last3= Spicuzza |first3= Michael J. |last4= Kudryavtsev |first4= Anatolly B. |last5= Valley |first5= John W. |title= SIMS analyses of the oldest known assemblage of microfossils document their taxon-correlated carbon isotope compositions |date= 2017 |journal= [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|PNAS]] |doi= 10.1073/pnas.1718063115 |pmid= 29255053 |pmc= 5776830 |volume= 115 |issue= 1 |pages= 53–58|bibcode= 2018PNAS..115...53S }}</ref><ref name="WU-20171218">{{cite web |last= Tyrell |first= Kelly April |title= Oldest fossils ever found show life on Earth began before 3.5 billion years ago |url= https://news.wisc.edu/oldest-fossils-ever-found-show-life-on-earth-began-before-3-5-billion-years-ago/ |date= 18 December 2017 |work= [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] |accessdate= 18 December 2017 }}</ref> However, a number of discoveries suggest that life may have appeared on Earth even earlier. {{As of | 2017}}, [[Micropaleontology#Microfossils|microfossils]] (fossilised [[microorganism]]s) within [[Hydrothermal vent|hydrothermal-vent precipitates]] dated 3.77 to 4.28 Gya in rocks in [[Quebec]] may harbour the oldest record of life on Earth, suggesting life started soon after [[Origin of water on Earth#Water in the development of Earth|ocean formation 4.4 Gya]] during the [[Hadean]] [[Geologic time scale|Eon]].<ref name="NAT-20170301">{{cite journal |last1= Dodd |first1= Matthew S. |last2= Papineau |first2= Dominic |last3= Grenne |first3= Tor |last4= Slack |first4= John F. |last5= Rittner |first5= Martin |last6= Pirajno |first6= Franco |last7= O'Neil |first7= Jonathan |last8= Little |first8= Crispin T.S. |title= Evidence for early life in Earth's oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates |url= http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179/ |journal= [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date= 1 March 2017 |volume= 543 |issue= 7643 |pages= 60–64 |doi= 10.1038/nature21377 |pmid= 28252057 |accessdate= 2 March 2017 |bibcode= 2017Natur.543...60D |url-status= live |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20170908201821/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/112179/ |archivedate= 8 September 2017|doi-access= free }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20170301">{{cite news |last= Zimmer |first= Carl |authorlink= Carl Zimmer |title= Scientists Say Canadian Bacteria Fossils May Be Earth's Oldest |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/01/science/earths-oldest-bacteria-fossils.html |date= 1 March 2017 |work= [[The New York Times]] |accessdate= 2 March 2017 |url-status= live |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20170302042424/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/01/science/earths-oldest-bacteria-fossils.html |archivedate= 2 March 2017}}</ref><ref name="BBC-20170301">{{Cite news |last= Ghosh |first= Pallab |title= Earliest evidence of life on Earth found |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39117523 |publisher= [[BBC News]] |date= 1 March 2017 |accessdate= 2 March 2017 |url-status= live |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20170302002134/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39117523 |archivedate= 2 March 2017|work= BBC News }}</ref><ref name="4.3b oldest">{{cite news |last1= Dunham |first1= Will |title= Canadian bacteria-like fossils called oldest evidence of life |url= http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCAKBN16858B?sp=true |date= 1 March 2017 |agency= [[Reuters]] |accessdate= 1 March 2017 |url-status= live |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20170302114728/http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCAKBN16858B?sp=true |archivedate= 2 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Researchers uncover 'direct evidence' of life on Earth 4 billion years ago|url= http://dw.com/p/2YUnT|accessdate= 5 March 2017|publisher= Deutsche Welle}}</ref><br />
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Earth remains the only place in the universe known to harbour life, and fossil evidence from the Earth informs most studies of abiogenesis. The age of the Earth is 4.54 Gy (Giga or billion year); the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 Gya (Gy ago), and possibly as early as the Eoarchean Era (3.6-4.0 Gya). In 2017 scientists found possible evidence of early life on land in 3.48 Gyo (Gy old) geyserite and other related mineral deposits (often found around hot springs and geysers) uncovered in the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia. However, a number of discoveries suggest that life may have appeared on Earth even earlier. , microfossils (fossilised microorganisms) within hydrothermal-vent precipitates dated 3.77 to 4.28 Gya in rocks in Quebec may harbour the oldest record of life on Earth, suggesting life started soon after ocean formation 4.4 Gya during the Hadean Eon.<br />
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地球仍然是宇宙中已知的唯一一个孕育生命的地方,来自地球的化石证据为大多数关于自然发生的研究提供了依据。地球的年龄是45.5亿年 (千兆或十亿年) ; 地球上最早的无可争议的生命证据至少可以追溯到35亿年前,也可能还要追溯到早期太古代(36-40亿年前之间)。2017年,科学家在西澳大利亚的 皮尔巴拉环形山发现的34.8亿岁的喷泉石和其他相关矿藏(通常在温泉和喷泉附近发现) 中发现了陆地上早期生命存在的可能证据。然而,许多发现表明,地球上的生命可能出现得更早。截止2017年,在加拿大魁北克省的岩石中的热液喷口沉淀物内的微化石(微生物化石)的年代为37.7亿年前至42.8亿年前,可能蕴藏着地球上最古老的生命记录,这表明生命是在冥古宙海洋形成后不久就开始了。<br />
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The NASA strategy on abiogenesis states that it is necessary to identify interactions, intermediary structures and functions, energy sources, and environmental factors that contributed to the diversity, selection, and replication of evolvable macromolecular systems.<ref name="NASA strategy 2015">{{cite web|url=https://nai.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2015/10/NASA_Astrobiology_Strategy_2015_151008.pdf|title=NASA Astrobiology Strategy|year=2015|work=NASA|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161222190306/https://nai.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2015/10/NASA_Astrobiology_Strategy_2015_151008.pdf|archivedate=22 December 2016|access-date=24 September 2017}}</ref> Emphasis must continue to map the chemical landscape of potential primordial informational [[polymers]]. The advent of polymers that could replicate, store genetic information, and exhibit properties subject to selection likely was a critical step in the [[emergence]] of prebiotic chemical evolution.<ref name="NASA strategy 2015"/><br />
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The NASA strategy on abiogenesis states that it is necessary to identify interactions, intermediary structures and functions, energy sources, and environmental factors that contributed to the diversity, selection, and replication of evolvable macromolecular systems. Emphasis must continue to map the chemical landscape of potential primordial informational polymers. The advent of polymers that could replicate, store genetic information, and exhibit properties subject to selection likely was a critical step in the emergence of prebiotic chemical evolution.<br />
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美国宇航局关于自然发生的战略指出,有必要确定相互作用、中间结构和功能、能源和环境因素,这些因素有助于可进化的大分子系统的多样性、选择和复制.必须继续强调绘制潜在的原始信息聚合物的化学景观。能够复制、储存遗传信息并表现出受选择的特性的聚合物的出现,很可能是前生物化学进化出现的关键一步。<br />
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== Thermodynamics, self-organization, and information: Physics ==<br />
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热力学、自组织和信息:物理<br />
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===Thermodynamics principles: Energy and entropy===<br />
热力学原理:能量与熵<br />
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In antiquity it was commonly thought, for instance by Empedocles and Aristotle, that the life of the individuals of some species, and more generally, life itself, could start with high temperature, i.e. implicitly by thermal cycling.<ref>{{cite book|title=In the beginning: Some Greek views on the origins of life and the early state of man |year= 1957|last1= Guthrie|first1= W. K. C.|publisher=Methuen, London}}</ref><br />
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In antiquity it was commonly thought, for instance by Empedocles and Aristotle, that the life of the individuals of some species, and more generally, life itself, could start with high temperature, i.e. implicitly by thermal cycling.<br />
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在古代,人们普遍认为,例如恩培多克勒Empedocles和亚里士多德Aristotle就认为,某些物种个体的生命,更普遍地说是生命本身,可以从高温开始,即隐含着热循环。<br />
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Similarly, it was realized early on that life requires a loss of [[entropy]], or disorder, when molecules organize themselves into living matter. This [[Second law of thermodynamics|Second Law of thermodynamics]] needs to be considered when self-organization of matter to higher complexity happens. Because living organisms are machines,<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Simon| first1 = Michael A. | year = 1971| title = The Matter of Life | edition = 1| location = New Haven and London| publisher = Yale University Press}}</ref> the Second Law applies to life as well.<br />
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Similarly, it was realized early on that life requires a loss of entropy, or disorder, when molecules organize themselves into living matter. This Second Law of thermodynamics needs to be considered when self-organization of matter to higher complexity happens. Because living organisms are machines, the Second Law applies to life as well.<br />
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同样,人们很早就意识到,当分子自组织成生命物质时,生命需要失去熵,或无序。当物质自组织到更高的复杂性时,需要考虑这个热力学第二定律。因为生物体是机器,第二定律也适用于生命。<br />
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====Obtaining free energy ====<br />
获得自由能<br />
Bernal said on the Miller–Urey experiment that < blockquote >it is not enough to explain the formation of such molecules, what is necessary, is a physical-chemical explanation of the origins of these molecules that suggests the presence of suitable sources and sinks for free energy.<ref>{{harvnb|Bernal|1967|p=143}}</ref><br />
< /blockquote ><br />
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Bernal said on the Miller–Urey experiment that < blockquote >it is not enough to explain the formation of such molecules, what is necessary, is a physical-chemical explanation of the origins of these molecules that suggests the presence of suitable sources and sinks for free energy.< /blockquote ><br />
伯纳尔Bernal在 Miller-Urey 的实验中说,<br />
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< blockquote >仅仅解释这些分子的形成是不够的,需要的是对这些分子的起源作出物理化学解释,表明存在合适的自由能源和自由能汇。<br />
</blockquote ><br />
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Multiple sources of energy were available for chemical reactions on the early Earth. For example, heat (such as from [[geothermal energy|geothermal]] processes) is a standard energy source for chemistry. Other examples include sunlight and electrical discharges (lightning), among others.<ref name="Follmann2009" /> In fact, lightning is a plausible energy source for the origin of life, given that just in the tropics lightning strikes about 100 million times a year.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gora|first1=Evan M.|last2=Burchfield|first2=Jeffrey C.|last3=Muller‐Landau|first3=Helene C.|last4=Bitzer|first4=Phillip M.|last5=Yanoviak|first5=Stephen P.|title=Pantropical geography of lightning-caused disturbance and its implications for tropical forests|journal=Global Change Biology|year=2020|language=en|volume=n/a|issue=n/a|pages=5017–5026|doi=10.1111/gcb.15227|pmid=32564481|bibcode=2020GCBio..26.5017G|issn=1365-2486}}</ref><br />
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Multiple sources of energy were available for chemical reactions on the early Earth. For example, heat (such as from geothermal processes) is a standard energy source for chemistry. Other examples include sunlight and electrical discharges (lightning), among others. In fact, lightning is a plausible energy source for the origin of life, given that just in the tropics lightning strikes about 100 million times a year.<br />
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早期地球上的化学反应有多种能量来源。例如,热(如来自地热过程)是化学的标准能源。其他的例子还包括阳光和放电(闪电)等。事实上,闪电是生命起源的合理能源,因为仅在热带地区,每年就有大约1亿次的闪电袭击。<br />
<br />
Computer simulations also suggest that [[cavitation]] in primordial water reservoirs such as breaking sea waves, streams and oceans can potentially lead to the synthesis of biogenic compounds.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/acscentsci.7b00325|pmid= 28979946|pmc= 5620973|title= Cavitation-Induced Synthesis of Biogenic Molecules on Primordial Earth|journal= ACS Central Science|volume= 3|issue= 9|pages= 1041–1049|year= 2017|last1= Kalson|first1= Natan-Haim|last2= Furman|first2= David|last3= Zeiri|first3= Yehuda}}</ref><br />
<br />
Computer simulations also suggest that cavitation in primordial water reservoirs such as breaking sea waves, streams and oceans can potentially lead to the synthesis of biogenic compounds.<br />
<br />
计算机模拟还表明,原始水库中的空化现象,如破碎的海浪、溪流和海洋,有可能导致生物化合物的合成。<br />
<br />
Unfavourable reactions can also be driven by highly favourable ones, as in the case of iron-sulfur chemistry. For example, this was probably important for [[carbon fixation]] (the conversion of carbon from its inorganic form to an organic one). Carbon fixation via iron-sulfur chemistry is highly favourable, and occurs at neutral pH and 100C. Iron-sulfur surfaces, which are abundant near hydrothermal vents, are also capable of producing small amounts of amino acids and other biological metabolites.<br />
<br />
Unfavourable reactions can also be driven by highly favourable ones, as in the case of iron-sulfur chemistry. For example, this was probably important for carbon fixation (the conversion of carbon from its inorganic form to an organic one). Carbon fixation via iron-sulfur chemistry is highly favourable, and occurs at neutral pH and 100C. Iron-sulfur surfaces, which are abundant near hydrothermal vents, are also capable of producing small amounts of amino acids and other biological metabolites.<br />
<br />
不利的反应也可以由非常有利的反应驱动,如铁硫化学反应。例如,这对碳固定(碳从其无机形式转化为有机形式)可能很重要。通过铁硫化学反应进行的碳固定是非常有利的,在中性pH值和100C时发生。热液喷口附近丰富的铁硫表面也能产生少量的氨基酸和其他生物代谢物。<br />
<br />
===Self-organization===<br />
自组织<br />
[[File:Hermann Haken, Pour le Merite 2014.jpg|thumb|upright|Hermann Haken]]<br />
赫尔曼•哈肯Hermann Haken<br />
The discipline of synergetics studies self-organization in physical systems. In his book ''[[Synergetics (Haken)|Synergetics]]''<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Haken| first1= Hermann | title=Synergetics. An Introduction. |year=1978 | publisher=Springer | location= Berlin }}</ref> [[Hermann Haken]] has pointed out that different physical systems can be treated in a similar way. He gives as examples of self-organization several types of lasers, instabilities in fluid dynamics, including convection, and chemical and biochemical oscillations. In his preface he mentions the origin of life, but only in general terms:<br />
<br />
The discipline of synergetics studies self-organization in physical systems. In his book Synergetics Hermann Haken has pointed out that different physical systems can be treated in a similar way. He gives as examples of self-organization several types of lasers, instabilities in fluid dynamics, including convection, and chemical and biochemical oscillations. In his preface he mentions the origin of life, but only in general terms:<br />
<br />
协同学这门学科研究的是物理系统的自组织。Hermann Haken在其《协同论》一书中指出,不同的物理系统可以用类似的方式处理。他举了几种类型的激光、流体动力学(包括对流)中的不稳定性以及化学和生化振荡作为自组织的例子。他在序言中提到了生命的起源,但只是泛泛而谈。<br />
<br />
< blockquote ><br />
<br />
The spontaneous formation of well organized structures out of germs or even out of chaos is one of the most fascinating phenomena and most challenging problems scientists are confronted with. Such phenomena are an experience of our daily life when we observe the growth of plants and animals. Thinking of much larger time scales, scientists are led into the problems of evolution, and, ultimately, of the origin of living matter. When we try to explain or understand in some sense these extremely complex biological phenomena it is a natural question, whether processes of self-organization may be found in much simpler systems of the unanimated world.<br />
<br />
从细菌甚至从混沌中自发形成的组织良好的结构是科学家们面临的最迷人的现象和最具挑战性的问题之一。这种现象是我们日常生活中观察动植物生长时的一种体验。从更大的时间尺度来思考,科学家们就会被引向进化问题,并最终引向生命物质的起源问题。当我们试图在某种意义上解释或理解这些极其复杂的生物现象时,这是一个很自然的问题,自组织的过程是否可以在一致世界的更简单的系统中找到。<br />
<br />
<br />
< /blockquote ><br />
<br />
< blockquote ><br />
In recent years it has become more and more evident that there exists numerous examples in physical and chemical systems where well organized spatial, temporal, or spatio-temporal structures arise out of chaotic states. Furthermore, as in living organisms, the functioning of these systems can be maintained only by a flux of energy (and matter) through them. In contrast to man-made machines, which are devised to exhibit special structures and functionings, these structures develop spontaneously—they are ''selforganizing''. ...<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Haken| first1= Hermann | title=Synergetics. An Introduction. |year=1978 | publisher=Springer }}</ref><br />
< /blockquote ><br />
<br />
< /blockquote ><br />
<br />
In recent years it has become more and more evident that there exists numerous examples in physical and chemical systems where well organized spatial, temporal, or spatio-temporal structures arise out of chaotic states. Furthermore, as in living organisms, the functioning of these systems can be maintained only by a flux of energy (and matter) through them. In contrast to man-made machines, which are devised to exhibit special structures and functionings, these structures develop spontaneously—they are selforganizing. ...<br />
<br />
近年来,越来越明显的是,在物理和化学系统中存在着许多例子,在这些例子中,从混沌状态中产生了组织良好的空间、时间或时空结构。此外,就像在生物体中一样,这些系统的功能只能通过能量(和物质)的流动来维持。与人造机器不同的是,人造机器被设计成表现出特殊的结构和功能,这些结构是自发发展的,它们是自组织的...<br />
</blockquote ><br />
<br />
<br />
====Multiple dissipative structures====<br />
多重耗散结构<br />
<br />
This theory postulates that the hallmark of the origin and evolution of life is the microscopic dissipative structuring of [[Biological pigment|organic pigments]] and their proliferation over the entire Earth surface.<ref name="Michaelian, K. 2017" /> Present day life augments the entropy production of Earth in its solar environment by dissipating [[ultraviolet]] and [[Visible spectrum|visible]] [[photon]]s into heat through organic pigments in water. This heat then catalyzes a host of secondary dissipative processes such as the [[water cycle]], [[Ocean current|ocean]] and [[wind]] currents, [[Tropical cyclone|hurricanes]], etc.<ref name="Michaelian, K. 2011"/><ref name="HESS Opinions 'Biological catalysis">{{cite journal |doi=10.5194/hess-16-2629-2012 |title=HESS Opinions 'Biological catalysis of the hydrological cycle: Life's thermodynamic function' |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=2629–2645 |year=2012 |last1=Michaelian |first1=K |bibcode=2012HESS...16.2629M |arxiv= 0907.0040 }}</ref><br />
<br />
This theory postulates that the hallmark of the origin and evolution of life is the microscopic dissipative structuring of organic pigments and their proliferation over the entire Earth surface. Present day life augments the entropy production of Earth in its solar environment by dissipating ultraviolet and visible photons into heat through organic pigments in water. This heat then catalyzes a host of secondary dissipative processes such as the water cycle, ocean and wind currents, hurricanes, etc.<br />
<br />
该理论假设生命起源和进化的标志是有机色素的微观耗散结构及其在整个地球表面的扩散。现今的生命通过将紫外线和可见光子通过水中的有机色素耗散成热能,从而增加了地球在太阳环境中的熵产生。然后这些热量又催化了一系列的二次耗散过程,如水循环、洋流和风流、飓风等。<br />
<br />
==== Selforganization by dissipative structures====<br />
耗散结构的自组织<br />
<br />
[[File:Ilya Prigogine 1977c.jpg|thumb|upright|Ilya Prigogine 1977c]]<br />
<br />
伊利亚·普里戈金1977c<br />
<br />
The 19th-century physicist [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] first recognized that the struggle for existence of living organisms was neither over raw material nor [[energy]], but instead had to do with [[entropy production]] derived from the conversion of the solar [[spectrum]] into [[heat]] by these systems.<ref>Boltzmann, L. (1886) The Second Law of Thermodynamics, in: Ludwig Boltzmann: Theoretical physics and Selected writings, edited by: McGinness, B., D. Reidel, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 1974.</ref> Boltzmann thus realized that living systems, like all [[Reversible process (thermodynamics)|irreversible processes]], were dependent on the [[dissipation]] of a generalized chemical potential for their existence. In his book "What is Life", the 20th-century physicist [[Erwin Schrödinger]]<ref>Schrödinger, Erwin (1944) What is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell. Cambridge University Press</ref> emphasized the importance of Boltzmann's deep insight into the irreversible thermodynamic nature of living systems, suggesting that this was the physics and chemistry behind the origin and evolution of life.<br />
<br />
The 19th-century physicist Ludwig Boltzmann first recognized that the struggle for existence of living organisms was neither over raw material nor energy, but instead had to do with entropy production derived from the conversion of the solar spectrum into heat by these systems. Boltzmann thus realized that living systems, like all irreversible processes, were dependent on the dissipation of a generalized chemical potential for their existence. In his book "What is Life", the 20th-century physicist Erwin Schrödinger emphasized the importance of Boltzmann's deep insight into the irreversible thermodynamic nature of living systems, suggesting that this was the physics and chemistry behind the origin and evolution of life.<br />
<br />
19世纪的物理学家路德维希-玻尔兹曼Ludwig Boltzmann首先认识到,生物体的生存斗争既不是为了原料,也不是为了能源,而是与这些系统将太阳光谱转化为热能所产生的熵有关,Boltzmann由此认识到,生物系统和所有不可逆的过程一样,其存在依赖于广义化学势的消散。20世纪物理学家Erwin Schrödinger在其《生命是什么》一书中强调了Boltzmann对生命系统不可逆的热力学本质的深刻洞察,认为这就是生命起源和进化背后的物理学和化学。<br />
<br />
However, irreversible processes, and much less living systems, could not be conveniently analyzed under this perspective until [[Lars Onsager]],<ref>Onsager, L. (1931) Reciprocal Relations in Irreversible Processes I and II, ''Phys. Rev.'' 37, 405; 38, 2265 (1931)</ref> and later Ilya [[Ilya Prigogine|Prigogine]],<ref>Prigogine, I. (1967) An Introduction to the Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes, Wiley, New York</ref> developed an elegant mathematical formalism for treating the "self-organization" of material under a generalized chemical potential. This formalism became known as Classical Irreversible Thermodynamics and Prigogine was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1977 "for his contributions to [[non-equilibrium thermodynamics]], particularly the theory of [[Dissipative system|dissipative structures]]". The analysis by Prigogine showed that if a [[system]] were left to evolve under an imposed external potential, material could spontaneously organize (lower its [[entropy]]) forming what he called "dissipative structures" which would increase the dissipation of the externally imposed potential (augment the global entropy production). Non-equilibrium thermodynamics has since been successfully applied to the analysis of living systems, from the biochemical production of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dewar | first1 = R | last2 = Juretić | first2 = D. | last3 = Županović | first3 = P. | year = 2006 | title = The functional design of the rotary enzyme ATP synthase is consistent with maximum entropy production | journal = Chem. Phys. Lett. | volume = 430 | issue = 1| pages = 177–182 | doi=10.1016/j.cplett.2006.08.095| bibcode = 2006CPL...430..177D }}</ref> to optimizing bacterial metabolic pathways<ref>Unrean, P., Srienc, F. (2011) Metabolic networks evolve towards states of maximum entropy production, Metabolic Engineering 13, 666–673.</ref> to complete ecosystems.<ref>Zotin, A.I. (1984) "Bioenergetic trends of evolutionary progress of organisms", in: ''Thermodynamics and regulation of biological processes'' Lamprecht, I. and Zotin, A.I. (eds.), De Gruyter, Berlin, pp. 451–458.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schneider | first1 = E.D. | last2 = Kay | first2 = J.J. | year = 1994 | title = Life as a Manifestation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics | journal = Mathematical and Computer Modelling | volume = 19 | issue = 6–8| pages = 25–48 | doi=10.1016/0895-7177(94)90188-0| citeseerx = 10.1.1.36.8381 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Michaelian | first1 = K. | year = 2005 | title = Thermodynamic stability of ecosystems | journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology | volume = 237 | issue = 3| pages = 323–335 | bibcode = 2004APS..MAR.P9015M | doi=10.1016/j.jtbi.2005.04.019| pmid = 15978624 }}</ref><br />
<br />
However, irreversible processes, and much less living systems, could not be conveniently analyzed under this perspective until Lars Onsager, and later Ilya Prigogine, developed an elegant mathematical formalism for treating the "self-organization" of material under a generalized chemical potential. This formalism became known as Classical Irreversible Thermodynamics and Prigogine was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977 "for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures". The analysis by Prigogine showed that if a system were left to evolve under an imposed external potential, material could spontaneously organize (lower its entropy) forming what he called "dissipative structures" which would increase the dissipation of the externally imposed potential (augment the global entropy production). Non-equilibrium thermodynamics has since been successfully applied to the analysis of living systems, from the biochemical production of ATP to optimizing bacterial metabolic pathways to complete ecosystems.<br />
<br />
然而,不可逆的过程,更不用说生命系统了,在这个角度下无法方便地进行分析,直到Lars Onsager和后来的Ilya Prigogine,发展了一种优雅的数学形式论,用于处理广义化学势下物质的 "自组织"。这个形式论后来被称为经典不可逆热力学,1977年Prigogine被授予诺贝尔化学奖,"以表彰他对非平衡热力学,特别是耗散结构理论的贡献"。Prigogine的分析表明,如果让一个系统在一个强加的外部势下演化,物质可以自发地组织起来(降低其熵),形成他所说的 "耗散结构",从而增加外部强加势的耗散(增强全局熵的产生)。此后,非平衡热力学被成功地应用于生命系统的分析,从ATP的生化生产到优化细菌代谢途径,再到完整的生态系统。<br />
<br />
==当前的生命,生物发生的结果:生物学 Current life, the result of abiogenesis: biology==<br />
<br />
===生命的定义 Definition of life===<br />
<br />
When discussing the origin of life, a definition of life itself is fundamental. The definition is somewhat disagreed upon (although follows the same basic principles) because different biology textbooks define life differently. James Gould:<br />
<br />
When discussing the origin of life, a definition of life itself is fundamental. The definition is somewhat disagreed upon (although follows the same basic principles) because different biology textbooks define life differently. James Gould:<br />
<br />
当讨论生命的起源时,最基本的问题时对生命本身的定义。由于不同的生物学教科书对生命的定义不同,所以这个定义存在一定的分歧(虽然遵循相同的基本原则)。詹姆斯·古尔德 James·Gould :<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
<br />
Most dictionaries define ''life'' as the property that distinguishes the living from the dead, and define ''dead'' as being deprived of life. These singularly circular and unsatisfactory definitions give us no clue to what we have in common with protozoans and plants. <ref name="Gould">{{cite book| last1 = Gould | first1 = James L. | last2 = Keeton | first2 = William T. | year = 1996| edition = 6 | title = Biological Science | location= New York | publisher = W.W. Norton }}</ref><br />
<br />
Most dictionaries define life as the property that distinguishes the living from the dead, and define dead as being deprived of life. These singularly circular and unsatisfactory definitions give us no clue to what we have in common with protozoans and plants.<br />
<br />
大多数字典将生命定义为区别于活人和死人的属性,并将死亡定义为被剥夺了生命。这些奇怪的、循环的、难以令人满意的定义,没有给我们提供任何线索,使我们了解我们与原生动物和植物的共同之处。<ref name="Gould">{{cite book| last1 = Gould | first1 = James L. | last2 = Keeton | first2 = William T. | year = 1996| edition = 6 | title = Biological Science | location= New York | publisher = W.W. Norton }}</ref><br />
<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
whereas according to Neil Campbell and Jane Reece < blockquote >The phenomenon we call life defies a simple, one-sentence definition.<ref “Campbell”>{{cite book| last1 = Campbell | first1 = Neil A. | last2 = Reece | first2 = Jane B.| year = 2005| edition = 7 | title = Biology | location= Sn Feancisco | publisher = Benjamin }}</ref>< /blockquote ><br />
<br />
whereas according to Neil Campbell and Jane Reece < blockquote >The phenomenon we call life defies a simple, one-sentence definition.<br />
<br />
然而,根据尼尔·坎贝尔Neil Campbell和简·里斯Jane Reece 的说法,<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
The phenomenon we call life defies a simple, one-sentence definition.<br />
<br />
我们所说的生命现象,不能用简单的一句话去定义。<br />
<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
This difference can also be found in books on the origin of life. John Casti gives a single sentence:<br />
<br />
在关于生命起源的书籍中也可以找到这种差异。约翰-卡斯蒂John Casti给出了一句话:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
By more or general consensus nowadays, an entity is considered to be "alive" if it has the capacity to carry out three basic functional activities: metabolism, self-repair, and replication.<br />
<br />
现在越来越多人开始达成这么一个共识:如果一个实体有能力进行三种基本的功能活动:新陈代谢、自我修复,和复制,那么它就被认为是“有生命的”。<br />
</blockquote> <br />
<br />
<br />
Dirk Schulze-Makuch and Louis Irwin spend in contrast the whole first chapter of their book on this subject.<br />
<br />
德克·舒尔茨-马库奇Dirk Schulze-Makuch 和 路易斯 · 欧文Louis Irwin 在他们的书中花了整整一章的篇幅来讨论这个问题。<br />
<br />
====发酵 Fermentation====<br />
发酵<br />
[[File:Citric acid cycle.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|left|Citric acid cycle]]<br />
柠檬酸循环<br />
[[File:Metabolism diagram.svg|thumb|Overall diagram of the chemical reactions of metabolism, in which the citric acid cycle can be recognized as the circle just below the middle of the figure 代谢化学反应的整体图,其中柠檬酸循环可以看作是位于图中间下方的圆圈]] [[Albert L. Lehninger|Albert Lehninger]] has stated around 1970 that fermentation, including glycolysis, is a suitable primitive energy source for the origin of life.<ref name="Lehninger">{{cite book| last1 = Lehninger | first1 = Albert L. | year = 1970| title = Biochemistry. The Molecular Basis of Cell Structure and Function | location= New York | publisher = Worth | page = 313}}</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Albert Lehninger has stated around 1970 that fermentation, including glycolysis, is a suitable primitive energy source for the origin of life.<br />
<br />
阿尔伯特·莱宁格Albert Lehninger曾在1970年左右指出,包括糖酵解在内的发酵过程是生命起源一种合适的原始能量来源。<br />
<br />
<blockquote> <br />
Since living organisms probably first arose in an atmosphere lacking oxygen, anaerobic fermentation is the simplest and most primitive type of biological mechanism for obtaining energy from nutrient molecules. <br />
<br />
由于生物体可能首先是在缺氧的环境中产生的,因此厌氧发酵是从营养分子中获取能量的最简单、最原始的一种生物机制。 <br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
Fermentation involves glycolysis, which, rather inefficiently, transduces the chemical energy of sugar into the chemical energy of ATP.<br />
<br />
发酵过程包括糖酵解,糖酵解将糖的化学能转化为ATP的化学能,这个过程的效率很低。<br />
<br />
====化学渗透 Chemiosmosis====<br />
化学渗透<br />
<br />
[[File:Oxiphos.png|thumb|left|upright=1.25|Oxidative phosphorylation]]<br />
<br />
氧化磷酸化<br />
<br />
[[File:Chemiosmotic coupling mitochondrion.gif|thumb|left|upright=1.25|Chemiosmotic coupling mitochondrion]]<br />
<br />
化学渗透耦合线粒体<br />
<br />
As Fermentation had around 1970 been elucidated, whereas the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation had not and some controversies still existed, fermentation may have looked too complex for investigators of the origin of life at that time. Peter Mitchell's Chemiosmosis is now however generally accepted as correct.<br />
<br />
由于在1970年左右发酵原理已经被阐明,而氧化磷酸化的机制还没有,而且存在一些争议,所以发酵作用在当时对生命起源的研究者来说可能显得过于复杂。不过,彼得-米切尔Peter Mitchell 的化学渗透现在被普遍认为是正确的。<br />
<br />
<br />
Even Peter Mitchell himself assumed that fermentation preceded chemiosmosis. Chemiosmosis is however ubiquitous in life. A model for the origin of life has been presented in terms of chemiosmosis.<br />
<br />
连Peter Mitchell自己也认为发酵是在化学渗透之前发生的。然而,化学渗透在生命中无处不在的。一个以化学渗透为基础的生命起源模型已经被提出来了。<br />
<br />
<br />
Both respiration by mitochondria and photosynthesis in chloroplasts make use of chemiosmosis to generate most of their ATP.<br />
<br />
线粒体的呼吸作用和叶绿体的光合作用都是利用化学渗透来产生大量ATP。<br />
<br />
<br />
Today the energy source of all life can be linked to photosynthesis, and one speaks of primary production by sunlight. The oxygen used for oxidizing reducing compounds by organisms at hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean is the result of photosynthesis at the Oceans' surface.<br />
<br />
今天,一切生命的能量来源都可以与光合作用联系起来,人们称之为太阳光的初级生产。海洋底部热液喷口中的生物用于氧化还原反应的氧气,就来源于海洋表面光合作用。<br />
<br />
=====ATP合成酶 ATP synthase=====<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:ATP-Synthase.svg|thumb|upright|left|Depiction of ATP synthase using the chemiosmotic proton gradient to power ATP synthesis through [[oxidative phosphorylation]].]]<br />
<br />
Depiction of ATP synthase using the chemiosmotic proton gradient to power ATP synthesis through [[oxidative phosphorylation.]]<br />
<br />
用化学渗透质子梯度描绘ATP合酶,通过氧化磷酸化促进ATP合成。<br />
<br />
[[File:Paul D. Boyer.jpg|thumb|upright|Paul Boyer]]<br />
<br />
保罗·博耶Paul D. Boyer<br />
<br />
<br />
The mechanism of ATP synthesis is complex and involves a closed membrane in which the ATP synthase is embedded. The ATP is synthesized by the F1 subunit of ATP synthase by the binding change mechanism discovered by Paul Boyer. The energy required to release formed strongly-bound ATP has its origin in protons that move across the membrane. These protons have been set across the membrane during respiration or photosynthesis.<br />
<br />
ATP的合成机制很复杂,涉及到ATP合成酶所嵌入的闭合膜。ATP是由ATP合成酶的''F1亚基''通过 Paul Boyer 发现的结合变化机制合成的。释放强结合ATP所需的能量源自穿过膜的质子。这些质子在呼吸作用或光合作用过程中被穿过在膜上。<br />
<br />
====RNA世界 RNA world====<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:010 small subunit-1FKA.gif|thumb|upright=1.25|Molecular structure of the [[30S|ribosome 30S subunit]] from ''[[Thermus thermophilus]]''. 在分子结构核糖体30S亚基从嗜热。蛋白质显示为蓝色,单个RNA链显示为橙色。 <ref name="Venki">{{cite journal |last1=Wimberly |first1=Brian T. |last2=Brodersen |first2=Ditlev E. |last3=Clemons |first3=William M. Jr. |last4=Morgan-Warren |first4=Robert J. |last5=Carter |first5=Andrew P. |last6=Vonrhein |first6=Clemens |last7=Hartsch |first7=Thomas |last8=Ramakrishnan |first8=V. |authorlink8=Venkatraman Ramakrishnan |display-authors=3 |date=21 September 2000 |title=Structure of the 30S ribosomal subunit |journal=Nature |volume=407 |issue=6802 |pages=327–339 |doi=10.1038/35030006 |pmid=11014182|bibcode=2000Natur.407..327W |s2cid=4419944 }}</ref> [[Protein]]s are shown in blue and the single [[RNA]] chain in orange.]]<br />
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The [[RNA world]] hypothesis describes an early Earth with self-replicating and catalytic RNA but no DNA or proteins.<ref name="NYT-20140925-CZ">{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |date=25 September 2014 |title=A Tiny Emissary From the Ancient Past |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/25/science/a-tiny-emissary-from-the-ancient-past.html |newspaper=The New York Times |location=New York |accessdate=2014-09-26 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927022738/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/25/science/a-tiny-emissary-from-the-ancient-past.html |archivedate=27 September 2014}}</ref> It is widely accepted that current life on Earth descends from an RNA world,<ref name="RNA">*{{cite journal |last1=Copley |first1=Shelley D. |last2=Smith |first2=Eric |last3=Morowitz |first3=Harold J. |authorlink3=Harold J. Morowitz |date=December 2007 |title=The origin of the RNA world: Co-evolution of genes and metabolism |url=http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~desmith/PDF_pubs/Copley_BOG.pdf |journal=Bioorganic Chemistry |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=430–443 |doi=10.1016/j.bioorg.2007.08.001 |pmid=17897696 |accessdate=2015-06-08 |quote=The proposal that life on Earth arose from an RNA world is widely accepted. |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905070129/http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~desmith/PDF_pubs/Copley_BOG.pdf |archivedate=5 September 2013}}<br />
<br />
The RNA world hypothesis describes an early Earth with self-replicating and catalytic RNA but no DNA or proteins. It is widely accepted that current life on Earth descends from an RNA world, although RNA-based life may not have been the first life to exist. The structure of the ribosome has been called the "smoking gun," as it showed that the ribosome is a ribozyme, with a central core of RNA and no amino acid side chains within 18 angstroms of the active site where peptide bond formation is catalyzed.<br />
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RNA世界假说描述了一个具有自我复制和催化的RNA,但没有DNA和蛋白质的早期地球。<ref name="NYT-20140925-CZ">{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |date=25 September 2014 |title=A Tiny Emissary From the Ancient Past |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/25/science/a-tiny-emissary-from-the-ancient-past.html |newspaper=The New York Times |location=New York |accessdate=2014-09-26 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140927022738/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/25/science/a-tiny-emissary-from-the-ancient-past.html |archivedate=27 September 2014}}</ref> 现在普遍认为现在地球上的生命起源于这个RNA世界,尽管基于RNA的生命可能并不是最早存在的生命。<ref name="RNA">*{{cite journal |last1=Copley |first1=Shelley D. |last2=Smith |first2=Eric |last3=Morowitz |first3=Harold J. |authorlink3=Harold J. Morowitz |date=December 2007 |title=The origin of the RNA world: Co-evolution of genes and metabolism |url=http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~desmith/PDF_pubs/Copley_BOG.pdf |journal=Bioorganic Chemistry |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=430–443 |doi=10.1016/j.bioorg.2007.08.001 |pmid=17897696 |accessdate=2015-06-08 |quote=The proposal that life on Earth arose from an RNA world is widely accepted. |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905070129/http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~desmith/PDF_pubs/Copley_BOG.pdf |archivedate=5 September 2013}}这个结论是由许多独立的证据得出的,例如观察到RNA是翻译过程的核心,并且小RNA可以催化生命所需的所有化学基团和信息转移。核糖体的结构被称为 "确凿的证据",因为它表明核糖体是一个核糖体,其核心是RNA,并且在催化肽键形成的活性位点18角以内没有氨基酸侧链。<br />
<br />
The concept of the RNA world was first proposed in 1962 by [[Alexander Rich]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neveu |first1=Marc |last2=Kim |first2=Hyo-Joong |last3=Benner |first3=Steven A. |date=22 April 2013 |title=The 'Strong' RNA World Hypothesis: Fifty Years Old |journal=Astrobiology |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=391–403 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13..391N |doi=10.1089/ast.2012.0868 |pmid=23551238 |ref=harv}}</ref> and the term was coined by [[Walter Gilbert]] in 1986.<ref name="Cech2012">{{cite journal |last=Cech |first=Thomas R. |authorlink=Thomas Cech |date=July 2012 |title=The RNA Worlds in Context |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=4 |issue=7 |page=a006742 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a006742 |pmc=3385955 |pmid=21441585}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Walter |authorlink=Walter Gilbert |date=20 February 1986 |title=Origin of life: The RNA world |journal=Nature |volume=319 |issue=6055 |page=618 |bibcode=1986Natur.319..618G |doi=10.1038/319618a0 |s2cid=8026658 }}</ref> <br />
<br />
The concept of the RNA world was first proposed in 1962 by Alexander Rich, and the term was coined by Walter Gilbert in 1986. <br />
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RNA世界的概念是由亚历山大-里奇Alexander Rich在1962年首次提出的<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neveu |first1=Marc |last2=Kim |first2=Hyo-Joong |last3=Benner |first3=Steven A. |date=22 April 2013 |title=The 'Strong' RNA World Hypothesis: Fifty Years Old |journal=Astrobiology |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=391–403 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13..391N |doi=10.1089/ast.2012.0868 |pmid=23551238 |ref=harv}}</ref> ,而这个术语则是由沃尔特-吉尔伯特Walter Gilbert在1986年创造的。<ref name="Cech2012">{{cite journal |last=Cech |first=Thomas R. |authorlink=Thomas Cech |date=July 2012 |title=The RNA Worlds in Context |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=4 |issue=7 |page=a006742 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a006742 |pmc=3385955 |pmid=21441585}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Walter |authorlink=Walter Gilbert |date=20 February 1986 |title=Origin of life: The RNA world |journal=Nature |volume=319 |issue=6055 |page=618 |bibcode=1986Natur.319..618G |doi=10.1038/319618a0 |s2cid=8026658 }}</ref> <br />
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In March 2020, astronomer Tomonori Totani presented a statistical approach for explaining how an initial active RNA molecule might have been produced randomly in the [[universe]] sometime since the [[Big Bang]].<ref name="UT-20200310">{{cite news |last=Gough |first=Evan |title=Life Could be Common Across the Universe, Just Not in Our Region |url=https://www.universetoday.com/145304/life-could-be-common-across-the-universe-just-not-in-our-region/ |date=10 March 2020 |work=[[Universe Today]] |accessdate=15 March 2020 }}</ref><ref name="SR-20200203">{{cite journal |last=Totani |first=Tomonori |title=Emergence of life in an inflationary universe |date=3 February 2020 |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |volume=10 |number=1671 |pages=1671 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-58060-0 |pmid=32015390 |pmc=6997386 |arxiv=1911.08092 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.1671T |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
In March 2020, astronomer Tomonori Totani presented a statistical approach for explaining how an initial active RNA molecule might have been produced randomly in the universe sometime since the Big Bang.<br />
<br />
在2020年3月,天文学家Tomonori Totani提出了一种统计方法,用于解释初始的活性RNA分子是如何在宇宙大爆炸后某个时间随机产生的。<ref name="UT-20200310">{{cite news |last=Gough |first=Evan |title=Life Could be Common Across the Universe, Just Not in Our Region |url=https://www.universetoday.com/145304/life-could-be-common-across-the-universe-just-not-in-our-region/ |date=10 March 2020 |work=[[Universe Today]] |accessdate=15 March 2020 }}</ref><ref name="SR-20200203">{{cite journal |last=Totani |first=Tomonori |title=Emergence of life in an inflationary universe |date=3 February 2020 |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |volume=10 |number=1671 |pages=1671 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-58060-0 |pmid=32015390 |pmc=6997386 |arxiv=1911.08092 |bibcode=2020NatSR..10.1671T |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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===系统发育和最后的普遍共同祖先 Phylogeny and LUCA===<br />
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[[File:Phylogenic Tree-en.svg|upright=1.65|thumb|A [[cladistics|cladogram]] demonstrating extreme [[hyperthermophile]]s as occur in volcanic hot springs at the base of the [[Phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic tree of life 甲分支图表明极端超嗜热处的基部作为发生在火山温泉寿命的系统发生树。]]]]<br />
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The most commonly accepted location of the root of the tree of life is between a monophyletic domain [[Bacteria]] and a clade formed by [[Archaea]] and [[Eukaryota]] of what is referred to as the "traditional tree of life" based on several molecular studies starting with [[Carl Woese]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=David R. |editor1-last=Boone |editor2-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Castenholz |editor3-first=George M. |editor3-last=Garrity |title=The ''Archaea'' and the Deeply Branching and Phototrophic ''Bacteria'' |series=Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology |isbn=978-0-387-21609-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/microbiology/book/978-0-387-98771-2 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225112809/http://www.springer.com/life+sciences/microbiology/book/978-0-387-98771-2 |archivedate=25 December 2014|publisher=Springer |year=2001 }}{{page needed|date=June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Woese CR, Fox GE |title= Phylogenetic structure of the prokaryotic domain: the primary kingdoms. |journal= Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=74|pages= 5088–5090 |year=1977 |issue= 11 |pmid=270744 |pmc=432104|doi=10.1073/pnas.74.11.5088|bibcode= 1977PNAS...74.5088W }}</ref><br />
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The most commonly accepted location of the root of the tree of life is between a monophyletic domain Bacteria and a clade formed by Archaea and Eukaryota of what is referred to as the "traditional tree of life" based on several molecular studies starting with Carl Woese.<br />
<br />
根据从 卡尔·沃斯Carl Woese 开始的一些分子研究,,对于生命树的根部的位置,最普遍接受的观点是位于''一元细菌域和古细菌''和''真核生物''形成的分支之间,这被称为“传统生命树”。<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=David R. |editor1-last=Boone |editor2-first=Richard W. |editor2-last=Castenholz |editor3-first=George M. |editor3-last=Garrity |title=The ''Archaea'' and the Deeply Branching and Phototrophic ''Bacteria'' |series=Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology |isbn=978-0-387-21609-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/life+sciences/microbiology/book/978-0-387-98771-2 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141225112809/http://www.springer.com/life+sciences/microbiology/book/978-0-387-98771-2 |archivedate=25 December 2014|publisher=Springer |year=2001 }}{{page needed|date=June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Woese CR, Fox GE |title= Phylogenetic structure of the prokaryotic domain: the primary kingdoms. |journal= Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=74|pages= 5088–5090 |year=1977 |issue= 11 |pmid=270744 |pmc=432104|doi=10.1073/pnas.74.11.5088|bibcode= 1977PNAS...74.5088W }}</ref><br />
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A very small minority of studies have concluded differently, namely that the root is in the domain Bacteria, either in the phylum Firmicutes or’’’<font color=’’#32CD32’’> that the phylum Chloroflexi is basal to a clade with Archaea+Eukaryotes and the rest of Bacteria as proposed by Thomas Cavalier-Smith. </font>’’’More recently, Peter Ward has proposed an alternative view which is rooted in abiotic RNA synthesis which becomes enclosed within a capsule and then creates RNA ribozyme replicates. It is proposed that this then bifurcates between Dominion Ribosa (RNA life), and after the loss of ribozymes RNA viruses as Domain Viorea, and Dominion Terroa, which after creating a large cell within a lipid wall, creating DNA the 20 based amino acids and the triplet code, is established as the last universal common ancestor or LUCA, of earlier phylogenic trees.<br />
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有一小部分研究得出了不同的结论,亦即生命树的根部的位置根也许是在细菌域,要么在门厚壁菌,要么是在 托马斯·卡弗利尔-史密斯Thomas Cavalier-Smith 所提出的氯化物门与''古细菌+真核生物''的一个分支和其余的细菌为基础的一个门类。最近,彼得 · 沃德Peter Ward 提出了另一种以非生物的 RNA 合成为基础的观点。这种合成被包裹在一个胶囊中,然后产生 RNA 核糖体。有人提出,这然后在自治核糖体(RNA生命)之间分岔,在失去核酶RNA病毒作为Dominion Viorea,和Dominion Terroa之后,在脂质壁内创造一个大细胞,创造DNA的20个基于氨基酸和三联密码,被确立为早期系统发育树的最后一个普遍共同祖先或LUCA。<br />
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In 2016, a set of 355 genes likely present in the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth was identified. A total of 6.1 million prokaryotic protein coding genes from various phylogenic trees were sequenced, identifying 355 protein clusters from amongst 286,514 protein clusters that were probably common to LUCA. The results <br />
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2016年,确定了一组可能存在于生活在地球上的所有生物的最后一个宇宙共同祖先(LUCA)中的355个基因,对来自各种系统发育树的610万个原核生物蛋白编码基因进行了测序,从286,514个蛋白簇中确定了355个可能是LUCA共同的蛋白簇。结果<br />
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| doi = 10.1016/0079-6107(95)00004-7<br />
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< blockquote >. . . depict LUCA as anaerobic, CO<sub>2</sub>-fixing, H<sub>2</sub>-dependent with a Wood–Ljungdahl pathway, N<sub>2</sub>-fixing and thermophilic. LUCA's biochemistry was replete with FeS clusters and radical reaction mechanisms. Its cofactors reveal dependence upon transition metals, flavins, S-adenosyl methionine, coenzyme A, ferredoxin, molybdopterin, corrins and selenium. Its genetic code required nucleoside modifications and S-adenosylmethionine-dependent methylations." <br />
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..说明LUCA是厌氧的、固定二氧化碳的、依赖H2的、具有Wood-Ljungdahl途径的、固定N2的和嗜热的。LUCA的生物化学中充斥着FeS簇和自由基反应机制。它的辅助因子揭示了对过渡金属、黄素、S-腺苷蛋氨酸、辅酶A、铁氧化还原蛋白、亚钼嘌呤、柯啉环和硒的依赖性。其遗传密码需要核苷修饰和S-腺苷蛋氨酸依赖的甲基化"。<br />
| pmid = 7542789<br />
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< /blockquote >The results depict methanogenic clostridia as a basal clade in the 355 phylogenies examined, and suggest that LUCA inhabited an anaerobic hydrothermal vent setting in a geochemically active environment rich in H<sub>2</sub>, CO<sub>2</sub> and iron.<br />
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研究结果显示在所研究的355个系统发育中,产甲烷的梭菌是一个基础支系,并表明LUCA栖息在厌氧热液喷口处且地理化学活性环境中富含H<sub>2</sub>, CO<sub>2</sub> 和铁。<br />
<br />
| issue = 2<br />
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}}</ref><ref><br />
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A study at the University of Düsseldorf created phylogenic trees based upon 6 million genes from bacteria and archaea, and identified 355 protein families that were probably present in the LUCA. They were based upon an anaerobic metabolism fixing carbon dioxide and nitrogen. It suggests that the LUCA evolved in an environment rich in hydrogen, carbon dioxide and iron.<br />
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杜塞尔多夫大学的一项研究基于细菌和古生菌的600万个基因创建了系统发育树,并确定了可能存在于 LUCA 中的355个蛋白质家族。它们是基于一种固定二氧化碳和氮的厌氧代谢。这表明LUCA是在一个富含氢、二氧化碳和铁的环境中进化的。<br />
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===Key issues in abiogenesis===<br />
生物发生中的关键问题<br />
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====What came first: protein or nucleic acids?====<br />
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蛋白质和核酸孰先孰后?蛋白质和核酸孰先孰后?<br />
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Possible precursors for the evolution of protein synthesis include a mechanism to synthesize short peptide cofactors or form a mechanism for the duplication of RNA. It is likely that the ancestral ribosome was composed entirely of RNA, although some roles have since been taken over by proteins. Major remaining questions on this topic include identifying the selective force for the evolution of the ribosome and determining how the [[genetic code]] arose.<ref name="Noller2012">{{cite journal |last=Noller |first=Harry F. |authorlink=Harry F. Noller |date=April 2012 |title=Evolution of protein synthesis from an RNA world. |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=4 |issue=4 |page=a003681 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a003681 |pmc=3312679 |pmid=20610545}}</ref><br />
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[[Eugene Koonin]] said, < blockquote >Despite considerable experimental and theoretical effort, no compelling scenarios currently exist for the origin of replication and translation, the key processes that together comprise the core of biological systems and the apparent pre-requisite of biological evolution. The RNA World concept might offer the best chance for the resolution of this conundrum but so far cannot adequately account for the emergence of an efficient RNA replicase or the translation system. The MWO ["many worlds in one"] version of the cosmological model of [[eternal inflation]] could suggest a way out of this conundrum because, in an infinite [[multiverse]] with a finite number of distinct macroscopic histories (each repeated an infinite number of times), emergence of even highly complex systems by chance is not just possible but inevitable.<ref name="pmc1892545">{{cite journal |last=Koonin |first=Eugene V. |date=31 May 2007 |title=The cosmological model of eternal inflation and the transition from chance to biological evolution in the history of life |journal=Biology Direct |volume=2 |page=15 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-2-15 |pmc=1892545 |pmid=17540027}}</ref>< /blockquote ><br />
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Possible precursors for the evolution of protein synthesis include a mechanism to synthesize short peptide cofactors or form a mechanism for the duplication of RNA. It is likely that the ancestral ribosome was composed entirely of RNA, although some roles have since been taken over by proteins. Major remaining questions on this topic include identifying the selective force for the evolution of the ribosome and determining how the genetic code arose.<br />
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蛋白质合成进化的可能前体包括合成短肽辅助因子的机制或形成RNA的复制机制。祖先的核糖体很可能完全由RNA组成,尽管有些作用后来被蛋白质所取代。剩余的主要问题包括确定核糖体进化的选择力量和确定遗传密码是如何产生的。<br />
<br />
| volume = 36<br />
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| issue = 2<br />
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Eugene Koonin said, < blockquote >Despite considerable experimental and theoretical effort, no compelling scenarios currently exist for the origin of replication and translation, the key processes that together comprise the core of biological systems and the apparent pre-requisite of biological evolution. The RNA World concept might offer the best chance for the resolution of this conundrum but so far cannot adequately account for the emergence of an efficient RNA replicase or the translation system. The MWO ["many worlds in one"] version of the cosmological model of eternal inflation could suggest a way out of this conundrum because, in an infinite multiverse with a finite number of distinct macroscopic histories (each repeated an infinite number of times), emergence of even highly complex systems by chance is not just possible but inevitable.< /blockquote ><br />
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尤金-库宁Eugene Koonin 说,<br />
< blockquote ><br />
尽管在实验和理论上做了大量的努力,但对于复制和翻译的起源,目前还没有令人信服的设想,而复制和翻译是构成生物系统核心的关键过程,也是生物进化的明显先决条件。RNA世界概念可能为这一难题的解决提供了最好的机会,但迄今为止还不能充分说明高效RNA复制酶或翻译系统的出现。MWO["多世界合一"]版本的永恒膨胀的宇宙学模型可以提出解决这一难题的方法,因为在一个无限的多元宇宙中,有有限数量的不同的宏观历史(每个历史重复无限次),即使是高度复杂的系统也是偶然出现的,这不仅是可能的,而且是不可避免的<br />
</blockquote ><br />
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====Emergence of the genetic code====<br />
遗传密码的出现<br />
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See: [[Genetic code#Origin|Genetic code]].<br />
<br />
See: Genetic code.<br />
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请参阅:遗传密码。<br />
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====Error in translation catastrophe====<br />
灾难性翻译错误<br />
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Hoffmann has shown that an early error-prone translation machinery can be stable against an error catastrophe of the type that had been envisaged as problematical for the origin of life, and was known as "Orgel's paradox".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hoffmann |first=Geoffrey W. |authorlink=Geoffrey W. Hoffmann |date=25 June 1974 |title=On the origin of the genetic code and the stability of the translation apparatus |journal=[[Journal of Molecular Biology]] |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=349–362 |doi=10.1016/0022-2836(74)90024-2 |pmid=4414916}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Orgel |first=Leslie E. |date=April 1963 |title=The Maintenance of the Accuracy of Protein Synthesis and its Relevance to Ageing |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=517–521 |bibcode=1963PNAS...49..517O |doi=10.1073/pnas.49.4.517 |pmc=299893 |pmid=13940312}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Hoffmann |first=Geoffrey W. |title=The Stochastic Theory of the Origin of the Genetic Code |date=October 1975 |journal=[[Annual Review of Physical Chemistry]] |volume=26 |pages=123–144 |bibcode=1975ARPC...26..123H |doi=10.1146/annurev.pc.26.100175.001011 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Hoffmann has shown that an early error-prone translation machinery can be stable against an error catastrophe of the type that had been envisaged as problematical for the origin of life, and was known as "Orgel's paradox".<br />
<br />
霍夫曼Hoffmann已经证明,早期容易出错的翻译机制可以稳定地抵御曾被设想为对生命起源有问题的那种错误灾难,被称为 "奥格尔悖论"。<br />
<br />
====Homochirality====<br />
同手性<br />
<br />
{{Main|Homochirality}}<br />
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Homochirality refers to a geometric uniformity of some materials composed of [[chirality|chiral]] units. Chiral refers to nonsuperimposable 3D forms that are mirror images of one another, as are left and right hands. Living organisms use molecules that have the same chirality ("handedness"): with almost no exceptions,<ref>{{harvnb|Chaichian|Rojas|Tureanu|2014|pp=353–364}}</ref> amino acids are left-handed while nucleotides and [[Carbohydrate|sugars]] are right-handed. Chiral molecules can be synthesized, but in the absence of a chiral source or a chiral [[Catalysis|catalyst]], they are formed in a 50/50 mixture of both [[enantiomer]]s (called a racemic mixture). Known mechanisms for the production of non-racemic mixtures from racemic starting materials include: asymmetric physical laws, such as the [[electroweak interaction]]; asymmetric environments, such as those caused by [[Circular polarization|circularly polarized]] light, [[Quartz|quartz crystals]], or the Earth's rotation, [[statistical fluctuations]] during racemic synthesis,<ref name="Plasson2007">{{cite journal |last1=Plasson |first1=Raphaël |last2=Kondepudi |first2=Dilip K. |last3=Bersini |first3=Hugues |last4=Commeyras |first4=Auguste |last5=Asakura |first5=Kouichi |display-authors=3 |date=August 2007 |title=Emergence of homochirality in far-from-equilibrium systems: Mechanisms and role in prebiotic chemistry |journal=[[Chirality (journal)|Chirality]] |volume=19 |issue=8 |pages=589–600 |doi=10.1002/chir.20440 |pmid=17559107}} "Special Issue: Proceedings from the Eighteenth International Symposium on Chirality (ISCD-18), Busan, Korea, 2006"</ref> and [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]].<ref name="jafarpour2017">{{cite journal |last1=Jafarpour |first1=Farshid |last2=Biancalani |first2=Tommaso |last3=Goldenfeld |first3=Nigel |year=2017 |title=Noise-induced symmetry breaking far from equilibrium and the emergence of biological homochirality |journal=Physical Review E |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=032407 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevE.95.032407|pmid=28415353 |bibcode=2017PhRvE..95c2407J |url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/1721.1/109170/1/PhysRevE.95.032407.pdf }}</ref><ref name="jafarpour2015">{{cite journal |last1=Jafarpour |first1=Farshid |last2=Biancalani |first2=Tommaso |last3=Goldenfeld |first3=Nigel |year=2015 |title=Noise-induced mechanism for biological homochirality of early life self-replicators |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=115 |issue=15 |pages=158101 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.158101|pmid=26550754 |arxiv=1507.00044 |bibcode=2015PhRvL.115o8101J |s2cid=9775791 }}</ref><ref name="frank1953">{{cite journal |last1=Frank |first1=F.C. |year=1953 |title=On spontaneous asymmetric synthesis |journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=459–463 |doi=10.1016/0006-3002(53)90082-1|pmid=13105666 }}</ref><br />
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Homochirality refers to a geometric uniformity of some materials composed of chiral units. Chiral refers to nonsuperimposable 3D forms that are mirror images of one another, as are left and right hands. Living organisms use molecules that have the same chirality ("handedness"): with almost no exceptions, amino acids are left-handed while nucleotides and sugars are right-handed. Chiral molecules can be synthesized, but in the absence of a chiral source or a chiral catalyst, they are formed in a 50/50 mixture of both enantiomers (called a racemic mixture). Known mechanisms for the production of non-racemic mixtures from racemic starting materials include: asymmetric physical laws, such as the electroweak interaction; asymmetric environments, such as those caused by circularly polarized light, quartz crystals, or the Earth's rotation, statistical fluctuations during racemic synthesis, and spontaneous symmetry breaking.<br />
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同手性是指某些材料由手性单元组成的几何均匀性。手性是指不可互换的三维形态,它们是彼此的镜像,就像左手和右手一样。生物体使用的分子具有相同的手性("手性"):几乎没有例外,氨基酸是左手,而核苷酸和糖类是右手。手性分子可以合成,但在没有手性源或手性催化剂的情况下,它们是以两种对映体50/50的混合物形成的(称为外消旋混合物)。已知从外消旋起始材料产生非外消旋混合物的机制包括:不对称物理规律,如电弱相互作用;不对称环境,如圆偏振光、石英晶体或地球自转引起的环境,外消旋合成过程中的统计波动,以及自发的对称性破坏。<br />
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Once established, chirality would be selected for.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clark |first=Stuart |authorlink=Stuart Clark (author) |date=July–August 1999 |title=Polarized Starlight and the Handedness of Life |journal=[[American Scientist]] |volume=87 |issue=4 |page=336 |bibcode=1999AmSci..87..336C |doi=10.1511/1999.4.336}}</ref> A small bias ([[enantiomeric excess]]) in the population can be amplified into a large one by [[Autocatalysis#Asymmetric autocatalysis|asymmetric autocatalysis]], such as in the [[Soai reaction]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shibata |first1=Takanori |last2=Morioka |first2=Hiroshi |last3=Hayase |first3=Tadakatsu |last4=Choji |first4=Kaori |last5=Soai |first5=Kenso |display-authors=3 |date=17 January 1996 |title=Highly Enantioselective Catalytic Asymmetric Automultiplication of Chiral Pyrimidyl Alcohol |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=471–472 |doi=10.1021/ja953066g }}</ref> In asymmetric autocatalysis, the catalyst is a chiral molecule, which means that a chiral molecule is catalyzing its own production. An initial enantiomeric excess, such as can be produced by polarized light, then allows the more abundant enantiomer to outcompete the other.<ref name="Soai2001">{{cite journal |last1=Soai |first1=Kenso |last2=Sato |first2=Itaru |last3=Shibata |first3=Takanori |year=2001 |title=Asymmetric autocatalysis and the origin of chiral homogeneity in organic compounds |journal=The Chemical Record |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=321–332 |doi=10.1002/tcr.1017 |pmid=11893072}}</ref><br />
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Once established, chirality would be selected for. A small bias (enantiomeric excess) in the population can be amplified into a large one by asymmetric autocatalysis, such as in the Soai reaction. In asymmetric autocatalysis, the catalyst is a chiral molecule, which means that a chiral molecule is catalyzing its own production. An initial enantiomeric excess, such as can be produced by polarized light, then allows the more abundant enantiomer to outcompete the other.<br />
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一旦建立,手性将被选择。人群中的一个小的偏差(对映体过剩)可以通过不对称自催化放大成一个大的偏差,如在Soai反应中。在不对称自催化中,催化剂是一个手性分子,这意味着手性分子正在催化自己的生产。最初的对映体过剩,例如可以通过偏振光产生,然后允许更丰富的对映体超过其他对映体。<br />
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Clark has suggested that homochirality may have started in outer space, as the studies of the amino acids on the [[Murchison meteorite]] showed that [[Alanine|L-alanine]] is more than twice as frequent as its D form, and [[Glutamic acid|L-glutamic acid]] was more than three times prevalent than its D counterpart. Various chiral crystal surfaces can also act as sites for possible concentration and assembly of chiral monomer units into macromolecules.<ref>{{harvnb|Hazen|2005|p=184}}</ref><ref name=Meierhenrich>{{cite book|last1=Meierhenrich|first1=Uwe|title=Amino acids and the asymmetry of life caught in the act of formation|date=2008|publisher=Springer|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3540768869|pages=76–79}}</ref> Compounds found on meteorites suggest that the chirality of life derives from abiogenic synthesis, since amino acids from meteorites show a left-handed bias, whereas sugars show a predominantly right-handed bias, the same as found in living organisms.<ref name=StarStuff>{{cite journal |last=Mullen |first=Leslie |date=5 September 2005 |title=Building Life from Star-Stuff |url=http://www.astrobio.net/news-exclusive/building-life-from-star-stuff/ |journal=[[Astrobiology Magazine]] |accessdate=2015-06-15 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714084344/http://www.astrobio.net/news-exclusive/building-life-from-star-stuff/ |archivedate=14 July 2015}}</ref><br />
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Clark has suggested that homochirality may have started in outer space, as the studies of the amino acids on the Murchison meteorite showed that L-alanine is more than twice as frequent as its D form, and L-glutamic acid was more than three times prevalent than its D counterpart. Various chiral crystal surfaces can also act as sites for possible concentration and assembly of chiral monomer units into macromolecules. Compounds found on meteorites suggest that the chirality of life derives from abiogenic synthesis, since amino acids from meteorites show a left-handed bias, whereas sugars show a predominantly right-handed bias, the same as found in living organisms.<br />
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Clark认为,同手性可能始于外太空,因为对默奇森 Murchison陨石上氨基酸的研究表明,L-丙氨酸是其D形式的两倍多,L-谷氨酸是其D形式的三倍多。各种手性晶体表面也可以作为手性单体单元可能集中和组装成大分子的场所.在陨石上发现的化合物表明,生命的手性来源于非生物合成,因为陨石上的氨基酸表现出左手偏向,而糖类则主要表现出右手偏向,这与生物体中发现的情况相同。<br />
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===Early universe with first stars===<br />
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有第一颗恒星的早期宇宙<br />
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{{Nature timeline}} {{Life timeline}}<br />
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Soon after the [[Big Bang]], which occurred roughly 14 Gya, the only chemical elements present in the universe were hydrogen, helium, and lithium, the three lightest atoms in the periodic table. These elements gradually came together to form stars. These early stars were massive and short-lived, producing heavier elements through [[stellar nucleosynthesis]]. [[Carbon]], currently the [[Abundance of the chemical elements|fourth most abundant chemical element]] in the universe (after [[hydrogen]], [[helium]] and [[oxygen]]), was formed mainly in [[white dwarf stars]], particularly those bigger than two solar masses.<ref name="INV-20200706">{{cite news|last=Rabie|first=Passant|date=6 July 2020|title=Astronomers Have Found The Source Of Life In The Universe|work=[[Inverse (website)|Inverse]]|url=https://www.inverse.com/science/carbon-from-white-dwarfs|accessdate=7 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="NA-20200706">{{cite journal|author=Marigo, Paola|display-authors=et al.|date=6 July 2020|title=Carbon star formation as seen through the non-monotonic initial–final mass relation|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-020-1132-1|journal=[[Nature Astronomy]]|volume=152|arxiv=2007.04163|doi=10.1038/s41550-020-1132-1|bibcode=2020NatAs.tmp..143M|accessdate=7 July 2020|s2cid=220403402}}</ref><br />
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Soon after the Big Bang, which occurred roughly 14 Gya, the only chemical elements present in the universe were hydrogen, helium, and lithium, the three lightest atoms in the periodic table. These elements gradually came together to form stars. These early stars were massive and short-lived, producing heavier elements through stellar nucleosynthesis. Carbon, currently the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe (after hydrogen, helium and oxygen), was formed mainly in white dwarf stars, particularly those bigger than two solar masses.<br />
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宇宙大爆炸发生后不久,大约140亿年前,宇宙中存在的化学元素只有氢、氦和锂,这是周期表中最轻的三种原子。这些元素逐渐聚集在一起,形成了恒星。这些早期的恒星质量大、寿命短,通过恒星核合成产生更重的元素。碳是目前宇宙中第四大丰富的化学元素(仅次于氢、氦、氧),主要形成于白矮星,尤其是大于两个太阳质量的白矮星。<br />
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As these stars reached the end of their [[Stellar life cycle|lifecycles]], they ejected these heavier elements, among them carbon and oxygen, throughout the universe. These heavier elements allowed for the formation of new objects, including rocky planets and other bodies.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://wmap.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_life.html |title = WMAP- Life in the Universe}}</ref><br />
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As these stars reached the end of their lifecycles, they ejected these heavier elements, among them carbon and oxygen, throughout the universe. These heavier elements allowed for the formation of new objects, including rocky planets and other bodies.<br />
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当这些恒星达到其生命周期的终点时,它们在整个宇宙中喷射出这些较重的元素,其中包括碳和氧。这些较重的元素形成了新的物体,包括岩质行星和其他物体。<br />
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===Emergence of the Solar System===<br />
太阳系的出现<br />
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According to the [[nebular hypothesis]], the formation and evolution of the [[Solar System]] began 4.6 Gya with the [[gravitational collapse]] of a small part of a giant [[molecular cloud]].<ref>[http://www.astro.umass.edu/~myun/teaching/a100_old/solarnebulartheory.htm Formation of Solar Systems: Solar Nebular Theory.] University of Massachusetts Amherst, Department of Astronomy. Accessed on 27 September 2019.</ref> Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center, forming the [[Sun]], while the rest flattened into a [[protoplanetary disk]] out of which the [[planet]]s, [[Natural satellite|moons]], [[asteroid]]s, and other [[Small Solar System body|small Solar System bodies]] formed.<br />
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According to the nebular hypothesis, the formation and evolution of the Solar System began 4.6 Gya with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk out of which the planets, moons, asteroids, and other small Solar System bodies formed.<br />
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根据星云假说,太阳系的形成和演化始于46亿年前,一个巨大的分子云的一小部分的引力坍塌。大部分坍塌的质量聚集在中心,形成了太阳,而其余的则压平成一个原行星盘,行星、卫星、小行星和其他小太阳系天体就是从这个盘中形成的。<br />
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===Emergence of Earth===<br />
地球的出现<br />
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The Earth, formed 4.5 Gya, was at first inhospitable to any living organisms. Based on numerous observations and studies of the [[geological time scale|geological time-scale]], the [[Hadean]] Earth is thought to have had a [[secondary atmosphere]], formed through [[Degasification|degassing]] of the rocks that accumulated from [[planetesimal]] [[impact event|impactors]]. At first, it was thought that the Earth's [[atmosphere]] consisted of hydrogen compounds—[[methane]], [[ammonia]] and [[Water vapor]]—and that life began under such [[redox|reducing]] conditions, which are conducive to the formation of organic molecules. According to later models, suggested by studying ancient minerals, the atmosphere in the late Hadean period consisted largely of water vapor, [[nitrogen]] and [[carbon dioxide]], with smaller amounts of [[carbon monoxide]], [[hydrogen]], and [[sulfur]] compounds.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kasting |first=James F. |authorlink=James Kasting |date=12 February 1993 |title=Earth's Early Atmosphere |url=http://wwwdca.iag.usp.br/www/material/fornaro/ACA410/Kasting%201993_EarthEarlyAtmos.pdf |journal=Science |volume=259 |issue=5097 |pages=920–926 |doi=10.1126/science.11536547 |pmid=11536547 |bibcode=1993Sci...259..920K |s2cid=21134564 |accessdate=2015-07-28 |ref=harv |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010074651/http://wwwdca.iag.usp.br/www/material/fornaro/ACA410/Kasting%201993_EarthEarlyAtmos.pdf |archivedate=10 October 2015}}</ref> During its formation, the Earth lost a significant part of its initial mass, with a nucleus of the heavier rocky elements of the protoplanetary disk remaining.<ref>{{harvnb|Fesenkov|1959|p=9}}</ref> As a consequence, Earth lacked the [[gravity]] to hold any molecular hydrogen in its atmosphere, and rapidly lost it during the Hadean period, along with the bulk of the original inert gases. The solution of carbon dioxide in water is thought to have made the seas slightly [[acid]]ic, giving them a [[pH]] of about 5.5.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Morse|first=John|date=September 1998|title=Hadean Ocean Carbonate Geochemistry|journal=Aquatic Geochemistry|volume=4|issue=3/4|pages=301–319|doi=10.1023/A:1009632230875|bibcode=1998MinM...62.1027M|s2cid=129616933}}</ref> The atmosphere at the time has been characterized as a "gigantic, productive outdoor chemical laboratory."<ref name="Follmann2009" /> It may have been similar to the mixture of gases released today by volcanoes, which still support some abiotic chemistry.<ref name="Follmann2009" /><br />
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The Earth, formed 4.5 Gya, was at first inhospitable to any living organisms. Based on numerous observations and studies of the geological time-scale, the Hadean Earth is thought to have had a secondary atmosphere, formed through degassing of the rocks that accumulated from planetesimal impactors. At first, it was thought that the Earth's atmosphere consisted of hydrogen compounds—methane, ammonia and Water vapor—and that life began under such reducing conditions, which are conducive to the formation of organic molecules. According to later models, suggested by studying ancient minerals, the atmosphere in the late Hadean period consisted largely of water vapor, nitrogen and carbon dioxide, with smaller amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and sulfur compounds. During its formation, the Earth lost a significant part of its initial mass, with a nucleus of the heavier rocky elements of the protoplanetary disk remaining. As a consequence, Earth lacked the gravity to hold any molecular hydrogen in its atmosphere, and rapidly lost it during the Hadean period, along with the bulk of the original inert gases. The solution of carbon dioxide in water is thought to have made the seas slightly acidic, giving them a pH of about 5.5. The atmosphere at the time has been characterized as a "gigantic, productive outdoor chemical laboratory."<br />
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形成于45亿年前的地球,起初是不适合任何生物体生存的。根据对地质学时间尺度的大量观察和研究,人们认为冥古代地球曾有过一个次级大气层,是通过行星撞击物所积累的岩石脱气而形成的。起初,人们认为地球的大气层由氢化合物--甲烷、氨和水蒸气组成,生命就是在这种有利于有机分子形成的还原条件下开始的。根据后来的模型,通过对古代矿物的研究提出,冥古代晚期的大气层主要由水蒸气、氮气和二氧化碳组成,还有少量的一氧化碳、氢气和硫化合物。在地球形成过程中,地球失去了其初始质量的很大一部分,原行星盘中较重的岩石元素核仍然存在。因此,地球缺乏重力,无法在大气层中容纳任何氢分子,并且在冥古代迅速失去了氢气,同时失去了大部分的原始惰性气体.。二氧化碳在水中形成的溶液被认为使海洋呈微酸性,使海洋的pH值约为5.5。当时的大气层被描述为 "巨大的、富有成效的室外化学实验室。"它可能与今天火山释放的混合气体相似,它仍然支持一些非生物化学。<br />
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===Emergence of the ocean===<br />
海洋的出现<br />
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Oceans may have appeared first in the Hadean Eon, as soon as 200 My after the Earth formed, in a hot, 100 C, reducing environment, and the pH of about 5.8 rose rapidly towards neutral.This scenario has found support from the dating of 4.404 Gyo zircon crystals from metamorphosed quartzite of Mount Narryer in the Western Australia Jack Hills of the Pilbara, which provide evidence that oceans and continental crust existed within 150 Ma of Earth's formation.Despite the likely increased volcanism and existence of many smaller tectonic "platelets," it has been suggested that between 4.4-4.3 Gyo, the Earth was a water world, with little if any continental crust, an extremely turbulent atmosphere and a hydrosphere subject to intense ultraviolet (UV) light, from a T Tauri stage Sun, cosmic radiation and continued bolide impacts.<br />
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海洋可能最早出现在冥古宙,即地球形成后的200多年,在100摄氏度的高温的还原性环境中,pH值约为5.8,迅速上升到中性。这一假设的在来自西澳大利亚皮尔巴拉杰克山纳瑞耶山的44.04亿年前的锆石晶体的年代测定中得到了支持,它提供了地球形成后15000万年前内存在海洋和大陆地壳的证据。 尽管可能增加了火山活动,并存在许多较小的构造 "板块",但有人认为,在44-43亿年前之间,地球是一个水世界,几乎没有大陆地壳,大气层极度动荡,水圈受到强烈的紫外线(UV),来自T 金牛座阶段的太阳、宇宙辐射和持续的巨浪撞击。<br />
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===Late heavy bombardment===<br />
晚期重型轰炸<br />
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The Hadean environment would have been highly hazardous to modern life. Frequent collisions with large objects, up to 500&nbsp;km in diameter, would have been sufficient to sterilize the planet and vaporize the oceans within a few months of impact, with hot steam mixed with rock vapor becoming high altitude clouds that would completely cover the planet. After a few months, the height of these clouds would have begun to decrease but the cloud base would still have been elevated for about the next thousand years. After that, it would have begun to rain at low altitude. For another two thousand years, rains would slowly have drawn down the height of the clouds, returning the oceans to their original depth only 3,000&nbsp;y after the impact event.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sleep |first1=Norman H. |last2=Zahnle |first2=Kevin J. |authorlink2=Kevin J. Zahnle |last3=Kasting |first3=James F. |last4=Morowitz |first4=Harold J. |authorlink4=Harold J. Morowitz |display-authors=3 |date=9 November 1989 |title=Annihilation of ecosystems by large asteroid impacts on early Earth |journal=Nature |volume=342 |issue=6246|pages=139–142 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11809063|bibcode=1989Natur.342..139S |doi=10.1038/342139a0 |pmid=11536616|s2cid=1137852 }}</ref><br />
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冥古代的环境对现代生命将是非常危险的。与直径达500公里的大型物体频繁碰撞,足以在撞击后的几个月内对地球进行消毒,并使海洋汽化,热蒸汽与岩石蒸汽混合,成为高空云层,将完全覆盖地球。几个月后,这些云层的高度会开始降低,但在接下来的大约一千年里,云层的基数仍会升高。在那之后,低海拔地区就会开始下雨。在接下来的两千年里,雨水会慢慢地降低云层的高度,使海洋在撞击事件发生后3000年才恢复到原来的深度。<br />
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Traditionally it was thought that during the period between 4.28<ref name="NAT-20170301" /><ref name="NYT-20170301" /> and 3.8&nbsp;Gya, changes in the orbits of the [[giant planet]]s may have caused a [[Late Heavy Bombardment|heavy bombardment]] by asteroids and [[comet]]s<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gomes |first1=Rodney |last2=Levison |first2=Hal F. |authorlink2=Harold F. Levison |last3=Tsiganis |first3=Kleomenis |last4=Morbidelli |first4=Alessandro |authorlink4=Alessandro Morbidelli (astronomer) |date=26 May 2005 |title=Origin of the cataclysmic Late Heavy Bombardment period of the terrestrial planets |journal=Nature |volume=435 |issue=7041 |pages=466–469 |bibcode=2005Natur.435..466G |doi=10.1038/nature03676 |pmid=15917802|doi-access=free }}</ref> that pockmarked the [[Moon]] and the other inner planets ([[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], [[Mars]], and presumably Earth and [[Venus]]). This would likely have repeatedly sterilized the planet, had life appeared before that time.<ref name="Follmann2009" /> Geologically, the Hadean Earth would have been far more active than at any other time in its history. Studies of [[meteorite]]s suggests that [[Radionuclide|radioactive isotopes]] such as [[aluminium-26]] with a [[half-life]] of 7.17&nbsp;ky, and [[potassium-40]] with a half-life of 1.25&nbsp;Gy, isotopes mainly produced in [[supernova]]e, were much more common.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|2007|pp=61–73}}</ref> Internal heating as a result of [[Convection#Gravitational or buoyant convection|gravitational sorting]] between the [[Earth core|core]] and the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] would have caused a great deal of [[mantle convection]], with the probable result of many more smaller and more active tectonic plates than now exist.<br />
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传统上认为,在42.8亿年前和38亿年前之间的时期,巨行星轨道的变化可能造成了小行星和彗星对月球和其他内行星(水星、火星,大概还有地球和金星)的猛烈轰击。如果生命在那之前出现的话,这很可能会反复地对这个星球进行消毒.从地质学上来说,哈德安地球会比历史上任何其他时间都要活跃得多。对陨石的研究表明,放射性同位素,如半衰期为7.17 ky的铝-26和半衰期为1.25 Gy的钾-40,这些主要产生于超新星的同位素更为常见.由于地核和地幔之间的引力分选而产生的内部加热会引起大量的地幔对流,其结果可能是产生了比现在更小、更活跃的构造板块。<br />
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The time periods between such devastating environmental events give time windows for the possible origin of life in the early environments. If the deep marine hydrothermal setting was the site for the origin of life, then abiogenesis could have happened as early as 4.0-4.2&nbsp;Gya. If the site was at the surface of the Earth, abiogenesis could only have occurred between 3.7-4.0 Gya.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maher |first1=Kevin A. |last2=Stevenson |first2=David J. |date=18 February 1988 |title=Impact frustration of the origin of life |journal=Nature |volume=331 |issue=6157 |pages=612–614 |bibcode=1988Natur.331..612M |doi=10.1038/331612a0 |pmid=11536595|s2cid=4284492 }}</ref><br />
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这种破坏性环境事件之间的时间段,为早期环境中生命可能的起源提供了时间窗口。如果深海热液环境是生命起源的场所,那么非生物发生可能早在40-42亿年前就发生了。如果地点在地球表面,那么非生物发生只能发生在37-40亿年前之间。<br />
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Estimates of the production of organics from these sources suggest that the [[Late Heavy Bombardment]] before 3.5&nbsp;Ga within the early atmosphere made available quantities of organics comparable to those produced by terrestrial sources.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chyba |first1=Christopher |authorlink=Christopher Chyba |last2=Sagan |first2=Carl |authorlink2=Carl Sagan |date=9 January 1992 |title=Endogenous production, exogenous delivery and impact-shock synthesis of organic molecules: an inventory for the origins of life |journal=Nature |volume=355 |issue=6356 |pages=125–132 |bibcode=1992Natur.355..125C |doi=10.1038/355125a0 |pmid=11538392|s2cid=4346044 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Furukawa |first1=Yoshihiro |last2=Sekine |first2=Toshimori |last3=Oba |first3=Masahiro |last4=Kakegawa |first4=Takeshi |last5=Nakazawa |first5=Hiromoto |display-authors=3 |date=January 2009 |title=Biomolecule formation by oceanic impacts on early Earth |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=62–66 |bibcode=2009NatGe...2...62F |doi=10.1038/NGEO383}}</ref><br />
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对这些来源产生的有机物的估计表明,在35亿年前之前,早期大气层内的晚期重轰击使有机物的数量与陆地来源产生的有机物相当。<br />
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It has been estimated that the Late Heavy Bombardment may also have effectively sterilized the Earth's surface to a depth of tens of meters. If life evolved deeper than this, it would have also been shielded from the early high levels of ultraviolet radiation from the T Tauri stage of the Sun's evolution. Simulations of geothermically heated oceanic crust yield far more organics than those found in the Miller–Urey experiments. In the deep [[hydrothermal vent]]s, Everett Shock has found "there is an enormous thermodynamic drive to form organic compounds, as [[seawater]] and hydrothermal fluids, which are far from equilibrium, mix and move towards a more stable state."<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|1999|p=155}}</ref> Shock has found that the available energy is maximized at around 100–150 C, precisely the temperatures at which the [[Hyperthermophile|hyperthermophilic]] bacteria and [[Thermoacidophile|thermoacidophilic]] [[archaea]] have been found, at the base of the [[Phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic tree of life]] closest to the [[Last universal ancestor|Last Universal Common Ancestor]] (LUCA).<ref>{{harvnb|Bock|Goode|1996}}</ref><br />
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据估计,晚期重型轰炸还可能对数十米深的地球表面进行了有效的消毒。如果生命进化到比这更深的地方,它也会被屏蔽在太阳进化的T金牛座阶段的早期高水平紫外线辐射之外。对地热加热的海洋地壳进行模拟,得到的有机物远比Miller–Urey实验中发现的多。在深层热液喷口中,埃弗雷特-休克发现 "存在着形成有机化合物的巨大热力学驱动力,因为海水和热液远未达到平衡,混合并向更稳定的状态发展。"休克发现,可用能量在100-150℃左右达到最大,而这正是发现嗜热细菌和嗜热古菌的温度,处于最接近最后一个宇宙共同祖先(LUCA)的生命系统发育树的底部。<br />
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== 生命的最早证据:古生物学==<br />
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{{Main|Earliest known life forms}}<br />
[[File:Stromatolites.jpg|left|thumb|[[Precambrian]] [[stromatolite]]s in the Siyeh Formation, [[Glacier National Park (U.S.)|Glacier National Park]]. <br />
A 2002 study suggested that these 3.5 Gyo (billion year old) [[Geologic formation|formations]] contain fossilized [[cyanobacteria]] [[microorganism|microbes]]. This suggests they are evidence of one of the [[Earliest known life forms|earliest life forms]] on [[Earth]]. 冰川国家公园锡耶组的前寒武纪叠层。2002年的一项研究表明,这些35亿年前的岩层中含有蓝藻微生物化石。这表明它们是地球上最早的生命形式之一的证据。]] <br />
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[[File:Stromatolites in Sharkbay.jpg|thumb|Stromatolites in [[Shark Bay]] 鲨鱼湾中的石笋]]<br />
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The earliest life on Earth existed more than 3.5 Gya (billion years ago),<ref name="Origin1" /><ref name="Origin2" /><ref name="RavenJohnson2002" /> during the [[Eoarchean]] Era when sufficient crust had solidified following the molten Hadean Eon. The earliest physical evidence so far found consists of [[Micropaleontology#Microfossils|microfossils]] in the [[Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt]] of Northern Quebec, in [[banded iron formation]] rocks at least 3.77 and possibly 4.28&nbsp;Gyo.<ref name="NAT-20170301" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/oldest-record-life-earth-found-quebec-1.4004545 |title=Oldest traces of life on Earth found in Quebec, dating back roughly 3.8&nbsp;Gya |author=Mortillaro, Nicole |publisher=CBC News |date=1 March 2017 |accessdate=2 March 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301221842/http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/oldest-record-life-earth-found-quebec-1.4004545 |archivedate=1 March 2017}}</ref> This finding suggested life developed very soon after oceans formed. The structure of the microbes was noted to be similar to bacteria found near [[hydrothermal vents]] in the modern era, and provided support for the hypothesis that abiogenesis began near hydrothermal vents.<ref name="4.3b oldest" /><ref name="NAT-20170301" /><br />
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地球上最早的生命存在于35亿年前,<ref name="Origin1" /><ref name="Origin2" /><ref name="RavenJohnson2002" />在早太宙时期,随着冥古宙的溶化,地壳已经凝固。迄今为止发现的最早的物理证据包括魁北克北部努夫雅集图克绿岩带中的微生物化石,位于带状铁形成的岩石中,形成时间至少在37.7亿年前,也可能在42.8亿年前。<ref name="NAT-20170301" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/oldest-record-life-earth-found-quebec-1.4004545 |title=Oldest traces of life on Earth found in Quebec, dating back roughly 3.8&nbsp;Gya |author=Mortillaro, Nicole |publisher=CBC News |date=1 March 2017 |accessdate=2 March 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301221842/http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/oldest-record-life-earth-found-quebec-1.4004545 |archivedate=1 March 2017}}</ref>这个发现表明生命在海洋形成后不久便出现了。据悉,微生物的结构与现代热液喷口附近发现的细菌相似,为生物发生始于热液喷口附近的假说提供了支持。<br />
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Biogenic [[graphite]] has been found in 3.7&nbsp;Gyo metasedimentary rocks from southwestern [[Greenland]]<ref name="NG-20131208">{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 }}</ref> and [[microbial mat]] fossils found in 3.48&nbsp;Gyo sandstone from [[Western Australia]].<ref name="AP-20131113">{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |date=13 November 2013 |title=Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=2015-06-02 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629230719/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html |archivedate=29 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="AST-20131108">{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |authorlink4=Robert Hazen |date=16 November 2013 |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ''ca.'' 3.48 Gyo Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–1124 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |pmc=3870916 |pmid=24205812}}</ref> Evidence of early life in rocks from [[Akilia]] Island, near the [[Isua Greenstone Belt|Isua supracrustal belt]] in southwestern Greenland, dating to 3.7&nbsp;Gya have shown biogenic [[carbon isotope]]s.<ref name="NYT-20160831">{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |title=World's Oldest Fossils Found in Greenland |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/01/science/oldest-fossils-on-earth.html |date=31 August 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=31 August 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831185959/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/01/science/oldest-fossils-on-earth.html |archivedate=31 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Davies|1999}}</ref> In other parts of the Isua supracrustal belt, graphite inclusions trapped within [[garnet]] crystals are connected to the other elements of life: oxygen, nitrogen, and possibly phosphorus in the form of [[phosphate]], providing further evidence for life 3.7&nbsp;Gya.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hassenkam|first1=T. |last2=Andersson |first2=M.P. |last3=Dalby|first3=K.N. |last4=Mackenzie |first4=D.M.A.|last5=Rosing |first5=M.T. |title=Elements of Eoarchean life trapped in mineral inclusions |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/nature23261 |pmid=28738409 |volume=548|issue=7665|pages=78–81 |year=2017 |bibcode=2017Natur.548...78H|s2cid=205257931 }}</ref> At Strelley Pool, in the [[Pilbara]] region of Western Australia, compelling evidence of early life was found in [[pyrite]]-bearing sandstone in a fossilized beach, that showed rounded tubular cells that [[Redox|oxidized]] sulfur by [[photosynthesis]] in the absence of oxygen.<ref name="TG-20131113-JP">{{cite news |last=Pearlman |first=Jonathan |date=13 November 2013 |title=Oldest signs of life on Earth found |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10445788/Oldest-signs-of-life-on-Earth-found.html |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |accessdate=2014-12-15 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216062531/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10445788/Oldest-signs-of-life-on-Earth-found.html |archivedate=16 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=O'Donoghue |first=James |date=21 August 2011 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20813-oldest-reliable-fossils-show-early-life-was-a-beach.html |title=Oldest reliable fossils show early life was a beach |journal=[[New Scientist]] |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150630201918/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20813-oldest-reliable-fossils-show-early-life-was-a-beach.html |archivedate=30 June 2015|doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(11)62064-2 |volume=211 |page=13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wacey |first1=David |last2=Kilburn |first2=Matt R. |last3=Saunders |first3=Martin |last4=Cliff |first4=John |last5=Brasier |first5=Martin D. |authorlink5=Martin Brasier |display-authors=3 |date=October 2011 |title=Microfossils of sulphur-metabolizing cells in 3.4-billion-year-old rocks of Western Australia |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=698–702 |bibcode=2011NatGe...4..698W |doi=10.1038/ngeo1238}}</ref> Further research on [[zircon]]s from Western Australia in 2015 suggested that life likely existed on Earth at least 4.1 Gya.<ref name="AP-20151019">{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=https://apnews.com/e6be2537b4cd46ffb9c0585bae2b2e51 |date=19 October 2015 |work=AP News |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=9 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf">{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112|pages=14518–14521 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.</ref><ref name="UCLA-20151019">{{cite web |last1=Wolpert |first1=Stuart |title=Life on Earth likely started at least 4.1 billion years ago – much earlier than scientists had thought |url=http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/life-on-earth-likely-started-at-least-4-1-billion-years-ago-much-earlier-than-scientists-had-thought |date=19 October 2015 |publisher=[[ULCA]] |accessdate=20 October 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020164038/http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/life-on-earth-likely-started-at-least-4-1-billion-years-ago-much-earlier-than-scientists-had-thought |archivedate=20 October 2015}}</ref><br />
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人们在格陵兰岛西南部距今37亿年前的变质岩中发现了生物石墨<ref name="NG-20131208">{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 }}</ref> ,在西澳大利亚距今34.8亿年前的砂岩中发现了微生物垫层化石<ref name="AP-20131113">{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |date=13 November 2013 |title=Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=2015-06-02 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629230719/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html |archivedate=29 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="AST-20131108">{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |authorlink4=Robert Hazen |date=16 November 2013 |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ''ca.'' 3.48 Gyo Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–1124 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |pmc=3870916 |pmid=24205812}}</ref>。在格陵兰岛西南部伊苏亚超地壳带附近的阿基利亚岛的岩石中发现了早期生命的证据,这些可追溯到37亿年前的证据中发现了生物碳同位素<ref name="NYT-20160831">{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |title=World's Oldest Fossils Found in Greenland |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/01/science/oldest-fossils-on-earth.html |date=31 August 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=31 August 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160831185959/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/01/science/oldest-fossils-on-earth.html |archivedate=31 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Davies|1999}}</ref> 。在伊苏亚超地壳带的其他地方,被困在石榴石晶体内的石墨包裹体与生命的其他元素:氧气、氮气和可能以磷酸盐形式存在的磷相连,为生命存在于37亿年前提供了进一步的证据<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hassenkam|first1=T. |last2=Andersson |first2=M.P. |last3=Dalby|first3=K.N. |last4=Mackenzie |first4=D.M.A.|last5=Rosing |first5=M.T. |title=Elements of Eoarchean life trapped in mineral inclusions |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/nature23261 |pmid=28738409 |volume=548|issue=7665|pages=78–81 |year=2017 |bibcode=2017Natur.548...78H|s2cid=205257931 }}</ref> 。在西澳大利亚皮尔巴拉地区的斯特•雷利池,在一个化石滩的含黄铁矿砂岩中发现了早期生命的令人信服的证据,它显示了圆形的管状细胞,在没有氧气的情况下通过光合作用氧化硫。2015年对西澳大利亚的锆石的进一步研究表明,地球上至少在41亿年前可能存在生命。<ref name="AP-20151019">{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=https://apnews.com/e6be2537b4cd46ffb9c0585bae2b2e51 |date=19 October 2015 |work=AP News |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=9 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf">{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112|pages=14518–14521 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112 |issue=47 |bibcode=2015PNAS..11214518B}} Early edition, published online before print.</ref><ref name="UCLA-20151019">{{cite web |last1=Wolpert |first1=Stuart |title=Life on Earth likely started at least 4.1 billion years ago – much earlier than scientists had thought |url=http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/life-on-earth-likely-started-at-least-4-1-billion-years-ago-much-earlier-than-scientists-had-thought |date=19 October 2015 |publisher=[[ULCA]] |accessdate=20 October 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020164038/http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/life-on-earth-likely-started-at-least-4-1-billion-years-ago-much-earlier-than-scientists-had-thought |archivedate=20 October 2015}}</ref><br />
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== 20世纪60年代以前的概念演变史:生物学 Conceptual history until the 1960s: biology ==<br />
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=== 泛种论 Panspermia ===<br />
泛种论<br />
{{Main|Panspermia}}<br />
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Panspermia is the [[hypothesis]] that [[life]] exists throughout the [[universe]], distributed by [[meteoroids]], [[asteroids]], [[comets]]<ref name="cometary panspermia"><br />
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泛种论是一种假说,即生命存在于整个宇宙,由流星体、小行星、彗星和行星分布。<ref name="cometary panspermia"><br />
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The panspermia hypothesis does not attempt to explain how life first originated but merely shifts the origin to another planet or a comet. The advantage of an extraterrestrial origin of primitive life is that life is not required to have formed on each planet it occurs on, but rather in a single location, and then spread about the [[galaxy]] to other star systems via cometary and/or meteorite impact.<ref name="NYT-20160912">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Visions of Life on Mars in Earth's Depths |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/13/science/south-african-mine-life-on-mars.html |date=12 September 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=12 September 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912225220/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/13/science/south-african-mine-life-on-mars.html |archivedate=12 September 2016}}</ref> <br />
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Evidence for the panspermia hypothesis is scant, but it finds some support in studies of [[Martian meteorite]]s found in [[Antarctica]] and in studies of [[extremophile]] microbes' survival in outer space tests.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clark |first=Stuart |date=25 September 2002 |title=Tough Earth bug may be from Mars |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2844 |journal=New Scientist |accessdate=2015-06-21 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202003401/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2844 |archivedate=2 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="Gerda Horneck">{{cite journal |last1=Horneck |first1=Gerda |last2=Klaus |first2=David M. |last3=Mancinelli |first3=Rocco L. |date=March 2010 |title=Space Microbiology |journal=[[Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews]] |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=121–156 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.00016-09 |pmc=2832349 |pmid=20197502|bibcode=2010MMBR...74..121H }}</ref><ref name="Rabbow">{{cite journal |last1=Rabbow |first1=Elke |last2=Horneck |first2=Gerda |last3=Rettberg |first3=Petra |last4=Schott |first4=Jobst-Ulrich |last5=Panitz |first5=Corinna |last6=L'Afflitto |first6=Andrea |last7=von Heise-Rotenburg |first7=Ralf |last8=Willnecker |first8=Reiner |last9=Baglioni |first9=Pietro |last10=Hatton |first10=Jason |last11=Dettmann |first11=Jan |last12=Demets |first12=René |last13=Reitz |first13=Günther |display-authors=3 |date=December 2009 |title=EXPOSE, an Astrobiological Exposure Facility on the International Space Station – from Proposal to Flight |journal=Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=581–598 |bibcode=2009OLEB...39..581R |doi=10.1007/s11084-009-9173-6|pmid=19629743|s2cid=19749414 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Onofri |first1=Silvano |last2=de la Torre |first2=Rosa |last3=de Vera |first3=Jean-Pierre |last4=Ott |first4=Sieglinde |last5=Zucconi |first5=Laura |last6=Selbmann |first6=Laura |last7=Scalzi |first7=Giuliano |last8=Venkateswaran |first8=Kasthuri J. |last9=Rabbow |first9=Elke |last10=Sánchez Iñigo |first10=Francisco J. |last11=Horneck |first11=Gerda |display-authors=3 |date=May 2012 |title=Survival of Rock-Colonizing Organisms After 1.5 Years in Outer Space |journal=Astrobiology |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=508–516 |bibcode=2012AsBio..12..508O |doi=10.1089/ast.2011.0736 |pmid=22680696}}</ref><br />
<br />
泛种论假说并不试图解释生命最初是如何起源的,而只是将起源转移到另一颗行星或彗星上。原始生命的地外起源的优点是,生命不需要在它出现的每个星球上形成,而是在一个单一的位置,然后通过彗星和/或陨石撞击在银河系周围传播到其他恒星系统.泛孢子虫假说的证据很少,但它在对南极洲发现的火星陨石的研究和对极端微生物在外太空测试中生存的研究中找到了一些支持。<br />
<br />
In August 2020, scientists reported that [[bacteria]] from Earth, particularly ''[[Deinococcus radiodurans]]'', which is highly resistant to [[environmental hazard]]s, were found to survive for three years in [[outer space]], based on studies conducted on the [[International Space Station]].<ref name="CNN-20200826">{{cite news |last=Strickland |first=Ashley |title=Bacteria from Earth can survive in space and could endure the trip to Mars, according to new study |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/26/world/earth-mars-bacteria-space-scn/index.html |date=26 August 2020 |work=[[CNN News]] |accessdate=26 August 2020 }}</ref><ref name="FM-20200826">{{cite journal |author=Kawaguchi, Yuko |display-authors=et al. |title=DNA Damage and Survival Time Course of Deinococcal Cell Pellets During 3 Years of Exposure to Outer Space |date=26 August 2020 |journal=[[Frontiers in Microbiology]] |volume=11 |page=2050 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2020.02050 |pmid=32983036 |pmc=7479814 |s2cid=221300151 |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
2020年8月,科学家报告称,根据在国际空间站上进行的研究,发现来自地球的细菌,特别是对环境危害有很强抵抗力的耐辐射球菌,可以在外太空存活3年。<br />
<br />
====Origin of life posited directly after the Big Bang and have spread over the entire Universe====<br />
<br />
生命起源在宇宙大爆炸后,遍布整个宇宙<br />
<br />
An extreme speculation is that the [[biochemistry]] of life could have begun as early as 17 My (million years) after the [[Big Bang]], during a [[Chronology of the universe#Speculative "habitable epoch"|habitable epoch]], and that life may exist throughout the [[universe]].<ref name="IJA-2014October_ARXIV-20131202">{{cite journal|last=Loeb|first=Abraham|authorlink=Abraham (Avi) Loeb|date=2014|title=The habitable epoch of the early universe|journal=[[International Journal of Astrobiology]]|volume=13|issue=4|pages=337–339|arxiv=1312.0613|bibcode=2014IJAsB..13..337L|citeseerx=10.1.1.748.4820|doi=10.1017/S1473550414000196|s2cid=2777386}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20141202">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/02/science/avi-loeb-ponders-the-early-universe-nature-and-life.html|title=Much-Discussed Views That Go Way Back|last=Dreifus|first=Claudia|date=2 December 2014|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=2014-12-03|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141203010758/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/02/science/avi-loeb-ponders-the-early-universe-nature-and-life.html|archivedate=3 December 2014|url-status=live|location=New York|page=D2|authorlink=Claudia Dreifus}}</ref><br />
<br />
一种极端的推测是生命的生物化学可能早在大爆炸后1700万年就开始了,在一个适宜居住的时期,生命可能存在于整个宇宙中。<br />
<br />
====Panspermia by life brought from Mars to Earth====<br />
<br />
生命从火星带入地球的泛种论<br />
<br />
Carl Zimmer has speculated that the chemical conditions, including the presence of [[boron]], [[molybdenum]] and oxygen needed for the initial production of RNA, may have been better on early Mars than on early Earth.<ref name="NYT-20130912">{{cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |date=12 September 2013 |title=A Far-Flung Possibility for the Origin of Life |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/12/science/space/a-far-flung-possibility-for-the-origin-of-life.html |newspaper=The New York Times |location=New York |accessdate=2015-06-15 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708122622/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/12/science/space/a-far-flung-possibility-for-the-origin-of-life.html |archivedate=8 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="NS-20130829">{{cite journal |last=Webb |first=Richard |date=29 August 2013 |title=Primordial broth of life was a dry Martian cup-a-soup |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn24120-primordial-broth-of-life-was-a-dry-martian-cupasoup.html |journal=New Scientist |accessdate=2015-06-16 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424181341/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn24120-primordial-broth-of-life-was-a-dry-martian-cupasoup.html |archivedate=24 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wentao Ma |author2=Chunwu Yu |author3=Wentao Zhang |author4=Jiming Hu |display-authors=3 |date=November 2007 |title=Nucleotide synthetase ribozymes may have emerged first in the RNA world |journal=[[RNA (journal)|RNA]] |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=2012–2019 |doi=10.1261/rna.658507 |pmc=2040096 |pmid=17878321}}</ref> If so, life-suitable molecules originating on Mars may have later migrated to Earth via [[Impact event|meteor ejections]].<br />
<br />
卡尔·齐默Carl Zimmer推测,火星早期的化学条件,包括最初生成RNA所需的硼,钼和氧的存在,可能比地球早期更好。如果是这样,起源于火星的适合生命的分子可能后来会通过流星喷射迁移到地球。<br />
<br />
=== Spontaneous generation ===<br />
自然发生<br />
====General acceptance of spontaneous generation until the 19th century====<br />
<br />
19世纪之前,人们普遍接受自然发生的现象。<br />
<br />
{{Main|Spontaneous generation}}<br />
<br />
Traditional religion attributed the origin of life to supernatural deities who created the natural world. ''Spontaneous generation,'' the first naturalistic theory of life arising from non-life, goes back to [[Aristotle]] and [[ancient Greek philosophy]], and continued to have support in Western scholarship until the 19th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Sheldon|2005}}</ref> Classical notions of spontaneous generation held that certain "lower" or "vermin" animals are generated by decaying organic substances. According to Aristotle, it was readily observable that [[aphid]]s arise from dew on plants, [[fly|flies]] from putrid matter, mice from dirty hay, crocodiles from rotting sunken logs, and so on.<ref>{{harvnb|Lennox|2001|pp=229–258}}</ref> A related theory was ''heterogenesis'': that some forms of life could arise from different forms (e.g. bees from flowers).<ref>{{harvnb|Vartanian|1973|pp=307–312}}</ref> The modern scientist [[John Desmond Bernal|John Bernal]] said that the basic idea of such theories was that life was continuously created as a result of chance events.<ref name="Bernal 1967">{{harvnb|Bernal|1967}}</ref><br />
<br />
传统宗教把生命的起源归结为超自然的神灵,他们创造了自然界。自发生成是第一个从非生命中产生生命的自然主义理论,它可以追溯到Aristotle和古希腊哲学,并在西方学术界一直得到支持,直到19世纪。"自然发生”的古典观念认为,某些 "低等 "或 "害虫 "动物是由腐烂的有机物质产生的。根据Aristotle的观点,很容易观察到蚜虫从植物上的露水中产生,苍蝇从腐烂的物质中产生,老鼠从肮脏的干草中产生,鳄鱼从腐烂的沉木中产生,等等。一个相关的理论是异生论:某些生命形式可以从不同的形式中产生(如蜜蜂从花中产生)。现代科学家约翰-贝纳尔John Desmond Bernal说,这种理论的基本思想是生命是作为偶然事件的结果而不断产生的。<br />
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In the 17th century, people began to question such assumptions. In 1646, [[Sir Thomas Browne|Thomas Browne]] published his ''[[Pseudodoxia Epidemica]]'' (subtitled ''Enquiries into Very many Received Tenets, and commonly Presumed Truths''), which was an attack on false beliefs and "vulgar errors." His contemporary, [[Alexander Ross (writer)|Alexander Ross]], erroneously refuted him, stating:<br />
< blockquote > To question this [spontaneous generation], is to question Reason, Sense, and Experience: If he doubts of this, let him go to ''[[Egypt|Ægypt]]'', and there he will find the fields swarming with mice begot of the mud of ''[[Nile|Nylus]]'', to the great calamity of the Inhabitants.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Balme |first=D.M. |authorlink=David Mowbray Balme |year=1962 |title=Development of Biology in Aristotle and Theophrastus: Theory of Spontaneous Generation |journal=[[Phronesis (journal)|Phronesis]] |volume=7 |issue=1–2 |pages=91–104 |doi=10.1163/156852862X00052}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Ross|1652}}</ref>< /blockquote ><br />
<br />
在17世纪,人们开始质疑这些假设。1646年,托马斯·布朗出版了他的《伪传染病》(副标题为《对许多公认的原则和公认的真理的询问》),该书攻击了错误的信仰和“庸俗的错误”。与他同时代的亚历山大·罗斯错误地驳斥了他,称:<br />
<br />
< blockquote > <br />
质疑这个自然发生,就是质疑理性、感觉和经验。如果他怀疑这一点,让他去埃及, 在那里,他将会发现田野里到处都是由尼罗斯的泥土生出的老鼠, 给当地居民带来了巨大的灾难。<br />
< /blockquote > <br />
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[[File:Anton van Leeuwenhoek.png|thumb|upright|Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]]<br />
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安东尼·范·吕文霍克<br />
<br />
In 1665, [[Robert Hooke]] published the first drawings of a [[microorganism]]. Hooke was followed in 1676 by [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]], who drew and described microorganisms that are now thought to have been [[protozoa]] and [[bacteria]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dobell|1960}}</ref> Many felt the existence of microorganisms was evidence in support of spontaneous generation, since microorganisms seemed too simplistic for [[sexual reproduction]], and [[asexual reproduction]] through [[mitosis|cell division]] had not yet been observed. Van Leeuwenhoek took issue with the ideas common at the time that fleas and lice could spontaneously result from [[putrefaction]], and that frogs could likewise arise from slime. Using a broad range of experiments ranging from sealed and open meat incubation and the close study of insect reproduction he became, by the 1680s, convinced that spontaneous generation was incorrect.<ref>{{harvnb|Bondeson|1999}}</ref><br />
<br />
1665年,罗伯特-胡克Robert Hooke发表了第一本微生物的图画。1676年,安东尼·范·列文虎克(Antonie van Leeuwenhoek)紧随其后,绘制并描述了现在被认为是原生动物和细菌的微生物。许多人认为微生物的存在是支持自然发生的证据,因为微生物对于有性生殖来说似乎过于简单,而通过细胞分裂的无性生殖尚未被观察到。范·列文虎克对当时常见的跳蚤和虱子可能由腐烂作用自发产生,以及青蛙同样可能由粘液产生的观点提出了异议。他利用广泛的实验,从密封和开放的肉体孵化以及对昆虫繁殖的仔细研究,到1680年代,他确信自然发生是不正确的。<br />
<br />
The first experimental evidence against spontaneous generation came in 1668 when [[Francesco Redi]] showed that no [[maggot]]s appeared in meat when flies were prevented from laying eggs. It was gradually shown that, at least in the case of all the higher and readily visible organisms, the previous sentiment regarding spontaneous generation was false. The alternative hypothesis was ''[[biogenesis]]'': that every living thing came from a pre-existing living thing (''omne vivum ex ovo'', Latin for "every living thing from an egg").<ref name=lev>{{cite web |vauthors=Levine R, Evers C |title=The Slow Death of Spontaneous Generation (1668-1859) |url=http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BC/Spontaneous_Generation.php |accessdate=18 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080426191204/http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BC/Spontaneous_Generation.php |archivedate=26 April 2008 }}</ref> In 1768, [[Lazzaro Spallanzani]] demonstrated that [[microorganism|microbes]] were present in the air, and could be killed by boiling. In 1861, [[Louis Pasteur]] performed a series of experiments that demonstrated that organisms such as bacteria and fungi do not spontaneously appear in sterile, nutrient-rich media, but could only appear by invasion from without.<br />
<br />
第一个反对自然发生的实验证据是在1668年,当时弗朗西斯科·雷迪 Francesco Redi表明,当阻止苍蝇产卵时,肉中不会出现蛆虫。人们逐渐发现,至少在所有高等和易见生物的情况下,以前关于自发生成的观点是错误的。1768年,拉扎罗-斯帕兰扎尼(Lazzaro Spallanzani)证明了空气中存在微生物,并且可以通过煮沸杀死。1861年,路易-巴斯德Louis Pasteur进行了一系列实验,证明细菌和真菌等生物在无菌、营养丰富的培养基中不会自发出现,只能通过从外部入侵出现。<br />
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====Spontaneous generation considered disproven in the 19th century====<br />
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自然发生在19世纪被认为是不成立的。<br />
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[[File:Louis Pasteur, foto av Paul Nadar, Crisco edit.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Louis Pasteur]]<br />
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路易斯·巴斯德(Louis Pasteur)<br />
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[[File:Darwin restored2.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Head and shoulders portrait, increasingly bald with rather uneven bushy white eyebrows and beard, his wrinkled forehead suggesting a puzzled frown|[[Charles Darwin]] in 1879]]<br />
<br />
查尔斯·达尔文(1879年)<br />
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By the middle of the 19th century, biogenesis had accumulated so much evidence in support that the alternative theory of spontaneous generation had been effectively disproven. [[Louis Pasteur|Pasteur]] remarked, about a finding of his in 1864 which he considered definitive, < blockquote >Never will the doctrine of spontaneous generation recover from the mortal blow struck by this simple experiment.<ref>{{harvnb|Oparin|1953|p=196}}</ref><ref name="Tyndall Fragments2">{{harvnb|Tyndall|1905|loc=IV, XII (1876), XIII (1878)}}</ref> < /blockquote >gave a mechanism by which life diversified from a few simple organisms to a variety of to complex forms. Today, scientists agree that all current life descends from earlier life, which has become progressively more complex and diverse through [[Charles Darwin]]'s mechanism of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]].<br />
<br />
Darwin wrote to Hooker in 1863 stating that, < blockquote >It is mere rubbish, thinking at present of the origin of life; one might as well think of the origin of matter.< /blockquote > In ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'', he had referred to life having been "created", by which he "really meant 'appeared' by some wholly unknown process", but had soon regretted using the Old Testament term "creation".{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}<br />
<br />
到19世纪中叶,生物发生学已经积累了大量的证据,以至于自然发生的替代理论已经被有效地否定。Pasteur说,他在1864年的一项发现被他认为是决定性的:<br />
<br />
< blockquote ><br />
生物起源的学说永远不会从这个简单的实验所带来的致命打击中恢复过来。<br />
< blockquote ><br />
<br />
实验给出了一个机制,通过这个机制,生命从几个简单的生物体多样化到各种复杂的形式。今天,科学家们一致认为,目前所有的生命都是早期生命的后裔,而早期生命通过Charles Darwin的自然选择进化机制,逐渐变得更加复杂和多样化。Darwin在1863年给Hooker写信指出:<br />
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< blockquote ><br />
目前思考生命的起源只是垃圾,还不如思考物质的起源。<br />
< blockquote ><br />
<br />
在《物种起源》中,他曾提到生命是 "被创造的",他说生命是“被创造出来的”,“实际上是指通过某种完全未知的过程‘出现’”,但很快就后悔使用旧约中的“创造”一词但很快就后悔使用《旧约》中的 "创造 "一词。<br />
<br />
==== Etymology of biogenesis and abiogenesis====<br />
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生物起源和非生物起源的词源学<br />
<br />
<!--This section is the for topic in general, so the following timeline of specific molecule discovery seems out of place:<br />
<br />
< ! ——这一部分是一般的主题,所以下面的具体分子发现时间表似乎不合适:<br />
<br />
{{Main|Biogenesis}}<br />
<br />
The term ''biogenesis'' is usually credited to either [[Henry Charlton Bastian|Henry Bastian]] or to [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Thomas Huxley]].<ref name="eohtBiogenesis">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Hmolpedia |title=Biogenesis |url=http://www.eoht.info/page/Biogenesis |accessdate=2014-05-19 |publisher=WikiFoundry, Inc. |location=Ancaster, Ontario, Canada |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140520001148/http://www.eoht.info/page/Biogenesis |archivedate=20 May 2014}}</ref> Bastian used the term around 1869 in an unpublished exchange with [[John Tyndall]] to mean "life-origination or commencement". In 1870, Huxley, as new president of the [[British Science Association|British Association for the Advancement of Science]], delivered an address entitled ''Biogenesis and Abiogenesis''.<ref name="Huxley 1968">{{harvnb|Huxley|1968}}</ref> In it he introduced the term ''biogenesis'' (with an opposite meaning to Bastian's) as well as ''abiogenesis'':<br />
<br />
生物起源一词通常归功于亨利-巴斯蒂安Henry Bastian或托马斯-赫胥黎Thomas Huxley.。Bastian大约在1869年与约翰-廷德尔John Tyndall的一次未发表的交流中使用了这个词,意思是 "生命起源或开始"。1870年,Huxley作为英国科学促进会的新任主席,发表了题为《生物起源和非生物起源》的演讲。在演讲中,他介绍了生物起源(与Bastian的意思相反)以及非生物起源这个术语。<br />
<br />
:And thus the hypothesis that living matter always arises by the agency of pre-existing living matter, took definite shape; and had, henceforward, a right to be considered and a claim to be refuted, in each particular case, before the production of living matter in any other way could be admitted by careful reasoners. It will be necessary for me to refer to this hypothesis so frequently, that, to save circumlocution, I shall call it the hypothesis of ''Biogenesis''; and I shall term the contrary doctrine—that living matter may be produced by not living matter—the hypothesis of ''Abiogenesis''.<ref name="Huxley 1968" /><br />
<br />
因此,关于生命物质总是由先前存在的生命物质的机构产生的假说,就有了明确的形式;并且,从今以后,在仔细的推理者能够承认以任何其他方式产生生命物质之前,在每一个特定的情况下,都有权利被考虑和被驳斥的主张。我有必要经常提到这个假说,所以,为了节省周折,我将把它称为生物起源论的假说;而我将把相反的学说--有生命的物质可能由无生命的物质产生--称为非生物起源论的假说。<br />
<br />
--><br />
<br />
--><br />
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Subsequently, in the preface to Bastian's 1871 book, ''The Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms'',<ref>{{harvnb|Bastian|1871}}</ref> Bastian referred to the possible confusion with Huxley's usage and explicitly renounced his own meaning:<br />
<br />
随后,在Bastian1871年出版的《最低级生物的起源模式》一书的序言中,Bastian提到了可能与Huxley的用法相混淆,并明确放弃了自己的意思。<br />
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:A word of explanation seems necessary with regard to the introduction of the new term ''Archebiosis''. I had originally, in unpublished writings, adopted the word ''Biogenesis'' to express the same meaning—viz., life-origination or commencement. But in the meantime, the word ''Biogenesis'' has been made use of, quite independently, by a distinguished biologist [Huxley], who wished to make it bear a totally different meaning. He also introduced the word ''Abiogenesis''. I have been informed, however, on the best authority, that neither of these words can—with any regard to the language from which they are derived—be supposed to bear the meanings which have of late been publicly assigned to them. Wishing to avoid all needless confusion, I therefore renounced the use of the word ''Biogenesis'', and being, for the reason just given, unable to adopt the other term, I was compelled to introduce a new word, in order to designate the process by which living matter is supposed to come into being, independently of pre-existing living matter.<ref>{{harvnb|Bastian|1871|p=[https://ia902701.us.archive.org/BookReader/BookReaderImages.php?zip=/23/items/modesoforiginofl00bast/modesoforiginofl00bast_jp2.zip&file=modesoforiginofl00bast_jp2/modesoforiginofl00bast_0015.jp2&scale=4&rotate=0 xi–xii]}}</ref><br />
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Since the end of the nineteenth century, 'evolutive abiogenesis' means increasing complexity and evolution of matter from inert to living states.<ref>[https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-642-27833-4_2-4 Abiogenesis – Definition]. 20 April 2015. ''Encyclopedia of Astrobiology''. {{doi|10.1007/978-3-642-27833-4_2-4}}</ref><br />
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关于新术语 "生命起源 "的引入,似乎有必要作一解释。我最初在未发表的著作中,采用了 "生物起源 "一词来表达同样的意思,即生命的起源或开始。但与此同时,生物起源这个词已经被一位杰出的生物学家Huxley独立地使用了,他希望使它具有完全不同的意义。他还介绍了生命起源这个词。然而,我从最权威的人士那里得知,这些词无论它们在自什么语言,都不应具有最近公开赋予它们的含义。为了避免一切不必要的混淆,我因此放弃了使用 "生物起源 "这个词,而且由于刚才所讲的原因,我无法采用另一个词,我不得不引入一个新词,以便指定生命物质被认为是独立于先前存在的生命物质而产生的过程。<br />
自19世纪末以来,'演化性非生物起源'是指物质从惰性状态到生命状态的复杂性和演化性的增加。<br />
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=== Oparin: Primordial soup hypothesis ===<br />
奥帕林:原始汤假说<br />
{{Main|Primordial soup}}<br />
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{{further|Miller–Urey experiment}}<br />
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There is no single generally accepted model for the origin of life. Scientists have proposed several plausible hypotheses which share some common elements. While differing in details, these hypotheses are based on the framework laid out by [[Alexander Oparin]] (in 1924) and [[J. B. S. Haldane|John Haldane]] (in 1925), that the first molecules constituting the earliest cells < blockquote >. . . were synthesized under natural conditions by a slow process of molecular evolution, and these molecules then organized into the first molecular system with properties with biological order".<ref name="bah2">{{cite journal|last=Bahadur|first=Krishna|year=1973|title=Photochemical Formation of Self–sustaining Coacervates|url=http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b73_455.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy|volume=39B|issue=4|pages=455–467|doi=10.1016/S0044-4057(75)80076-1|pmid=1242552|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019172800/http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005b73_455.pdf|archivedate=19 October 2013}}<br />
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对于生命的起源,没有一个普遍接受的模式。科学家们提出了几种可信的假说,这些假说有一些共同的内容。这些假说虽然在细节上有所不同,但都是基于亚历山大-奥帕林Alexander Oparin(1924年)和约翰-霍尔丹John Haldane(1925年)提出的框架,即构成最早的细胞的第一批分子。<br />
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< blockquote ><br />
...是在自然条件下通过缓慢的分子进化过程合成的,然后这些分子组成第一个具有生物秩序特性的分子系统"。<br />
< blockquote ><br />
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* {{cite journal|last=Bahadur|first=Krishna|year=1975|title=Photochemical Formation of Self-Sustaining Coacervates|journal=[[Microbiological Research|Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene]]|volume=130|issue=3|pages=211–218|doi=10.1016/S0044-4057(75)80076-1|oclc=641018092|pmid=1242552}}</ref> < /blockquote >Oparin and Haldane suggested that the atmosphere of the early Earth may have been chemically reducing in nature, composed primarily of methane (CH<sub>4</sub>), ammonia (NH<sub>3</sub>), water (H<sub>2</sub>O), hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S), carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) or carbon monoxide (CO), and [[phosphate]] (PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup>), with molecular oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) and [[ozone]] (O<sub>3</sub>) either rare or absent. According to later models, the atmosphere in the late Hadean period consisted largely of nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>) and carbon dioxide, with smaller amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>), and sulfur compounds;<ref>{{harvnb|Kasting|1993|p=922}}</ref> while it did lack molecular oxygen and ozone,<ref>{{harvnb|Kasting|1993|p=920}}</ref> it was not as chemically reducing as Oparin and Haldane supposed.<br />
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Oparin和Haldane提出,早期地球的大气可能具有化学还原性,主要由甲烷(CH<sub>4</sub>)、氨(NH<sub>3</sub>)、水(H<sub>2</sub>O)、硫化氢(H<sub>2</sub>S、二氧化碳(CO<sub>2</sub>)或一氧化碳(CO)和磷酸盐(PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup>)组成,氧气(O<sub>2</sub>)和臭氧(O<sub>3</sub>)很少或没有。根据后来的模型,冥古代晚期的大气主要由氮气(N<sub>2</sub>)和二氧化碳组成,还有少量的一氧化碳、氢气(H<sub>2</sub>)和硫磺化合物;虽然它确实缺乏分子氧和臭氧,但它并不像Oparin和Haldane所认为的那样具有化学还原性。<br />
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No new notable research or hypothesis on the subject appeared until 1924, when Oparin reasoned that atmospheric oxygen prevents the synthesis of certain organic compounds that are necessary building blocks for life. In his book ''The Origin of Life'',<ref>{{harvnb|Bernal|1967|loc=[http://www.valencia.edu/~orilife/textos/The%20Origin%20of%20Life.pdf ''The Origin of Life'' (A.I. Oparin, 1924), pp. 199–234]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Oparin|1953}}</ref> he proposed (echoing Darwin) that the "spontaneous generation of life" that had been attacked by Pasteur did, in fact, occur once, but was now impossible because the conditions found on the early Earth had changed, and preexisting organisms would immediately consume any spontaneously generated organism. Oparin argued that a "primeval soup" of organic molecules could be created in an oxygenless atmosphere through the action of [[sunlight]]. These would combine in ever more complex ways until they formed [[coacervate]] droplets. These droplets would "[[cell growth|grow]]" by fusion with other droplets, and "[[reproduction|reproduce]]" through fission into daughter droplets, and so have a primitive [[metabolism]] in which factors that promote "cell integrity" survive, and those that do not become [[Extinction|extinct]]. Many modern theories of the origin of life still take Oparin's ideas as a starting point.<br />
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直到1924年,Oparin推理出大气中的氧气阻碍了某些有机化合物的合成,而这些有机化合物是生命的必要构件,才出现了关于这个问题的新的显著研究或假说。在他的《生命的起源》一书中,他提出(与Darwin相呼应),被Pasteur抨击的 "生命的自然发生"事实上确实曾经发生过,但现在是不可能的,因为早期地球上发现的条件已经发生了变化,先前存在的生物体会立即消耗任何自发产生的生物体。Oparin认为,在无氧的大气中,通过太阳光的作用,可以产生有机分子的 "原始汤"。这些分子会以越来越复杂的方式结合在一起,直到形成共酸液滴。这些液滴会通过与其他液滴的融合而 "成长",并通过裂变 "繁殖 "成子液滴,因此具有原始的新陈代谢,在这种新陈代谢中,能促进 "细胞完整性 "的因子得以生存,而不能生存的因子则会灭绝。现代许多关于生命起源的理论仍然以Oparin的思想为出发点。<br />
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About this time, Haldane suggested that the Earth's prebiotic oceans (quite different from their modern counterparts) would have formed a "hot dilute soup" in which organic compounds could have formed. Bernal called this idea ''biopoiesis'' or ''biopoesis'', the process of living matter evolving from self-replicating but non-living molecules,<ref name="Bernal 1967" /><ref>{{harvnb|Bryson|2004|pp=300–302}}</ref> and proposed that biopoiesis passes through a number of intermediate stages.<br />
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大约在这个时候,Haldane提出,地球上的前生物海洋(与现代的同类海洋截然不同)会形成一种 "热稀汤",有机化合物可能在其中形成。Bernal将这一观点称为生物创建或生物创造,即有生命的物质从自我复制但无生命的分子中演化出来的过程,并提出生物创建经过一些中间阶段。<br />
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[[Robert Shapiro (chemist)|Robert Shapiro]] has summarized the "primordial soup" theory of Oparin and Haldane in its "mature form" as follows:<ref>{{harvnb|Shapiro|1987|p=110}}</ref><br />
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罗伯特-夏皮罗Robert Shapiro将Oparin和Haldane的 "原始汤 "理论的 "成熟形态 "总结如下:<br />
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# The early Earth had a chemically [[reducing atmosphere]].<br />
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早期的地球有一个化学还原的大气层。<br />
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# This atmosphere, exposed to [[energy]] in various forms, produced simple organic compounds ("[[monomer]]s").<br />
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这种大气层暴露在各种形式的能量之下,产生了简单的有机化合物("单质")。<br />
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# These compounds accumulated in a "soup" that may have concentrated at various locations (shorelines, [[Hydrothermal vent|oceanic vents]] etc.).<br />
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这些化合物积聚在 "汤 "中,可能集中在不同的地点(海岸线、海洋喷口等)。<br />
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# By further transformation, more complex organic [[polymer]]s—and ultimately life—developed in the soup.<br />
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通过进一步的转化,更复杂的有机聚合物--最终在汤中发展出生命。<br />
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===John Bernal===<br />
约翰•伯纳尔<br />
John Bernal showed that based upon this and subsequent work there is no difficulty in principle in forming most of the molecules we recognize as the necessary molecules for life from their inorganic precursors. The underlying hypothesis held by Oparin, Haldane, Bernal, Miller and Urey, for instance, was that multiple conditions on the primeval Earth favoured chemical reactions that synthesized the same set of complex organic compounds from such simple precursors. <br />
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John Bernal 表明,基于这一研究和随后的工作,从无机前体中形成我们所认识到的生命所必需的大部分分子原则上没有困难。例如,Oparin、Haldane、Bernal、Miller和Urey所持的基本假设是,原始地球上的多种条件有利于化学反应,从这种简单的前体合成同一组复杂的有机化合物。<br />
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Bernal coined the term ''biopoiesis'' in 1949 to refer to the origin of life.<ref>{{harvnb|Bernal|1951}}</ref> In 1967, he suggested that it occurred in three "stages":<br />
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Bernal在1949年创造了生物创建这一术语,用来指代生命的起源。1967年,他提出生命的起源是分三个 "阶段 "发生的。<br />
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# the origin of biological monomers<br />
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生物单体的起源<br />
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# the origin of biological polymers<br />
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生物聚合物的起源<br />
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# the evolution from molecules to cells<br />
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从分子到细胞的演变<br />
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Bernal suggested that evolution commenced between stages 1 and 2. Bernal regarded the third stage, in which biological reactions were incorporated behind a cell's boundary, as the most difficult. Modern work on the way that [[cell membrane]]s self-assemble, and the work on micropores in various substrates, may be a key step towards understanding the development of independent free-living cells.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Martin |first= William F. |authorlink= William F. Martin |date= January 2003 |title= On the origins of cells: a hypothesis for the evolutionary transitions from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokaryotes to nucleated cells |journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A |volume= 358 |issue= 1429 |pages= 59–83 |doi= 10.1098/rstb.2002.1183 |pmid=12594918 |pmc=1693102}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Bernal |first= John Desmond |authorlink= John Desmond Bernal |date= September 1949 |title= The Physical Basis of Life |journal= Proceedings of the Physical Society, Section A |volume= 62 |issue= 9 |pages= 537–558 |bibcode= 1949PPSA...62..537B |doi= 10.1088/0370-1298/62/9/301 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kauffman|1995}}</ref><br />
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Bernal认为,进化始于第一和第二阶段之间。Bernal认为第三阶段是最困难的阶段,在这一阶段,生物反应被纳入细胞的边界之后。现代对细胞膜自组装方式的研究,以及对各种基质中微孔的研究,可能是理解独立自由生活细胞发展的关键一步。<br />
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===Miller–Urey experiment===<br />
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米勒-乌雷实验<br />
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[[File:Miller1999.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Stanley Miller]]<br />
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斯坦利·米勒<br />
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[[File:Miller-Urey.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Miller–Urey experiment JP]] <br />
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Miller–Urey实验JP<br />
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One of the most important pieces of experimental support for the "soup" theory came in 1952. [[Stanley L. Miller|Stanley Miller]] and [[Harold C. Urey|Harold Urey]] performed an experiment that demonstrated how organic molecules could have spontaneously formed from inorganic precursors under conditions like those posited by the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis. The now-famous [[Miller–Urey experiment]] used a highly reducing mixture of gases—[[methane]], [[ammonia]], and [[hydrogen gas|hydrogen]], as well as [[water vapor]]—to form simple organic monomers such as amino acids.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Stanley L. |authorlink=Stanley Miller |date=15 May 1953 |title=A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=117 |issue=3046 |pages=528–529 |bibcode=1953Sci...117..528M |doi=10.1126/science.117.3046.528 |pmid=13056598}}</ref> The mixture of gases was cycled through an apparatus that delivered electrical sparks to the mixture. After one week, it was found that about 10% to 15% of the carbon in the system was then in the form of a [[racemic mixture]] of organic compounds, including amino acids, which are the building blocks of [[protein]]s. This provided direct experimental support for the second point of the "soup" theory, and it is around the remaining two points of the theory that much of the debate now centers.<br />
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“汤 ”理论最重要的实验支持之一是在1952年。Stanley Miller和Harold Urey做了一个实验,证明了在类似Oparin-Haldane假说所提出的条件下,有机分子是如何从无机前体自发形成的。现在著名的Miller-Urey实验使用高度还原性的混合气体--甲烷、氨、氢以及水蒸气--形成简单的有机单体,如氨基酸。一周后,发现系统中约有10%至15%的碳以有机化合物的外消旋混合物的形式存在,其中包括氨基酸,而氨基酸是蛋白质的构件。这为 "汤 "理论的第二点提供了直接的实验支持,而现在很多争论的焦点正是围绕着该理论的其余两点。<br />
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A 2011 reanalysis of the saved vials containing the original extracts that resulted from the Miller and Urey experiments, using current and more advanced analytical equipment and technology, has uncovered more biochemicals than originally discovered in the 1950s. One of the more important findings was 23 amino acids, far more than the five originally found.<ref name="pmid21422282">{{cite journal |last1=Parker |first1=Eric T. |last2=Cleaves |first2=Henderson J. |last3=Dworkin |first3=Jason P. |last4=Glavin |first4=Daniel P. |last5=Callahan |first5=Michael |last6=Aubrey |first6=Andrew |last7=Lazcano |first7=Antonio |last8=Bada |first8=Jeffrey L. |display-authors=3 |date=5 April 2011 |title=Primordial synthesis of amines and amino acids in a 1958 Miller H<sub>2</sub>S-rich spark discharge experiment |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=108 |issue=14 |pages=5526–5531 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.5526P |doi=10.1073/pnas.1019191108 |pmc=3078417 |pmid=21422282 }}</ref><br />
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2011年,利用目前更先进的分析设备和技术,对Miller和Urey实验产生的含有原始提取物的保存瓶进行了重新分析,发现了比20世纪50年代最初发现的更多的生化物质。其中比较重要的发现是23种氨基酸,远远超过原来发现的5种。<br />
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== Primordial origin of biological molecules: Chemistry ==<br />
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生物分子的原始起源: 化学 <br />
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The chemical processes on the pre-biotic early Earth are called [[chemical evolution (disambiguation)|''chemical evolution'']]. <br />
The [[Chemical element|elements]], except for hydrogen and helium, ultimately derive from [[stellar nucleosynthesis]]. In 2016, astronomers reported that the very basic chemical ingredients of [[life]]—the [[Carbon-hydrogen bond|carbon-hydrogen molecule]] (CH, or [[methylidyne radical]]), the carbon-hydrogen positive ion (CH+) and the carbon ion (C+)—are largely the result of [[ultraviolet light]] from stars, rather than other forms of radiation from [[supernovae]] and [[young star]]s, as thought earlier.<ref name="NASA-20161012">{{cite web |last=Landau |first=Elizabeth |title=Building Blocks of Life's Building Blocks Come From Starlight |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=6645 |date=12 October 2016 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=13 October 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013135018/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=6645 |archivedate=13 October 2016}}</ref> Complex molecules, including organic molecules, form naturally both in space and on planets.<ref name="Ehrenfreund2010" /> There are two possible sources of organic molecules on the early Earth:<br />
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生物前的早期地球的化学过程称为化学进化。除氢和氦外,其他元素最终都来自于恒星核合成。2016年,天文学家报告说,生命的非常基本的化学成分--碳氢分子(CH,或称甲基炔基)、碳氢正离子(CH+)和碳离子(C+)--主要是来自恒星的紫外线的结果,而不是之前认为的来自超新星和年轻恒星的其他辐射形式。复杂的分子,包括有机分子,在太空和行星上自然形成。早期地球上的有机分子有两种可能的来源:<br />
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# Terrestrial origins – organic molecule synthesis driven by impact shocks or by other energy sources (such as UV light, [[Organic redox reaction|redox]] coupling, or electrical discharges; e.g., Miller's experiments)<br />
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地面起源 -- -- 撞击冲击或其他能量源(如紫外光、氧化还原耦合或放电;如米勒的实验)驱动的有机分子合成。<br />
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# Extraterrestrial origins – formation of organic molecules in [[Interstellar cloud|interstellar dust clouds]], which rain down on planets.<ref name="Gawlowicz 2011">{{cite news |last=Gawlowicz |first=Susan |date=6 November 2011 |title=Carbon-based organic 'carriers' in interstellar dust clouds? Newly discovered diffuse interstellar bands |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/11/111102161149.htm |work=[[Science Daily]] |location=Rockville, MD |publisher=ScienceDaily, LLC |accessdate=2015-06-08 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711114643/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/11/111102161149.htm |archivedate=11 July 2015}} Post is reprinted from materials provided by the [[Rochester Institute of Technology]].<br />
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地外起源--星际尘埃云中有机分子的形成,这些尘埃云降到行星上。<br />
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=== Observed extraterrestrial organic molecules ===<br />
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观察到的外星有机分子观察到的外星有机分子<br />
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{{See also|List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules|Panspermia#Pseudo-panspermia}}<br />
<br />
An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid chemicals whose molecules contain carbon. Carbon is the [[Abundance of the chemical elements|fourth most abundant element in the Universe by mass]] after hydrogen, [[helium]], and oxygen.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Science |title=biological abundance of elements |url=http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/elbio.html |publisher=David Darling Enterprises |location=Dundee, Scotland |accessdate=2008-10-09 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204033420/http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/elbio.html |archivedate=4 February 2012}}</ref> Carbon is abundant in the Sun, stars, comets, and in the [[Celestial body's atmosphere|atmospheres]] of most planets.<ref name="NASA-20140221">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/ames/need-to-track-organic-nano-particles-across-the-universe-nasas-got-an-app-for-that/ |title=Need to Track Organic Nano-Particles Across the Universe? NASA's Got an App for That |last=Hoover |first=Rachel |date=21 February 2014 |website=[[Ames Research Center]] |publisher=NASA |location=Mountain View, CA |accessdate=2015-06-22 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906061428/http://www.nasa.gov/ames/need-to-track-organic-nano-particles-across-the-universe-nasas-got-an-app-for-that/ |archivedate=6 September 2015}}</ref> Organic compounds are relatively common in space, formed by "factories of complex molecular synthesis" which occur in [[molecular cloud]]s and [[circumstellar envelope]]s, and chemically evolve after reactions are initiated mostly by [[ionizing radiation]].<ref name="Ehrenfreund2010">{{cite journal |last1=Ehrenfreund |first1=Pascale |last2=Cami |first2=Jan |date=December 2010 |title=Cosmic carbon chemistry: from the interstellar medium to the early Earth. |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=2 |issue=12 |page=a002097 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a002097 |pmc=2982172 |pmid=20554702}}</ref><ref name="FromADistantComet">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=18 August 2009 |title=From a Distant Comet, a Clue to Life |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/19/science/space/19comet.html |newspaper=The New York Times |location=New York |page=A18 |accessdate=2015-06-22 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623005046/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/19/science/space/19comet.html |archivedate=23 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goncharuk |first1=Vladislav V. |last2=Zui |first2=O. V. |date=February 2015 |title=Water and carbon dioxide as the main precursors of organic matter on Earth and in space |journal=Journal of Water Chemistry and Technology |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=2–3 |doi=10.3103/S1063455X15010026 |s2cid=97965067 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abou Mrad |first1=Ninette |last2=Vinogradoff |first2=Vassilissa |last3=Duvernay |first3=Fabrice |last4=Danger |first4=Grégoire |last5=Theulé |first5=Patrice |last6=Borget |first6=Fabien |last7=Chiavassa |first7=Thierry |display-authors=3 |year=2015 |title=Laboratory experimental simulations: Chemical evolution of the organic matter from interstellar and cometary ice analogs |url=http://popups.ulg.ac.be/0037-9565/index.php?id=4621&file=1|journal=Bulletin de la Société Royale des Sciences de Liège |volume=84 |pages=21–32 |bibcode=2015BSRSL..84...21A |accessdate=2015-04-06 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413050621/http://popups.ulg.ac.be/0037-9565/index.php?id=4621&file=1 |archivedate=13 April 2015}}</ref> Based on [[computer simulation|computer model studies]], the complex organic molecules necessary for life may have formed on dust grains in the protoplanetary disk surrounding the Sun before the formation of the Earth.<ref name="Space-20120329" /> According to the computer studies, this same process may also occur around other stars that acquire planets.<ref name="Space-20120329" /><br />
<br />
有机化合物是指分子中含有碳的一大类气态、液态或固态化学品的任何成员。按质量计算,碳是宇宙中仅次于氢、氦和氧的第四大丰富元素。碳在太阳、恒星、彗星和大多数行星的大气层中含量丰富。有机化合物在太空中比较常见,是由分子云和环星包层中出现的 "复杂分子合成工厂 "形成的,主要由电离辐射引发反应后发生化学演变。 根据计算机模型研究,在地球形成之前,生命所需的复杂有机分子可能已经在太阳周围原行星盘的尘粒上形成。根据计算机研究,这一过程也可能发生在其他获得行星的恒星周围。<br />
<br />
====Amino acids====<br />
氨基酸<br />
NASA announced in 2009 that scientists had identified another fundamental chemical building block of life in a comet for the first time, glycine, an amino acid, which was detected in material ejected from comet [[81P/Wild|Wild 2]] in 2004 and grabbed by NASA's [[Stardust (spacecraft)|''Stardust'']] probe. Glycine has been detected in meteorites before. Carl Pilcher, who leads the [[NASA Astrobiology Institute]] commented that < blockquote >The discovery of glycine in a comet supports the idea that the fundamental building blocks of life are prevalent in space, and strengthens the argument that life in the universe may be common rather than rare.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=18 August 2009 |title='Life chemical' detected in comet |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8208307.stm |work=BBC News |location=London |accessdate=2015-06-23 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525071228/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8208307.stm |archivedate=25 May 2015}}</ref>< /blockquote > Comets are encrusted with outer layers of dark material, thought to be a [[tar]]-like substance composed of complex organic material formed from simple carbon compounds after reactions initiated mostly by ionizing radiation. It is possible that a rain of material from comets could have brought significant quantities of such complex organic molecules to Earth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=William Reid |last2=Murray |first2=B. G. |last3=Khare |first3=Bishun Narain |authorlink3=Bishun Khare |last4=Sagan |first4=Carl |date=30 December 1987 |title=Coloration and darkening of methane clathrate and other ices by charged particle irradiation: Applications to the outer solar system |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=92 |issue=A13 |pages=14933–14947 |bibcode=1987JGR....9214933T |doi=10.1029/JA092iA13p14933 |pmid=11542127}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.llnl.gov/news/life-earth-shockingly-comes-out-world |title=Life on Earth shockingly comes from out of this world |last=Stark |first=Anne M. |date=5 June 2013 |publisher=[[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] |location=Livermore, CA |accessdate=2015-06-23 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916135630/https://www.llnl.gov/news/life-earth-shockingly-comes-out-world |archivedate=16 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goldman |first1=Nir |last2=Tamblyn |first2=Isaac |date=20 June 2013 |title=Prebiotic Chemistry within a Simple Impacting Icy Mixture |journal=[[Journal of Physical Chemistry A]] |volume=117 |issue=24 |pages=5124–5131 |doi=10.1021/jp402976n |pmid=23639050|bibcode=2013JPCA..117.5124G |url=http://nparc.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/view/fulltext/?id=e89d2ac7-4cf8-40e0-bcc9-3c53f68ed70a }}</ref> Amino acids which were formed extraterrestrially may also have arrived on Earth via comets.<ref name="Follmann2009" /> It is estimated that during the Late Heavy Bombardment, meteorites may have delivered up to five million [[ton]]s of organic prebiotic elements to Earth per year.<ref name="Follmann2009" /><br />
<br />
美国宇航局在2009年宣布,科学家们首次在彗星中发现了生命的另一个基本化学构件--甘氨酸,这是一种氨基酸,在2004年从彗星野2号喷出的物质中检测到,并被美国宇航局的 "星尘 "探测器抓取。甘氨酸此前也曾在陨石中被检测到。领导美国宇航局天体生物学研究所的卡尔-皮尔彻Carl Pilcher说。<br />
<br />
在一颗彗星中发现甘氨酸,支持了生命的基本组成部分在太空中普遍存在的观点,并加强了宇宙中的生命可能是常见而非罕见的论点。<br />
<br />
彗星外层包裹着深色物质,被认为是一种焦油状物质,由简单的碳化合物经过主要由电离辐射引发的反应后形成的复杂有机物质组成。彗星的物质雨有可能将大量的这种复杂的有机分子带到地球上。在外星形成的氨基酸也可能通过彗星到达地球。据估计,在晚期重轰炸期间,陨石每年可能向地球输送多达500万吨的有机前生物元素。<br />
<br />
==== PAH world hypothesis ====<br />
<br />
多环芳烃世界假说 <br />
<br />
{{Main|PAH world hypothesis}}<br />
<br />
[[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s (PAH) are the most common and abundant of the known polyatomic molecules in the [[observable universe]], and are considered a likely constituent of the [[primordial sea]].<ref name="SP-20051018" /><ref name="AJ-20051010" /><ref name="NASA-20110413" /> In 2010, PAHs, have been detected in [[nebula]]e.<ref name="AJL-20101120">{{cite journal |last1=García-Hernández |first1=Domingo. A. |last2=Manchado |first2=Arturo |last3=García-Lario |first3=Pedro |last4=Stanghellini |first4=Letizia |last5=Villaver |first5=Eva |last6=Shaw |first6=Richard A. |last7=Szczerba |first7=Ryszard |last8=Perea-Calderón |first8=Jose Vicente |display-authors=3 |date=20 November 2010 |title=Formation of Fullerenes in H-Containing Planetary Nebulae |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=724 |issue=1 |pages=L39–L43 |arxiv=1009.4357 |bibcode=2010ApJ...724L..39G |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/724/1/L39 |s2cid=119121764 }}</ref><br />
<br />
多环芳烃(PAH)是可观测宇宙中已知的多原子分子中最常见、最丰富的一种,被认为是原始海的一种可能成分。<br />
<br />
--><br />
<br />
[[File:PIA22568-CatsPawNebula-Spitzer-20181023.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The [[Cat's Paw Nebula]] lies inside the [[Milky Way Galaxy]] and is located in the [[constellation]] [[Scorpius]].<br>Green areas show regions where radiation from hot stars collided with large molecules and small dust grains called "[[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s" (PAHs), causing them to [[fluoresce]].<br>([[Spitzer space telescope]], 2018)]]<br />
<br />
该猫掌星云位于内银河系和位于星座 天蝎座。绿色区域表示热星的辐射与大分子和称为“多环芳烃”(PAHs)的小尘埃碰撞而导致发荧光的区域。<br />
(斯皮策太空望远镜,2018)<br />
<br />
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are known to be abundant in the universe,<ref name="SP-20051018">{{cite news |last= Carey |first= Bjorn |date= 18 October 2005 |title= Life's Building Blocks 'Abundant in Space' |url= http://www.space.com/1686-life-building-blocks-abundant-space.html |website= Space.com |location= Watsonville, CA |publisher= [[Imaginova]] |accessdate= 2015-06-23 |url-status= live |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20150626223942/http://www.space.com/1686-life-building-blocks-abundant-space.html |archivedate= 26 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="AJ-20051010">{{cite journal |last1=Hudgins |first1= Douglas M. |last2=Bauschlicher |first2=Charles W. Jr. |last3=Allamandola |first3=Louis J. |date=10 October 2005 |title=Variations in the Peak Position of the 6.2 μm Interstellar Emission Feature: A Tracer of N in the Interstellar Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Population |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=632 |pages=316–332 |issue=1 |bibcode=2005ApJ...632..316H |doi=10.1086/432495 |citeseerx=10.1.1.218.8786 }}</ref><ref name="NASA-20110413">{{cite web|url=http://amesteam.arc.nasa.gov/Research/cosmic.html |title=Cosmic Distribution of Chemical Complexity |last1=Des Marais |first1=David J. |last2=Allamandola |first2=Louis J. |last3=Sandford |first3=Scott |authorlink3=Scott Sandford |last4=Mattioda |first4=Andrew |last5=Gudipati |first5=Murthy |last6=Roser |first6=Joseph |last7=Bramall |first7=Nathan |last8=Nuevo |first8=Michel |last9=Boersma |first9=Christiaan |last10=Bernstein |first10=Max |last11=Peeters |first11=Els |last12=Cami |first12=Jan |last13=Cook |first13=Jamie Elsila |last14=Dworkin |first14=Jason |display-authors=3 |year=2009 |website=Ames Research Center |publisher=NASA |location=Mountain View, CA |accessdate=2015-06-24 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227184503/http://amesteam.arc.nasa.gov/Research/cosmic.html |archivedate=27 February 2014}} See the Ames Research Center 2009 annual team report to the [[NASA Astrobiology Institute]] here {{cite web|url=https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/nai/reports/annual-reports/2009/arc/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-06-24 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130301064911/https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/nai/reports/annual-reports/2009/arc/ |archivedate=1 March 2013}}.</ref> including in the [[interstellar medium]], in comets, and in meteorites, and are some of the most complex molecules so far found in space.<ref name="NASA-20140221" /><br />
<br />
众所周知,多环芳烃在宇宙中非常丰富,包括在星际介质、彗星和陨石中,是迄今为止在空间发现的一些最复杂的分子。<br />
<br />
Other sources of complex molecules have been postulated, including extraterrestrial stellar or interstellar origin. For example, from spectral analyses, organic molecules are known to be present in comets and meteorites. In 2004, a team detected traces of PAHs in a nebula.<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Witt |first1=Adolf N. |last2=Vijh |first2=Uma P. |last3=Gordon |first3=Karl D. |date=January 2004 |title=Discovery of Blue Fluorescence by Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Molecules in the Red Rectangle |url=https://aas.org/archives/BAAS/v35n5/aas203/189.htm |publisher=[[American Astronomical Society]] |bibcode=2003AAS...20311017W |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20031219175322/http://www.aas.org/publications/baas/v35n5/aas203/189.htm |archivedate=19 December 2003 |url-status=dead |conference=American Astronomical Society Meeting 203 |location=Atlanta, GA |access-date=16 January 2019 }}</ref> In 2010, another team also detected PAHs, along with fullerenes, in nebulae.<ref name="AJL-20101120" /> The use of PAHs has also been proposed as a precursor to the RNA world in the PAH world hypothesis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=d'Ischia|first1=Marco|last2=Manini|first2=Paola|last3=Moracci|first3=Marco|last4=Saladino|first4=Raffaele|last5=Ball|first5=Vincent|last6=Thissen|first6=Helmut|last7=Evans|first7=Richard A.|last8=Puzzarini|first8=Cristina|last9=Barone|first9=Vincenzo|date=2019-08-21|title=Astrochemistry and Astrobiology: Materials Science in Wonderland?|journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences|volume=20|issue=17|pages=4079|doi=10.3390/ijms20174079|issn=1422-0067|pmc=6747172|pmid=31438518}}</ref> The [[Spitzer Space Telescope]] has detected a star, HH 46-IR, which is forming by a process similar to that by which the Sun formed. In the disk of material surrounding the star, there is a very large range of molecules, including cyanide compounds, [[hydrocarbon]]s, and carbon monoxide. In 2012, NASA scientists reported that PAHs, subjected to interstellar medium conditions, are transformed, through [[hydrogenation]], [[Oxygenate|oxygenation]] and [[hydroxylation]], to more complex organics—"a step along the path toward amino acids and nucleotides, the raw materials of proteins and DNA, respectively."<ref name="Space-20120920">{{cite web |url= http://www.space.com/17681-life-building-blocks-nasa-organic-molecules.html |title= NASA Cooks Up Icy Organics to Mimic Life's Origins |date= 20 September 2012 |website= Space.com |location= Ogden, UT |publisher= Purch |accessdate= 2015-06-26 |url-status= live |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20150625035023/http://www.space.com/17681-life-building-blocks-nasa-organic-molecules.html |archivedate= 25 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="AJL-20120901">{{cite journal |last1=Gudipati |first1=Murthy S. |author2=Rui Yang |date=1 September 2012 |title=In-situ Probing of Radiation-induced Processing of Organics in Astrophysical Ice Analogs – Novel Laser Desorption Laser Ionization Time-of-flight Mass Spectroscopic Studies |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=756 |issue=1 |bibcode=2012ApJ...756L..24G |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/756/1/L24 |pages=L24}}</ref> Further, as a result of these transformations, the PAHs lose their [[Spectroscopy|spectroscopic signature]] which could be one of the reasons "for the lack of PAH detection in [[interstellar ice]] grains, particularly the outer regions of cold, dense clouds or the upper molecular layers of protoplanetary disks."<ref name="Space-20120920" /><ref name="AJL-20120901" /><br />
<br />
复杂分子的其他来源也被推测出来,包括地外恒星或星际起源。例如,根据光谱分析,已知有机分子存在于彗星和陨石中。2004年,一个团队在一个星云中检测到了多环芳烃的痕迹。2010年,另一个团队也在星云中检测到了多环芳烃以及富勒烯。"多环芳烃世界 "假说中还提出将多环芳烃作为RNA世界的前兆。斯皮策太空望远镜探测到一颗恒星HH 46-IR,它的形成过程与太阳的形成过程相似。在恒星周围的物质盘中,有非常多的分子,包括氰化物、碳氢化合物和一氧化碳。2012年,美国宇航局的科学家报告说,多环芳烃在星际介质条件下,通过氢化、氧化和羟基化,转化为更复杂的有机物--"分别是向氨基酸和核苷酸(蛋白质和DNA的原料)迈进的一步。 "此外,由于这些转化,多环芳烃失去了它们的光谱特征,这可能是 "星际冰粒中缺乏多环芳烃检测的原因之一,特别是寒冷的稠密云的外部区域或原行星盘的上层分子层。"<br />
<br />
NASA maintains a database for tracking PAHs in the universe.<ref name="NASA-20140221" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.astrochem.org/pahdb/ |title=NASA Ames PAH IR Spectroscopic Database |publisher=NASA |accessdate=2015-06-17 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629185734/http://www.astrochem.org/pahdb/ |archivedate=29 June 2015}}</ref> More than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs,<ref name="NASA-20140221" /><ref name="NASA-20140221" /> possible starting materials for the formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed shortly after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe,<ref name="SP-20051018" /><ref name="AJ-20051010" /><ref name="NASA-20110413" /> and are associated with [[Star formation|new stars]] and [[exoplanet]]s.<ref name="NASA-20140221" /><br />
<br />
美国宇航局维护着一个追踪宇宙中多环芳烃的数据库.宇宙中超过20%的碳可能与多环芳烃有关,可能是生命形成的起始材料。多环芳烃似乎是在宇宙大爆炸后不久形成的,在宇宙中广泛存在,并与新的恒星和系外行星有关。<br />
<br />
====Nucleobases====<br />
核酸碱基<br />
Observations suggest that the majority of organic compounds introduced on Earth by interstellar dust particles are considered principal agents in the formation of complex molecules, thanks to their peculiar [[catalysis|surface-catalytic]] activities.<ref name="Lincei">{{cite journal |last=Gallori |first=Enzo |title=Astrochemistry and the origin of genetic material |journal=Rendiconti Lincei |date=June 2011 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=113–118 |doi=10.1007/s12210-011-0118-4 |s2cid=96659714 }} "Paper presented at the Symposium 'Astrochemistry: molecules in space and time' (Rome, 4–5 November 2010), sponsored by Fondazione 'Guido Donegani', Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei."</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Martins |first=Zita |authorlink=Zita Martins |date=February 2011 |title=Organic Chemistry of Carbonaceous Meteorites |journal=[[Elements (journal)|Elements]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=35–40 |doi=10.2113/gselements.7.1.35 }}</ref> Studies reported in 2008, based on <sup>12</sup>C/<sup>13</sup>C [[Natural abundance|isotopic ratios]] of organic compounds found in the Murchison meteorite, suggested that the RNA component uracil and related molecules, including [[xanthine]], were formed extraterrestrially.<ref name="Murch_base">{{cite journal |last1=Martins |first1=Zita |last2=Botta |first2=Oliver |last3=Fogel |first3=Marilyn L. |last4=Sephton |first4=Mark A. |last5=Glavin |first5=Daniel P. |last6=Watson |first6=Jonathan S. |last7=Dworkin |first7=Jason P. |last8=Schwartz |first8=Alan W. |last9=Ehrenfreund |first9=Pascale |display-authors=3 |date=15 June 2008 |title=Extraterrestrial nucleobases in the Murchison meteorite |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=270 |issue=1–2 |pages=130–136 |bibcode=2008E&PSL.270..130M |arxiv=0806.2286 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2008.03.026 |s2cid=14309508 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=14 June 2008 |title=We may all be space aliens: study |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-06-14/we-may-all-be-space-aliens-study/2471434 |location=Sydney |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |accessdate=2015-06-22 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623073332/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-06-14/we-may-all-be-space-aliens-study/2471434 |archivedate=23 June 2015}}</ref> In 2011, a report based on [[NASA]] studies of meteorites found on Earth was published suggesting DNA components (adenine, guanine and related organic molecules) were made in outer space.<ref name="Lincei" /><ref name="Callahan">{{cite journal |last1=Callahan |first1=Michael P. |last2=Smith |first2=Karen E. |last3=Cleaves |first3=H. James, II |last4=Ruzica |first4=Josef |last5=Stern |first5=Jennifer C. |last6=Glavin |first6=Daniel P. |last7=House |first7=Christopher H. |last8=Dworkin |first8=Jason P. |display-authors=3 |date=23 August 2011 |title=Carbonaceous meteorites contain a wide range of extraterrestrial nucleobases |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=108 |issue=34 |pages=13995–13998 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10813995C |doi=10.1073/pnas.1106493108 |pmc=3161613 |pmid=21836052}}</ref><ref name="Steigerwald">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/solarsystem/features/dna-meteorites.html |title=NASA Researchers: DNA Building Blocks Can Be Made in Space |last=Steigerwald |first=John |date=8 August 2011 |work=[[Goddard Space Flight Center]] |publisher=NASA |location=Greenbelt, MD |accessdate=2015-06-23 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623004556/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/solarsystem/features/dna-meteorites.html |archivedate=23 June 2015}}</ref> Scientists also found that the [[cosmic dust]] permeating the universe contains complex organics ("amorphous organic solids with a mixed [[Aromaticity|aromatic]]–[[Aliphatic compound|aliphatic]] structure") that could be created naturally, and rapidly, by stars.<ref name="Space-20111026">{{cite news |last= Chow |first= Denise |date= 26 October 2011 |title= Discovery: Cosmic Dust Contains Organic Matter from Stars |url= http://www.space.com/13401-cosmic-star-dust-complex-organic-compounds.html |website= Space.com |location= Ogden, UT |publisher= Purch |accessdate= 2015-06-23 |url-status= live |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20150714084901/http://www.space.com/13401-cosmic-star-dust-complex-organic-compounds.html |archivedate= 14 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="ScienceDaily-20111026">{{cite news |author=The University of Hong Kong |date=27 October 2011 |title=Astronomers discover complex organic matter exists throughout the universe |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111026143721.htm |location=Rockville, MD |publisher= ScienceDaily, LLC |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703185252/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111026143721.htm |archivedate=3 July 2015|author-link=University of Hong Kong }}</ref><ref name="Nature-20111026">{{cite journal |author1=Sun Kwok |authorlink1=Sun Kwok |author2=Yong Zhang |date=3 November 2011 |title=Mixed aromatic–aliphatic organic nanoparticles as carriers of unidentified infrared emission features |journal=Nature |volume=479 |issue=7371 |pages=80–83 |bibcode=2011Natur.479...80K |doi=10.1038/nature10542 |pmid=22031328|s2cid=4419859 }}</ref> [[Sun Kwok]] of [[University of Hong Kong|The University of Hong Kong]] suggested that these compounds may have been related to the development of life on Earth said that "If this is the case, life on Earth may have had an easier time getting started as these organics can serve as basic ingredients for life."<ref name="Space-20111026" /><br />
<br />
观测结果表明,星际尘埃颗粒引入地球的大多数有机化合物被认为是形成复杂分子的主要媒介,这是因为它们具有特殊的表面催化活性。2008年报告的研究基于在默奇森陨石中发现的有机化合物的12C/13C同位素比率,表明RNA成分尿嘧啶和相关分子,包括黄嘌呤,是在外星形成的。 2011年,发表了一份基于美国宇航局对在地球上发现的陨石的研究的报告,表明DNA成分(腺嘌呤、鸟嘌呤和相关有机分子)是在外太空制造的。 科学家们还发现,弥漫在宇宙中的宇宙尘埃中含有复杂的有机物("具有芳香族-脂肪族混合结构的无定形有机固体"),这些有机物可能是由恒星自然地、迅速地创造出来的。香港大学的Sun Kwok提出,这些化合物可能与地球上生命的发展有关,他说:"如果是这样的话,地球上的生命可能更容易开始,因为这些有机物可以作为生命的基本成分。"<br />
<br />
====The sugar glycolaldehyde====<br />
<br />
糖醇醛<br />
<br />
[[File:Formation of Glycolaldehyde in star dust.png|thumb|Formation of [[glycolaldehyde]] in [[Cosmic dust|stardust]]]]<br />
<br />
在星尘中乙醇醛的形成<br />
<br />
Glycolaldehyde, the first example of an interstellar sugar molecule, was detected in the star-forming region near the centre of our galaxy. It was discovered in 2000 by Jes Jørgensen and Jan Hollis.<ref name=Hollis>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/interstellar_sugar.html |title=Space Sugar's a Sweet Find |first1=Lara |last1=Clemence |last2=Cohen |first2=Jarrett |date=7 February 2005 |work=Goddard Space Flight Center |publisher=NASA |location=Greenbelt, MD |accessdate=2015-06-23 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305002758/http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/starsgalaxies/interstellar_sugar.html |archivedate=5 March 2016}}</ref> In 2012, Jørgensen's team reported the detection of glycolaldehyde in a distant star system. The molecule was found around the [[protostar|protostellar]] binary [[IRAS 16293-2422]] 400 [[Light-year|light years]] from Earth.<ref name="NG-20120829">{{cite news |last=Than |first=Ker |date=30 August 2012 |title=Sugar Found in Space: A Sign of Life? |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/08/120829-sugar-space-planets-science-life/ |work=National Geographic News |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]] |accessdate=2015-06-23 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714073830/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/08/120829-sugar-space-planets-science-life/ |archivedate=14 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="AP-20120829">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=29 August 2012 |title=Sweet! Astronomers spot sugar molecule near star |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20120829/DA0V31D80.html |work=[[Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |accessdate=2015-06-23 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714101929/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20120829/DA0V31D80.html |archivedate=14 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.leiden.edu/news-2012/building-blocks-for-life-found-on-young-star.html |title=Building blocks of life found around young star |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=30 September 2012 |website=News & Events |publisher=[[Leiden University]] |location=Leiden, the Netherlands |accessdate=2013-12-11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213135815/http://www.news.leiden.edu/news-2012/building-blocks-for-life-found-on-young-star.html |archivedate=13 December 2013}}</ref> Glycolaldehyde is needed to form RNA, which is similar in function to DNA. These findings suggest that complex organic molecules may form in stellar systems prior to the formation of planets, eventually arriving on young planets early in their formation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jørgensen |first1=Jes K. |last2=Favre |first2=Cécile |last3=Bisschop |first3=Suzanne E. |last4=Bourke |first4=Tyler L. |last5=van Dishoeck |first5=Ewine F. |authorlink5=Ewine van Dishoeck |last6=Schmalzl |first6=Markus |display-authors=3 |date=2012 |title=Detection of the simplest sugar, glycolaldehyde, in a solar-type protostar with ALMA |url=http://www.eso.org/public/archives/releases/sciencepapers/eso1234/eso1234a.pdf |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |volume=757 |issue=1 |arxiv=1208.5498 |bibcode=2012ApJ...757L...4J |doi=10.1088/2041-8205/757/1/L4 |accessdate=2015-06-23 |pages=L4 |s2cid=14205612 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924021240/http://www.eso.org/public/archives/releases/sciencepapers/eso1234/eso1234a.pdf |archivedate=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="PNAS-20191113">{{Cite journal|last1=Furukawa|first1=Yoshihiro|last2=Chikaraishi|first2=Yoshito|last3=Ohkouchi|first3=Naohiko|last4=Ogawa|first4=Nanako O.|last5=Glavin|first5=Daniel P.|last6=Dworkin|first6=Jason P.|last7=Abe|first7=Chiaki|last8=Nakamura|first8=Tomoki|date=2019-11-13|title=Extraterrestrial ribose and other sugars in primitive meteorites|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=116|issue=49|pages=24440–24445|language=en|doi=10.1073/pnas.1907169116|issn=0027-8424|pmid=31740594|pmc=6900709|bibcode=2019PNAS..11624440F}}</ref> Because sugars are associated with both metabolism and the [[genetic code]], two of the most basic aspects of life, it is thought the discovery of extraterrestrial sugar increases the likelihood that life may exist elsewhere in our galaxy.<ref name="Hollis" /><br />
<br />
乙二醇醛是星际糖分子的第一个例子,在银河系中心附近的恒星形成区被发现。它是由Jes Jørgensen和Jan Hollis在2000年发现的。2012年,Jørgensen的团队报告了在一个遥远的恒星系统中发现乙醛。该分子是在距离地球400光年的原恒星双星IRAS 16293-2422周围发现的。乙醛是形成RNA所需要的,其功能与DNA相似。这些发现表明,复杂的有机分子可能在行星形成之前就在恒星系统中形成,最终在行星形成的早期到达年轻行星上。由于糖类与新陈代谢和遗传密码这两个生命最基本的方面有关,因此认为发现地外糖类增加了银河系其他地方可能存在生命的可能性。<br />
<br />
==== Polyphosphates ====<br />
聚磷酸盐<br />
A problem in most scenarios of abiogenesis is that the thermodynamic equilibrium of amino acid versus peptides is in the direction of separate amino acids. What has been missing is some force that drives polymerization. The resolution of this problem may well be in the properties of [[polyphosphate]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Michael R. W. |last2=Kornberg |first2=Arthur |authorlink2=Arthur Kornberg |date=16 November 2004 |title=Inorganic polyphosphate in the origin and survival of species |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=101 |issue=46 |pages=16085–16087 |bibcode=2004PNAS..10116085B |doi=10.1073/pnas.0406909101|pmc=528972 |pmid=15520374}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.science.siu.edu/microbiology/micr425/425Notes/14-OriginLife.html |title=The Origin of Life |last=Clark |first=David P. |date=3 August 1999 |website=Microbiology 425: Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganism |publisher=College of Science; [[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]] |location=Carbondale, IL |type=Lecture |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20001002142750/http://www.science.siu.edu/microbiology/micr425/425Notes/14-OriginLife.html |archivedate=2000-10-02 |url-status=dead |accessdate=2015-06-26}}</ref> Polyphosphates are formed by polymerization of ordinary monophosphate ions PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3-</sup>. Several mechanisms of organic molecule synthesis have been investigated. Polyphosphates cause polymerization of amino acids into peptides. They are also logical precursors in the synthesis of such key biochemical compounds as [[adenosine triphosphate]] (ATP). A key issue seems to be that calcium reacts with soluble phosphate to form insoluble [[calcium phosphate]] ([[apatite]]), so some plausible mechanism must be found to keep calcium ions from causing precipitation of phosphate. There has been much work on this topic over the years, but an interesting new idea is that meteorites may have introduced reactive phosphorus species on the early Earth.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pasek |first=Matthew A. |date=22 January 2008 |title=Rethinking early Earth phosphorus geochemistry |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=105 |issue=3 |pages=853–858 |bibcode=2008PNAS..105..853P |doi=10.1073/pnas.0708205105 |pmc=2242691 |pmid=18195373}}</ref><br />
<br />
Based on recent [[computer simulation|computer model studies]], the [[organic compound|complex organic molecules]] necessary for life may have formed in the [[protoplanetary disk]] of [[cosmic dust|dust grains]] surrounding the [[Sun]] before the formation of the Earth.<ref name="Space-20120329">{{cite news |last=Moskowitz |first=Clara |date=29 March 2012 |title=Life's Building Blocks May Have Formed in Dust Around Young Sun |url=http://www.space.com/15089-life-building-blocks-young-sun-dust.html |website=[[Space.com]] |location=Salt Lake City, UT |publisher=[[Purch]] |accessdate=2012-03-30 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814205056/http://www.space.com/15089-life-building-blocks-young-sun-dust.html |archivedate=14 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ciesla|first1=F.J.|last2=Sandford|first2=S.A.|title=Organic Synthesis via Irradiation and Warming of Ice Grains in the Solar Nebula|journal=Science|date=29 March 2012|volume=336|issue=6080|pages=452–454|doi=10.1126/science.1217291|pmid=22461502|bibcode=2012Sci...336..452C|hdl=2060/20120011864|s2cid=25454671|hdl-access=free}}</ref> According to the computer studies, this same process may also occur around other [[star]]s that acquire [[planet]]s. (Also see [[#Extraterrestrial organic molecules|Extraterrestrial organic molecules]]).<br />
<br />
在大多数非生物发生的情况下,一个问题是氨基酸与肽的热力学平衡是向着分离氨基酸的方向发展的。一直以来,缺少的是某种推动聚合的力量。这个问题的解决很可能在于聚磷酸盐的特性。聚磷酸盐是由普通的单磷酸离子PO43-聚合而成。目前已经研究了几种有机分子合成的机制。多磷酸盐能使氨基酸聚合成肽。它们也是合成三磷酸腺苷(ATP)等关键生化化合物的逻辑前体。一个关键的问题似乎是,钙与可溶性磷酸盐反应形成不溶性的磷酸钙(磷灰石),所以必须找到一些合理的机制来防止钙离子引起磷酸盐的沉淀。多年来,关于这个主题的工作很多,但一个有趣的新想法是,陨石可能在早期地球上引入了活性磷物种。根据最近的计算机模型研究,在地球形成之前,生命所必需的复杂有机分子可能已经在太阳周围的尘粒原行星盘中形成.根据计算机研究,这个相同的过程也可能发生在其他获得行星的恒星周围。<br />
<br />
The accumulation and concentration of organic molecules on a planetary surface is also considered an essential early step for the origin of life.<ref name="NASA strategy 2015"/> Identifying and understanding the mechanisms that led to the production of prebiotic molecules in various environments is critical for establishing the inventory of ingredients from which life originated on Earth, assuming that the abiotic production of molecules ultimately influenced the selection of molecules from which life emerged.<ref name="NASA strategy 2015"/><br />
<br />
有机分子在行星表面的积累和集中也被认为是生命起源的一个重要的早期步骤.识别和理解导致在各种环境中产生前生物分子的机制对于建立生命起源于地球的成分清单至关重要,假设分子的非生物生产最终影响了生命出现的分子选择。<br />
<br />
In 2019, scientists reported detecting, for the first time, [[Sugar|sugar molecules]], including [[ribose]], in [[meteorite]]s, suggesting that chemical processes on [[asteroid]]s can produce some fundamentally essential bio-ingredients important to [[life]], and supporting the notion of an [[RNA world]] prior to a DNA-based origin of life on Earth, and possibly, as well, the notion of [[panspermia]].<ref name="NASA-20191118">{{cite news |last1=Steigerwald |first1=Bill |last2=Jones |first2=Nancy |last3=Furukawa |first3=Yoshihiro |title=First Detection of Sugars in Meteorites Gives Clues to Origin of Life |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/2019/sugars-in-meteorites |date=18 November 2019 |work=[[NASA]] |accessdate=18 November 2019 }}</ref><ref name="PNAS-20191113" /><br />
<br />
2019年,科学家报告首次在陨石中检测到包括核糖在内的糖分子,表明小行星上的化学过程可以产生一些对生命很重要的基本生物原料,并支持地球上生命起源于DNA之前的RNA世界的概念,也可能支持泛种论的概念。<br />
<br />
=== Chemical synthesis in the laboratory===<br />
<br />
实验室中的化学合成 <br />
<br />
As early as the 1860s, experiments have demonstrated that biologically relevant molecules can be produced from interaction of simple carbon sources with abundant inorganic catalysts.<br />
<br />
早在19世纪60年代,就有实验证明,简单的碳源与丰富的无机催化剂相互作用可以产生生物相关的分子。<br />
<br />
====Fox proteinoids====<br />
<br />
福克斯类蛋白<br />
{{Main|Proteinoid}}<br />
<br />
In trying to uncover the intermediate stages of abiogenesis mentioned by Bernal, [[Sidney W. Fox|Sidney Fox]] in the 1950s and 1960s studied the spontaneous formation of [[peptide]] structures (small chains of amino acids) under conditions that might plausibly have existed early in Earth's history. In one of his experiments, he allowed amino acids to dry out as if puddled in a warm, dry spot in prebiotic conditions: In an experiment to set suitable conditions for life to form, Fox collected volcanic material from a [[cinder cone]] in [[Hawaii]]. He discovered that the temperature was over 100 C just {{convert|4|in}} beneath the surface of the cinder cone, and suggested that this might have been the environment in which life was created—molecules could have formed and then been washed through the loose volcanic ash into the sea. He placed lumps of lava over amino acids derived from methane, ammonia and water, sterilized all materials, and baked the lava over the amino acids for a few hours in a glass oven. A brown, sticky substance formed over the surface, and when the lava was drenched in sterilized water, a thick, brown liquid leached out. He found that, as they dried, the amino acids formed long, often cross-linked, thread-like, submicroscopic [[Peptide|polypeptide]] molecules.<ref name="foxexp"/><br />
<br />
在试图发现Bernal提到的非生物发生的中间阶段时,西德尼-福克斯Sidney Fox在20世纪50年代和60年代研究了在地球历史早期可能存在的条件下自发形成的肽结构(氨基酸小链)。在他的一个实验中,他让氨基酸在前生物条件下,像在温暖干燥的地方布丁一样干燥。在一个为生命的形成设置合适条件的实验中,Fox从夏威夷的一个煤渣堆中收集了火山材料。他发现煤渣锥表面下4英寸(100毫米)的温度就超过了100摄氏度,并认为这可能是创造生命的环境--分子可能已经形成,然后通过松散的火山灰被冲入海中。他将块状熔岩放在由甲烷、氨和水衍生的氨基酸上,对所有材料进行消毒,并将熔岩放在氨基酸上,在玻璃炉中烘烤几个小时。在表面形成了一种棕色的粘性物质,当把熔岩浸泡在消毒水中时,就会有浓稠的棕色液体渗出。他发现,随着它们的干燥,氨基酸形成了长长的、常常是交联的、线状的、亚显微的多肽分子。<br />
<br />
====Sugars====<br />
糖类<br />
In particular, experiments by [[Alexander Butlerov|Butlerov]] (the [[formose reaction]]) showed that tetroses, pentoses, and hexoses are produced when formaldehyde is heated under basic conditions with divalent metal ions like calcium. The reaction was scrutinized and subsequently proposed to be autocatalytic by Breslow in 1959.<br />
<br />
特别是Butlerov的实验(甲酸糖反应)表明,当甲醛在碱性条件下与钙等二价金属离子加热时,会产生四糖、五糖和六糖。1959年,Breslow对该反应进行了仔细研究,随后提出该反应是自催化反应。<br />
<br />
====Nucleobases====<br />
核酸碱基<br />
Similar experiments (see below) demonstrate that nucleobases like guanine and adenine could be synthesized from simple carbon and nitrogen sources like hydrogen cyanide and ammonia.<br />
<br />
类似的实验(见下文)表明,像鸟嘌呤和腺嘌呤这样的核酸碱基可以从简单的碳和氮源如氰化氢和氨合成。<br />
<br />
[[Formamide]] produces all four ribonucleotides and other biological molecules when warmed in the presence of various terrestrial minerals. Formamide is ubiquitous in the Universe, produced by the reaction of water and [[hydrogen cyanide]] (HCN). It has several advantages as a biotic precursor, including the ability to easily become concentrated through the evaporation of water.<ref name="Saladino2012">{{cite journal |last1=Saladino |first1=Raffaele |last2=Crestini |first2=Claudia |last3=Pino |first3=Samanta |last4=Costanzo |first4=Giovanna |last5=Di Mauro |first5=Ernesto |display-authors=3 |date=March 2012 |title=Formamide and the origin of life. |journal=[[Physics of Life Reviews]] |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=84–104 |bibcode=2012PhLRv...9...84S |doi=10.1016/j.plrev.2011.12.002 |pmid=22196896|hdl=2108/85168 |url=https://art.torvergata.it/bitstream/2108/85168/1/PoLRev%202012.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Saladino2012b">{{cite journal |last1=Saladino |first1=Raffaele |last2=Botta |first2=Giorgia |last3=Pino |first3=Samanta |last4=Costanzo |first4=Giovanna |last5=Di Mauro |first5=Ernesto |display-authors=3 |date=July 2012 |title=From the one-carbon amide formamide to RNA all the steps are prebiotically possible |journal=[[Biochimie]] |volume=94 |issue=7 |pages=1451–1456 |doi=10.1016/j.biochi.2012.02.018 |pmid=22738728}}</ref> Although HCN is poisonous, it only affects [[aerobic organism]]s ([[eukaryote]]s and aerobic bacteria), which did not yet exist. It can play roles in other chemical processes as well, such as the synthesis of the amino acid [[glycine]].<ref name="Follmann2009" /><br />
<br />
甲酰胺在各种陆地矿物质存在下升温时,可产生所有四种核糖核苷酸和其他生物分子。甲酰胺在宇宙中无处不在,由水和氰化氢(HCN)反应生成。作为生物前体,它有几个优点,包括能够通过水的蒸发而容易浓缩。虽然HCN是有毒的,但它只影响好氧生物(真核生物和好氧细菌),当时还不存在。它也可以在其他化学过程中发挥作用,比如氨基酸甘氨酸的合成。<br />
<br />
In March 2015, NASA scientists reported that, for the first time, complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine and [[thymine]], have been formed in the laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like PAHs, the most carbon-rich chemical found in the Universe, may have been formed in [[red giant]] stars or in interstellar dust and gas clouds.<ref name="NASA-20150303">{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-ames-reproduces-the-building-blocks-of-life-in-laboratory |title=NASA Ames Reproduces the Building Blocks of Life in Laboratory |editor-last=Marlaire |editor-first=Ruth |date=3 March 2015 |work=Ames Research Center |publisher=NASA |location=Moffett Field, CA |accessdate=2015-03-05 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150305083306/http://www.nasa.gov/content/nasa-ames-reproduces-the-building-blocks-of-life-in-laboratory/ |archivedate=5 March 2015}}</ref> A group of Czech scientists reported that all four RNA-bases may be synthesized from formamide in the course of high-energy density events like extraterrestrial impacts.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ferus | first1 = Martin | last2 = Nesvorný | first2 = David | last3 = Šponer | first3 = Jiří | last4 = Kubelík | first4 = Petr | last5 = Michalčíková | first5 = Regina | last6 = Shestivská | first6 = Violetta | last7 = Šponer | first7 = Judit E. | last8 = Civiš | first8 = Svatopluk | year = 2015 | title = High-energy chemistry of formamide: A unified mechanism of nucleobase formation | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 112 | issue = 3| pages = 657–662 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1412072111 | pmid = 25489115 | bibcode = 2015PNAS..112..657F | pmc = 4311869 }}</ref><br />
<br />
2015年3月,美国宇航局科学家报告称,在外太空条件下,利用陨石中发现的嘧啶等起始化学物质,首次在实验室中形成了复杂的生命DNA和RNA有机化合物,包括尿嘧啶、胞嘧啶和胸腺嘧啶。嘧啶和多环芳烃一样,是宇宙中发现的最富含碳的化学物质,可能是在红巨星或星际尘埃和气体云中形成的。一组捷克科学家报告说,所有四种RNA碱可能是在地外撞击等高能密度事件过程中由甲酰胺合成的。<br />
<br />
====Use of high temperature====<br />
使用高温<br />
In 1961, it was shown that the nucleic acid [[purine]] base [[adenine]] can be formed by heating aqueous [[ammonium cyanide]] solutions.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Oró |first=Joan |authorlink=Joan Oró |date=16 September 1961 |title=Mechanism of Synthesis of Adenine from Hydrogen Cyanide under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions |journal=Nature |volume=191 |issue=4794 |pages=1193–1194 |bibcode=1961Natur.191.1193O |doi=10.1038/1911193a0 |pmid=13731264|s2cid=4276712 }}</ref><br />
<br />
1961年,证明核酸嘌呤碱基腺嘌呤可以通过加热氰化铵水溶液形成。<br />
<br />
====Use of low (freezing) temperature====<br />
使用低(冷冻)温<br />
Other pathways for synthesizing bases from inorganic materials were also reported.<ref name="Basile1984">{{cite journal |last1=Basile |first1=Brenda |last2=Lazcano |first2=Antonio |authorlink2=Antonio Lazcano |last3=Oró |first3=Joan |year=1984 |title=Prebiotic syntheses of purines and pyrimidines |journal=[[Advances in Space Research]] |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=125–131 |bibcode=1984AdSpR...4..125B |doi=10.1016/0273-1177(84)90554-4 |pmid=11537766}}</ref> Orgel and colleagues have shown that freezing temperatures are advantageous for the synthesis of purines, due to the concentrating effect for key precursors such as hydrogen cyanide.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Orgel |first=Leslie E. |date=August 2004 |title=Prebiotic Adenine Revisited: Eutectics and Photochemistry |journal=Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=361–369 |bibcode=2004OLEB...34..361O |doi=10.1023/B:ORIG.0000029882.52156.c2 |pmid=15279171|s2cid=4998122 }}</ref> Research by Miller and colleagues suggested that while adenine and [[guanine]] require freezing conditions for synthesis, [[cytosine]] and [[uracil]] may require boiling temperatures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robertson |first1=Michael P. |last2=Miller |first2=Stanley L. |date=29 June 1995 |title=An efficient prebiotic synthesis of cytosine and uracil |journal=Nature |volume=375 |issue=6534 |pages=772–774 |bibcode=1995Natur.375..772R |doi=10.1038/375772a0 |pmid=7596408|s2cid=4351012 }}</ref> Research by the Miller group notes the formation of seven different amino acids and 11 types of [[nucleobase]]s in ice when ammonia and [[cyanide]] were left in a freezer from 1972 to 1997.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fox |first=Douglas |date=February 2008 |url=http://discovermagazine.com/2008/feb/did-life-evolve-in-ice |title=Did Life Evolve in Ice? |journal=[[Discover (magazine)|Discover]] |accessdate=2008-07-03 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080630043228/http://discovermagazine.com/2008/feb/did-life-evolve-in-ice |archivedate=30 June 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levy |first1=Matthew |last2=Miller |first2=Stanley L. |last3=Brinton |first3=Karen |last4=Bada |first4=Jeffrey L. |authorlink4=Jeffrey L. Bada |date=June 2000 |title=Prebiotic Synthesis of Adenine and Amino Acids Under Europa-like Conditions |journal=[[Icarus (journal)|Icarus]] |volume=145 |issue=2 |pages=609–613 |bibcode=2000Icar..145..609L |doi=10.1006/icar.2000.6365 |pmid=11543508}}</ref> Other work demonstrated the formation of s-[[triazine]]s (alternative nucleobases), [[pyrimidine]]s (including cytosine and uracil), and adenine from urea solutions subjected to freeze-thaw cycles under a reductive atmosphere (with spark discharges as an energy source).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Menor-Salván |first1=César |last2=Ruiz-Bermejo |first2=Marta |last3=Guzmán |first3=Marcelo I. |last4=Osuna-Esteban |first4=Susana |last5=Veintemillas-Verdaguer |first5=Sabino |date=20 April 2009 |title=Synthesis of Pyrimidines and Triazines in Ice: Implications for the Prebiotic Chemistry of Nucleobases |journal=[[Chemistry: A European Journal]] |volume=15 |issue=17 |pages=4411–4418 |doi=10.1002/chem.200802656 |pmid=19288488}}</ref> The explanation given for the unusual speed of these reactions at such a low temperature is [[Eutectic system|eutectic freezing]]. As an ice crystal forms, it stays pure: only molecules of water join the growing crystal, while impurities like salt or cyanide are excluded. These impurities become crowded in microscopic pockets of liquid within the ice, and this crowding causes the molecules to collide more often. Mechanistic exploration using quantum chemical methods provide a more detailed understanding of some of the chemical processes involved in chemical evolution, and a partial answer to the fundamental question of molecular biogenesis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roy |first1=Debjani |last2=Najafian |first2=Katayoun |last3=von Ragué Schleyer |first3=Paul |authorlink3=Paul von Ragué Schleyer |date=30 October 2007 |title=Chemical evolution: The mechanism of the formation of adenine under prebiotic conditions |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=104 |issue=44 |pages=17272–17277 |bibcode=2007PNAS..10417272R |doi=10.1073/pnas.0708434104|pmc=2077245 |pmid=17951429}}</ref><br />
<br />
还有人报道了从无机材料合成碱的其他途径。Orgel及其同事的研究表明,由于氰化氢等关键前体的浓缩作用,冷冻温度对嘌呤的合成是有利的。Miller及其同事的研究表明,腺嘌呤和鸟嘌呤的合成需要冷冻条件,而胞嘧啶和尿嘧啶可能需要沸腾的温度.Miller小组的研究指出,从1972年到1997年,当氨和氰化氢被放置在冰柜中时,在冰中形成了7种不同的氨基酸和11种核碱。其他研究证明了s-三嗪(替代核碱基)、嘧啶(包括胞嘧啶和尿嘧啶)和腺嘌呤从尿素溶液在还原性气氛下(以火花放电为能源)进行冻融循环形成。对于这些反应在如此低的温度下的异常速度,给出的解释是共晶冻结。当冰晶形成时,它保持纯净:只有水分子加入生长的晶体,而盐或氰化物等杂质被排除在外。这些杂质在冰内变得拥挤在微观的液体口袋中,这种拥挤导致分子更频繁地碰撞。利用量子化学方法进行机理探索,可以更详细地了解化学演化中的一些化学过程,并对分子生物发生的基本问题做出部分回答。<br />
<br />
====Use of less-reducing gas in Miller–Urey experiment====<br />
<br />
在Miller-Urey实验中使用还原性较低的气体<br />
<br />
At the time of the Miller–Urey experiment, scientific consensus was that the early Earth had a reducing atmosphere with compounds relatively rich in hydrogen and poor in oxygen (e.g., CH<sub>4</sub> and NH<sub>3</sub> as opposed to CO<sub>2</sub> and [[nitrogen dioxide]] (NO<sub>2</sub>)). However, current scientific consensus describes the primitive atmosphere as either weakly reducing or neutral<ref name="Cleaves 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Cleaves |first1=H. James |last2=Chalmers |first2=John H. |last3=Lazcano |first3=Antonio |last4=Miller |first4=Stanley L. |last5=Bada |first5=Jeffrey L. |display-authors=3 |date=April 2008 |title=A Reassessment of Prebiotic Organic Synthesis in Neutral Planetary Atmospheres |journal=Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=105–115 |bibcode=2008OLEB...38..105C |doi=10.1007/s11084-007-9120-3|pmid=18204914|s2cid=7731172 }}</ref><ref name="Chyba 2005">{{cite journal |last=Chyba |first=Christopher F. |s2cid=93303848 |date=13 May 2005 |title=Rethinking Earth's Early Atmosphere |journal=Science |volume=308 |issue=5724 |pages=962–963 |doi=10.1126/science.1113157 |pmid=15890865}}</ref> (see also [[Great Oxygenation Event|Oxygen Catastrophe]]). Such an atmosphere would diminish both the amount and variety of amino acids that could be produced, although studies that include [[iron]] and [[carbonate]] minerals (thought present in early oceans) in the experimental conditions have again produced a diverse array of amino acids.<ref name="Cleaves 2008" /> Other scientific research has focused on two other potential reducing environments: [[outer space]] and deep-sea thermal vents.<ref>{{harvnb|Barton|Briggs|Eisen|Goldstein|2007|pp=93–95}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bada|Lazcano|2009|pp=56–57}}</ref><ref name="Bada 2003">{{cite journal |last1=Bada |first1=Jeffrey L. |last2=Lazcano |first2=Antonio |date=2 May 2003 |url=http://astrobiology.berkeley.edu/PDFs_articles/Bada_Science2003.pdf |title=Prebiotic Soup – Revisiting the Miller Experiment |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5620 |pages=745–746 |doi=10.1126/science.1085145 |pmid=12730584 |s2cid=93020326 |accessdate=2015-06-13 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304222002/http://astrobiology.berkeley.edu/PDFs_articles/Bada_Science2003.pdf |archivedate=4 March 2016}}</ref><br />
<br />
在Miller-Urey实验时,科学界的共识是,早期地球有一个还原性大气层,其化合物中氢气相对丰富,而氧气相对贫乏(如CH<sub>4</sub>和NH<sub>3</sub>,而不是CO<sub>2</sub> 和二氧化氮(NO<sub>2</sub>))。然而,目前的科学共识将原始大气层描述为弱还原性或中性(另见氧气灾难)。这样的大气会减少可以产生的氨基酸的数量和种类,尽管在实验条件中加入铁和碳酸盐矿物(被认为存在于早期海洋中)的研究又产生了多种氨基酸。其他科学研究集中在另外两种潜在的还原性环境:外太空和深海热喷口。<br />
<br />
====Synthesis based on hydrogen cyanide====<br />
<br />
基于氰化氢的合成 <br />
<br />
A research project completed in 2015 by [[John Sutherland (chemist)|John Sutherland]] and others found that a network of reactions beginning with hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen sulfide, in streams of water irradiated by UV light, could produce the chemical components of proteins and lipids, as well as those of RNA,<ref>{{cite news |last=Service |first=Robert F. |date=16 March 2015 |title=Researchers may have solved origin-of-life conundrum |url=http://news.sciencemag.org/biology/2015/03/researchers-may-have-solved-origin-life-conundrum |work=Science |type=News |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |accessdate=2015-07-26 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812103559/http://news.sciencemag.org/biology/2015/03/researchers-may-have-solved-origin-life-conundrum |archivedate=12 August 2015}}</ref><ref name="patel">{{cite journal |last1=Patel |first1=Bhavesh H.|last2=Percivalle |first2=Claudia |last3=Ritson |first3=Dougal J. |last4=Duffy |first4=Colm D. |last5=Sutherland |first5=John D. |authorlink5=John Sutherland (chemist) |date=April 2015 |title=Common origins of RNA, protein and lipid precursors in a cyanosulfidic protometabolism |journal=[[Nature Chemistry]] |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=301–307 |bibcode=2015NatCh...7..301P |doi=10.1038/nchem.2202 |pmid=25803468 |ref=harv |pmc=4568310}}</ref> while not producing a wide range of other compounds.<ref>{{harvnb|Patel|Percivalle|Ritson|Duffy|2015|p=302}}</ref> The researchers used the term "cyanosulfidic" to describe this network of reactions.<ref name="patel" /><br />
<br />
约翰-萨瑟兰John Sutherland 等人在2015年完成的一个研究项目发现,在紫外线照射的水流中,一个以氰化氢和硫化氢为起点的反应网络,可以产生蛋白质和脂类的化学成分,以及RNA的化学成分,同时不产生其他多种化合物。研究人员用 "氰基硫化物 "一词来描述这个反应网络。<br />
<br />
====Issues during laboratory synthesis====<br />
<br />
实验室合成过程中的问题 <br />
<br />
The spontaneous formation of complex polymers from abiotically generated monomers under the conditions posited by the "soup" theory is not at all a straightforward process. Besides the necessary basic organic monomers, compounds that would have prohibited the formation of polymers were also formed in high concentration during the Miller–Urey and [[Joan Oró]] experiments.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oró |first1=Joan |last2=Kimball |first2=Aubrey P. |date=February 1962 |title=Synthesis of purines under possible primitive earth conditions: II. Purine intermediates from hydrogen cyanide |journal=[[Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics]] |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=293–313 |doi=10.1016/0003-9861(62)90412-5 |pmid=14482339}}</ref> The Miller–Urey experiment, for example, produces many substances that would react with the amino acids or terminate their coupling into peptide chains.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Ahuja |editor-first=Mukesh |year=2006 |chapter=Origin of Life |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=VJF12TlT58kC&pg=PA11 |title=Life Science |volume=1 |location=Delhi |publisher=Isha Books |page=11 |isbn=978-81-8205-386-1 |oclc=297208106 |ref=harv}}{{Unreliable source?|reason=What material is Ahuja editing? Further, see use of Ahuja material in the Iron-sulfur world section in this WP article, among others. See also: Wikipedia talk:Noticeboard for India-related topics/Archive 42#Problem with ISHA books as references|date=June 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
在 "汤 "理论提出的条件下,由非生物生成的单体自发形成复杂的聚合物,根本不是一个简单的过程。除了必要的基本有机单体外,在Miller-Urey和Joan Oró实验过程中,还形成了高浓度的禁止聚合物形成的化合物.例如,Miller-Urey实验会产生许多与氨基酸反应或终止其偶联成肽链的物质。<br />
<br />
=== Autocatalysis ===<br />
<br />
自催化 <br />
<br />
{{Main|Autocatalysis}}<br />
<br />
[[Autocatalysis|Autocatalysts]] are substances that catalyze the production of themselves and therefore are "molecular replicators." The simplest self-replicating chemical systems are autocatalytic, and typically contain three components: a product molecule and two precursor molecules. The product molecule joins together the precursor molecules, which in turn produce more product molecules from more precursor molecules. The product molecule catalyzes the reaction by providing a complementary template that binds to the precursors, thus bringing them together. Such systems have been demonstrated both in biological [[macromolecule]]s and in small organic molecules.<ref name="Paul2004">{{cite journal |last1=Paul |first1=Natasha |last2=Joyce |first2=Gerald F. |date=December 2004 |title=Minimal self-replicating systems |journal=Current Opinion in Chemical Biology |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=634–639 |doi=10.1016/j.cbpa.2004.09.005|pmid=15556408}}</ref><ref name="Bissette2013">{{cite journal |last1=Bissette |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Fletcher |first2=Stephen P. |date=2 December 2013 |title=Mechanisms of Autocatalysis |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |volume=52 |issue=49 |pages=12800–12826 |doi=10.1002/anie.201303822 |pmid=24127341}}</ref> Systems that do not proceed by template mechanisms, such as the self-reproduction of [[micelle]]s and [[Vesicle (biology and chemistry)|vesicles]], have also been observed.<ref name="Bissette2013" /><br />
<br />
自催化剂是指能催化自身生产的物质,因此是 "分子复制器"。最简单的自我复制化学体系是自催化的,通常包含三个组成部分:一个产物分子和两个前体分子。产品分子将前体分子连接在一起,再由更多的前体分子产生更多的产品分子。产物分子通过提供一个互补的模板来催化反应,该模板与前体结合,从而使它们结合在一起。这样的系统在生物大分子和小有机分子中都得到了证明.也观察到了不通过模板机制进行的系统,如胶束和囊泡的自我再生。<br />
<br />
It has been proposed that life initially arose as autocatalytic chemical networks.<ref>{{harvnb|Kauffman|1993|loc=chpt. 7}}</ref> British [[ethologist]] [[Richard Dawkins]] wrote about autocatalysis as a potential explanation for the origin of life in his 2004 book ''[[The Ancestor's Tale]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Dawkins|2004}}</ref> In his book, Dawkins cites experiments performed by [[Julius Rebek]] and his colleagues in which they combined amino adenosine and [[pentafluorophenyl esters]] with the autocatalyst amino adenosine triacid ester (AATE). One product was a variant of AATE, which catalyzed the synthesis of themselves. This experiment demonstrated the possibility that autocatalysts could exhibit competition within a population of entities with heredity, which could be interpreted as a rudimentary form of natural selection.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tjivikua |first1=T. |last2=Ballester |first2=Pablo |last3=Rebek |first3=Julius Jr. |authorlink3=Julius Rebek |date=January 1990 |title=Self-replicating system |journal=[[Journal of the American Chemical Society]] |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=1249–1250 |doi=10.1021/ja00159a057 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Browne |first=Malcolm W. |authorlink=Malcolm Browne |date=30 October 1990 |title=Chemists Make Molecule With Hint of Life |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/10/30/science/chemists-make-molecule-with-hint-of-life.html |newspaper=The New York Times |location=New York |accessdate=2015-07-14 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721135740/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/10/30/science/chemists-make-molecule-with-hint-of-life.html |archivedate=21 July 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
有人提出,生命最初是以自催化化学网络的形式产生的。英国伦理学家理查德-道金斯(Richard Dawkins)在2004年出版的《祖先的故事》(The Ancestor's Tale)一书中写道,自催化是生命起源的一种潜在解释。在书中,道金斯引用了朱利叶斯-雷贝克(Julius Rebek)和他的同事所做的实验,他们将氨基腺苷和五氟苯基酯与自催化剂氨基腺苷三酸酯(AATE)相结合。其中一种产物是AATE的变体,它能催化自身的合成。这一实验表明,自催化剂有可能在具有遗传性的实体种群中表现出竞争,这可以被解释为自然选择的一种基本形式。<br />
<br />
== Encapsulation: morphology ==<br />
胶囊化:形态学<br />
{{see also|Evolution of cells}}<br />
<br />
=== Encapsulation without a membrane ===<br />
无膜胶囊化<br />
====Oparin's coacervate====<br />
Oparin的(细胞)团聚体<br />
====Membraneless polyester droplets====<br />
<br />
无膜聚酯液滴 <br />
<br />
Researchers Tony Jia and Kuhan Chandru<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jia |first1=Tony Z. |last2=Chandru |first2=Kuhan |last3=Hongo |first3=Yayoi |last4=Afrin |first4=Rehana |last5=Usui |first5=Tomohiro |last6=Myojo |first6=Kunihiro |last7=Cleaves |first7=H. James |title=Membraneless polyester microdroplets as primordial compartments at the origins of life |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=116 |issue=32 |date=22 July 2019 |pages=15830–15835 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1902336116|pmid=31332006 |pmc=6690027 }}</ref> have proposed that membraneless polyesters droplets could have been significant in the Origins of Life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chandru|first1=Kuhan|last2=Mamajanov|first2=Irena|last3=Cleaves|first3=H. James|last4=Jia|first4=Tony Z.|date=January 2020|title=Polyesters as a Model System for Building Primitive Biologies from Non-Biological Prebiotic Chemistry|journal=Life|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=6|doi=10.3390/life10010006|pmc=7175156|pmid=31963928}}</ref> Given the "messy" nature of prebiotic chemistry,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Marc |first1=Kaufman |title=NASA Astrobiology |url=https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/news/messy-chemistry-a-new-way-to-approach-the-origins-of-life/|date = 18 July 2019 |website=astrobiology.nasa.gov |language=en-EN}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guttenberg |first1=Nicholas |last2=Virgo |first2=Nathaniel |last3=Chandru |first3=Kuhan |last4=Scharf |first4=Caleb |last5=Mamajanov |first5=Irena |title=Bulk measurements of messy chemistries are needed for a theory of the origins of life |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=13 November 2017 |volume=375 |issue=2109 |pages=20160347 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2016.0347|pmid=29133446 |pmc=5686404 |bibcode=2017RSPTA.37560347G }}</ref> the spontaneous generation of these combinatorial droplets may have played a role in early cellularization before the innovation of lipid vesicles. Protein function within and RNA function in the presence of certain polyester droplets was shown to be preserved within the droplets. Additionally, the droplets have scaffolding ability, by allowing lipids to assemble around them that may have prevented leakage of genetic materials.<br />
<br />
研究人员Tony Jia和Kuhan Chandruhave提出,无膜聚酯液滴可能在生命起源中发挥了重要作用。鉴于前生物化学的 "混乱 "性质,这些组合液滴的自然发生可能在脂质小泡革新之前的早期细胞化中发挥了作用。研究表明,在某些聚酯液滴的存在下,液滴内的蛋白质功能和RNA功能得以保存。此外,该液滴具有支架能力,通过允许脂质在其周围组装,可能防止了遗传物质的泄漏。<br />
<br />
=== Proteinoid microspheres ===<br />
类蛋白微球体<br />
Fox observed in the 1960s that the proteinoids that he had synthesized could form cell-like structures that have been named "[[Proteinoid|proteinoid microspheres]]".<ref name="foxexp">{{cite web |url=http://nitro.biosci.arizona.edu/courses/EEB105/lectures/Origins_of_Life/origins.html |title=Part 4: Experimental studies of the origins of life |last=Walsh |first=J. Bruce |year=1995 |work=Origins of life |publisher=[[University of Arizona]] |location=Tucson, AZ |type=Lecture notes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113152408/http://nitro.biosci.arizona.edu/courses/EEB105/lectures/Origins_of_Life/origins.html |archivedate=2008-01-13 |accessdate=2015-06-08}}</ref><br />
<br />
Fox在20世纪60年代观察到,他合成的蛋白素可以形成细胞状结构,被命名为 "类蛋白微球体"。<br />
<br />
The amino acids had combined to form [[proteinoid]]s, and the proteinoids had combined to form small globules that Fox called "microspheres". His proteinoids were not cells, although they formed clumps and chains reminiscent of [[cyanobacteria]], but they contained no functional [[nucleic acid]]s or any encoded information. Based upon such experiments, [[Colin Pittendrigh]] stated in 1967 that "laboratories will be creating a living cell within ten years," a remark that reflected the typical contemporary naivety about the complexity of cell structures.<ref>{{harvnb|Woodward|1969|p=287}}</ref><br />
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氨基酸组合成类蛋白,而类蛋白组合成小球,福克斯称之为 "微球体"。他的类蛋白不是细胞,虽然它们形成的团块和链子让人联想到蓝藻,但它们不含任何功能性核酸或任何编码信息。基于这样的实验,Colin Pittendrigh在1967年说:"实验室将在十年内创造出一个活细胞。"这句话反映了当代人对细胞结构复杂性的典型天真。<br />
<br />
=== Lipid world ===<br />
<br />
脂质世界<br />
<br />
{{Main|Gard model}}<br />
<br />
The [[Gard model|lipid world]] theory postulates that the first self-replicating object was [[lipid]]-like.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weizmann.ac.il/molgen/Lancet/research/prebiotic-evolution |title=Systems Prebiology-Studies of the origin of Life |last=Lancet |first=Doron |date=30 December 2014 |website=The Lancet Lab |publisher=Department of Molecular Genetics; [[Weizmann Institute of Science]] |location=Rehovot, Israel |accessdate=2015-06-26 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626180507/http://www.weizmann.ac.il/molgen/Lancet/research/prebiotic-evolution |archivedate=26 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Segré |first1=Daniel |last2=Ben-Eli |first2=Dafna |last3=Deamer |first3=David W. |last4=Lancet |first4=Doron |date=February 2001 |title=The Lipid World |url=http://www.weizmann.ac.il/molgen/Lancet/sites/molgen.Lancet/files/uploads/segre_lipid_world.pdf |journal=Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere |volume=31 |issue=1–2 |pages=119–145 |doi=10.1023/A:1006746807104 |pmid=11296516 |bibcode=2001OLEB...31..119S |s2cid=10959497 |accessdate=2008-09-11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626225745/http://www.weizmann.ac.il/molgen/Lancet/sites/molgen.Lancet/files/uploads/segre_lipid_world.pdf |archivedate=26 June 2015}}</ref> It is known that phospholipids form [[lipid bilayer]]s in water while under agitation—the same structure as in cell membranes. These molecules were not present on early Earth, but other [[Amphiphile|amphiphilic]] long-chain molecules also form membranes. Furthermore, these bodies may expand (by insertion of additional lipids), and under excessive expansion may undergo spontaneous splitting which preserves the same size and composition of lipids in the two [[Offspring|progenies]]. The main idea in this theory is that the molecular composition of the lipid bodies is the preliminary way for information storage, and evolution led to the appearance of polymer entities such as RNA or DNA that may store information favourably. Studies on vesicles from potentially prebiotic amphiphiles have so far been limited to systems containing one or two types of amphiphiles. This in contrast to the output of simulated prebiotic chemical reactions, which typically produce very heterogeneous mixtures of compounds.<ref name="Chen 2010" /><br />
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脂质世界理论认为,第一个自我复制的物体是类脂质的。众所周知,磷脂在水中搅拌时形成脂质双层--与细胞膜的结构相同。这些分子在早期地球上并不存在,但其他两亲长链分子也会形成膜。此外,这些脂质体可能会膨胀(通过插入额外的脂质),在过度膨胀下可能会发生自发的分裂,从而在两个后代中保留了相同的大小和脂质的组成。这一理论的主要观点是,脂质体的分子组成是信息储存的初步方式,进化导致了RNA或DNA等聚合物实体的出现,它们可能有利地储存信息。迄今为止,对潜在的前生物两栖动物的囊泡的研究还仅限于含有一两种两栖动物的系统。这与模拟的前生物化学反应的输出形成鲜明对比,前生物化学反应通常会产生非常异质的化合物混合物。<br />
<br />
Within the hypothesis of a lipid bilayer membrane composed of a mixture of various distinct amphiphilic compounds there is the opportunity of a huge number of theoretically possible combinations in the arrangements of these amphiphiles in the membrane. Among all these potential combinations, a specific local arrangement of the membrane would have favoured the constitution of a hypercycle,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eigen |first1=Manfred |authorlink1=Manfred Eigen |last2=Schuster |first2=Peter |authorlink2=Peter Schuster |date=November 1977 |title=The Hypercycle. A Principle of Natural Self-Organization. Part A: Emergence of the Hypercycle |url=http://jaguar.biologie.hu-berlin.de/~wolfram/pages/seminar_theoretische_biologie_2007/literatur/schaber/Eigen1977Naturwissenschaften64.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=64 |issue=11 |pages=541–65|bibcode=1977NW.....64..541E |doi=10.1007/bf00450633 |pmid=593400 |accessdate=2015-06-13 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194728/http://jaguar.biologie.hu-berlin.de/~wolfram/pages/seminar_theoretische_biologie_2007/literatur/schaber/Eigen1977Naturwissenschaften64.pdf |archivedate=3 March 2016}}<br />
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在脂质双层膜的假设中,由各种不同的两亲化合物的混合物组成,有机会在这些两亲化合物在膜中的排列中进行大量的理论上可能的组合。在所有这些潜在的组合中,膜的一个特定的局部排列将有利于超循环的构成,<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Eigen |first1=Manfred |last2=Schuster |first2=Peter |date=July 1978 |title=The Hypercycle. A Principle of Natural Self-Organization. Part C: The Realistic Hypercycle |url=http://jaguar.biologie.hu-berlin.de/~wolfram/pages/seminar_theoretische_biologie_2007/literatur/schaber/Eigen1978Naturwissenschaften65b.pdf |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=65 |issue=7 |pages=341–369 |bibcode=1978NW.....65..341E |doi=10.1007/bf00439699 |s2cid=13825356 |accessdate=2015-06-13 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616180402/http://jaguar.biologie.hu-berlin.de/~wolfram/pages/seminar_theoretische_biologie_2007/literatur/schaber/Eigen1978Naturwissenschaften65b.pdf |archivedate=16 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Markovitch |first1=Omer |last2=Lancet |first2=Doron |date=Summer 2012 |title=Excess Mutual Catalysis Is Required for Effective Evolvability |journal=[[Artificial Life (journal)|Artificial Life]] |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=243–266 |doi=10.1162/artl_a_00064|pmid=22662913 |s2cid=5236043 }}</ref> actually a positive [[feedback]] composed of two mutual catalysts represented by a membrane site and a specific compound trapped in the vesicle. Such site/compound pairs are transmissible to the daughter vesicles leading to the emergence of distinct [[Lineage (evolution)|lineages]] of vesicles which would have allowed Darwinian natural selection.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tessera |first=Marc |year=2011 |title=Origin of Evolution ''versus'' Origin of Life: A Shift of Paradigm |journal=[[International Journal of Molecular Sciences]] |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=3445–3458 |doi=10.3390/ijms12063445 |pmc=3131571 |pmid=21747687}} Special Issue: "Origin of Life 2011"</ref><br />
<br />
实际上是由两个相互的催化剂组成的正反馈,由一个膜位和一个被困在囊泡中的特定化合物代表。这样的位点/化合物对可以传递给子囊泡,从而导致不同的囊泡品系的出现,这将遵循达尔文的自然选择。<br />
<br />
=== Protocells ===<br />
原始细胞<br />
{{Main|Protocell}}<br />
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[[File:Phospholipids aqueous solution structures.svg|thumb|upright|The three main structures [[phospholipid]]s form spontaneously in solution: the [[liposome]] (a closed bilayer), the [[micelle]] and the bilayer.]]<br />
<br />
磷脂在溶液中自发形成三个主要结构:脂质体(封闭的双层),胶束和双层。<br />
<br />
A protocell is a self-organized, self-ordered, spherical collection of [[lipid]]s proposed as a stepping-stone to the origin of life.<ref name="Chen 2010">{{cite journal |first1=Irene A. |last1=Chen |first2=Peter |last2=Walde |title=From Self-Assembled Vesicles to Protocells |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |date=July 2010 |volume=2 |issue=7 |page=a002170 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a002170 |pmc=2890201 |pmid=20519344}}</ref> A central question in evolution is how simple protocells first arose and differed in reproductive contribution to the following generation driving the evolution of life. Although a functional protocell has not yet been achieved in a laboratory setting, there are scientists who think the goal is well within reach.<ref name="Exploring">{{cite web |url=http://exploringorigins.org/protocells.html |title=Exploring Life's Origins: Protocells |website=Exploring Life's Origins: A Virtual Exhibit |publisher=National Science Foundation |location=Arlington County, VA |accessdate=2014-03-18 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228083459/http://exploringorigins.org/protocells.html |archivedate=28 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="Chen 2006">{{cite journal |last=Chen |first=Irene A. |date=8 December 2006 |title=The Emergence of Cells During the Origin of Life |journal=Science |volume=314 |issue=5805 |pages=1558–1559 |doi=10.1126/science.1137541 |pmid=17158315 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Discover 2004">{{cite journal |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |authorlink=Carl Zimmer |date=26 June 2004 |title=What Came Before DNA? |url=http://discovermagazine.com/2004/jun/cover |journal=Discover |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319001351/http://discovermagazine.com/2004/jun/cover |archivedate=19 March 2014}}</ref><br />
<br />
原始细胞是一种自组织、自排序、球形的脂质集合,被提议作为生命起源的阶梯。进化论中的一个核心问题是简单的原始细胞是如何首先产生的,并对下一代的繁殖贡献不同,推动生命的进化。虽然在实验室环境中还没有实现功能性的原始细胞,但有科学家认为这个目标是可以实现的。<br />
<br />
Self-assembled [[Vesicle (biology and chemistry)|vesicles]] are essential components of primitive cells.<ref name="Chen 2010" /> The [[second law of thermodynamics]] requires that the universe move in a direction in which [[entropy]] increases, yet life is distinguished by its great degree of organization. Therefore, a boundary is needed to separate [[Metabolism|life processes]] from non-living matter.<ref name="SciAm 2007">{{cite journal |last=Shapiro |first=Robert |authorlink=Robert Shapiro (chemist) |date=June 2007 |title=A Simpler Origin for Life |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-simpler-origin-for-life/ |journal=Scientific American |volume=296 |issue=6 |pages=46–53 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0607-46 |pmid=17663224 |accessdate=2015-06-15 |bibcode=2007SciAm.296f..46S |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614000643/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-simpler-origin-for-life/ |archivedate=14 June 2015}}</ref> Researchers Irene Chen and Szostak amongst others, suggest that simple physicochemical properties of elementary protocells can give rise to essential cellular behaviours, including primitive forms of differential reproduction competition and energy storage. Such cooperative interactions between the membrane and its encapsulated contents could greatly simplify the transition from simple replicating molecules to true cells.<ref name="Chen 2006" /> Furthermore, competition for membrane molecules would favour stabilized membranes, suggesting a selective advantage for the evolution of cross-linked fatty acids and even the [[phospholipid]]s of today.<ref name="Chen 2006" /> Such [[micro-encapsulation]] would allow for metabolism within the membrane, the exchange of small molecules but the prevention of passage of large substances across it.<ref>{{harvnb|Chang|2007}}</ref> The main advantages of encapsulation include the increased [[solubility]] of the contained cargo within the capsule and the storage of energy in the form of an [[electrochemical gradient]].<br />
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自组装囊泡是原始细胞的重要组成部分。热力学第二定律要求宇宙向熵增加的方向运动,然而生命的特点是组织程度很高。因此,需要一个边界来将生命过程与非生命物质分开。研究者Irene Chen和Szostak等人认为,基本原细胞的简单物理化学特性可以引起基本的细胞行为,包括原始形式的差异繁殖竞争和能量储存。膜与包裹物之间的这种合作相互作用可以大大简化从简单复制分子到真正细胞的过渡。此外,对膜分子的竞争将有利于稳定的膜,这表明交联脂肪酸甚至今天的磷脂的进化具有选择性优势。 这种微胶囊将允许膜内的新陈代谢,小分子的交换,但防止大物质穿过膜。胶囊化的主要优势包括胶囊内所含货物的溶解度增加,以及以电化学梯度的形式储存能量。<br />
<br />
A 2012 study led by Mulkidjanian of the [[University of Osnabrück]], suggests that inland pools of condensed and cooled geothermal vapor have the ideal characteristics for the origin of life.<ref name="Switek 2012">{{cite news |last=Switek |first=Brian |date=13 February 2012 |title=Debate bubbles over the origin of life |work=Nature |location=London |publisher=Nature Publishing Group |doi=10.1038/nature.2012.10024}}</ref> Scientists confirmed in 2002 that by adding a [[montmorillonite]] clay to a solution of fatty acid micelles (lipid spheres), the clay sped up the rate of vesicles formation 100-fold.<ref name="Discover 2004" /> Furthermore, recent studies have found that the repeated actions of dehydration and rehydration trapped biomolecules like RNA inside the lipid protocells found within hot springs and providing the necessary preconditions for evolution by natural selection.<ref>{{Cite web|last=z3530495|date=2020-05-05|title='When chemistry became biology': looking for the origins of life in hot springs|url=https://newsroom.unsw.edu.au/news/science-tech/when-chemistry-became-biology-looking-origins-life-hot-springs|access-date=2020-10-12|website=UNSW Newsroom}}</ref><br />
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奥斯纳布吕克大学的Mulkidjanian领导的一项2012年的研究表明,冷凝和冷却的地热蒸汽的内陆池具有生命起源的理想特征。科学家在2002年证实,通过在脂肪酸胶束(脂质球)溶液中加入蒙脱石粘土,粘土将囊泡形成的速度加快了100倍。此外,最近的研究还发现,脱水和补水的反复作用将RNA等生物分子困在了温泉内发现的脂质原细胞内,为自然选择的进化提供了必要的前提条件。<br />
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=== Lipid vesicles formation in fresh water ===<br />
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淡水中脂质泡的形成 <br />
<br />
[[Bruce Damer]] and [[David Deamer]] have come to the conclusion that [[cell membrane]]s cannot be formed in salty [[seawater]], and must therefore have originated in freshwater. Before the continents formed, the only dry land on Earth would be volcanic islands, where rainwater would form ponds where lipids could form the first stages towards cell membranes. These predecessors of true cells are assumed to have behaved more like a [[superorganism]] rather than individual structures, where the porous membranes would house molecules which would leak out and enter other protocells. Only when true cells had evolved would they gradually adapt to saltier environments and enter the ocean.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Damer |first1=Bruce |last2=Deamer |first2=David |date=13 March 2015 |title=Coupled Phases and Combinatorial Selection in Fluctuating Hydrothermal Pools: A Scenario to Guide Experimental Approaches to the Origin of Cellular Life |journal=Life |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=872–887 |doi=10.3390/life5010872 |pmc=4390883 |pmid=25780958}}</ref><br />
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布鲁斯-达默Bruce Damer和大卫-迪默David Deamer得出的结论是,细胞膜不可能在咸咸的海水中形成,因此必须起源于淡水。在大陆形成之前,地球上唯一干燥的陆地应该是火山岛,雨水会在那里形成池塘,脂质可以在那里形成走向细胞膜的第一个阶段。这些真正细胞的前身被认为表现得更像一个超级有机体,而不是单独的结构,多孔的膜会容纳分子,这些分子会漏出并进入其他原细胞。只有当真细胞进化后,它们才会逐渐适应较咸的环境,进入海洋。<br />
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=== Vesicles consisting of mixtures of RNA-like biochemicals ===<br />
<br />
由RNA类生化物质的混合物组成的囊泡<br />
Another protocell model is the [[Jeewanu]]. First synthesized in 1963 from simple minerals and basic organics while exposed to sunlight, it is still reported to have some metabolic capabilities, the presence of [[semipermeable membrane]], amino acids, phospholipids, [[carbohydrate]]s and RNA-like molecules.<ref name="Grote 2011">{{cite journal |last=Grote |first=Mathias |date=September 2011 |title=''Jeewanu'', or the 'particles of life' |url=http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/grote_3677.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Biosciences]] |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=563–570 |doi=10.1007/s12038-011-9087-0 |pmid=21857103 |s2cid=19551399 |accessdate=2015-06-15 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924050938/http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/grote_3677.pdf |archivedate=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="Gupta 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Gupta |first1=V.K. |last2=Rai |first2=R.K. |date=August 2013 |title=Histochemical localisation of RNA-like material in photochemically formed self-sustaining, abiogenic supramolecular assemblies 'Jeewanu' |url=https://www.academia.edu/9439398 |journal=International Research Journal of Science & Engineering |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–4|accessdate=2015-06-15 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628001930/http://www.academia.edu/9439398/Histochemical_Localisation_of_RNA_like_material_in_photochemically_formed_self-sustaining_abiogenic_supramolecular_assemblis_Jeewanu_ |archivedate=28 June 2017}}</ref> However, the nature and properties of the Jeewanu remains to be clarified.<br />
<br />
另一种原细胞模型是Jeewanu。1963年首次由简单的矿物质和基本有机物在阳光下合成,据报道,它仍具有一定的新陈代谢能力,存在半透膜、氨基酸、磷脂、碳水化合物和RNA类分子。<br />
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Electrostatic interactions induced by short, positively charged, hydrophobic peptides containing 7 amino acids in length or fewer, can attach RNA to a vesicle membrane, the basic cell membrane.<ref>{{cite news |last=Welter |first=Kira |date=10 August 2015 |title=Peptide glue may have held first protocell components together |url=http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2015/08/peptide-glue-rna-may-have-held-first-protocells-together |work=Chemistry World |type=News |location=London |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |accessdate= 2015-08-29 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234238/http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2015/08/peptide-glue-rna-may-have-held-first-protocells-together |archivedate=5 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kamat |first1=Neha P. |last2=Tobé |first2=Sylvia |last3=Hill |first3=Ian T. |last4=Szostak |first4=Jack W. |authorlink4=Jack W. Szostak |title=Electrostatic Localization of RNA to Protocell Membranes by Cationic Hydrophobic Peptides |date=29 July 2015 |journal=Angewandte Chemie International Edition |doi=10.1002/anie.201505742 |pmid=26223820 |pmc=4600236 |volume=54 |issue=40 |pages=11735–11739}}</ref><br />
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由长度为7个氨基酸或更少的带正电荷的疏水性短肽引起的静电相互作用,可以将RNA附着在囊膜上,即基本细胞膜上。<br />
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=== Metal-sulfide precipitates ===<br />
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金属硫化物沉淀物<br />
<br />
William Martin and [[Michael Russell (scientist)|Michael Russell]] have suggested < blockquote >. . . . that life evolved in structured iron monosulphide precipitates in a seepage site hydrothermal mound at a redox, pH, and temperature gradient between sulphide-rich hydrothermal fluid and iron(II)-containing waters of the Hadean ocean floor. The naturally arising, three-dimensional compartmentation observed within fossilized seepage-site metal sulphide precipitates indicates that these inorganic compartments were the precursors of cell walls and membranes found in free-living prokaryotes. The known capability of FeS and NiS to catalyze the synthesis of the acetyl-methylsulphide from carbon monoxide and methylsulphide, constituents of hydrothermal fluid, indicates that pre-biotic syntheses occurred at the inner surfaces of these metal-sulphide-walled compartments,..."<ref name="Martin2003">{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=William |authorlink1=William F. Martin |last2=Russell |first2=Michael J. |date=29 January 2003 |title=On the origins of cells: a hypothesis for the evolutionary transitions from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokaryotes to nucleated cells |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B |volume=358 |issue=1429 |pages=59–83; discussion 83–85 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2002.1183|pmid=12594918 |pmc=1693102}}</ref> < /blockquote ><br />
<br />
William Martin和Michael Russell说<br />
<br />
......生命是在一个渗漏点热液丘中的结构化单硫化铁沉淀物中演化出来的,其氧化还原、pH值和温度梯度介于富含硫化物的热液和冥古代洋底的含铁(II)水之间。在化石渗出地金属硫化物沉淀物中观察到的自然生成的三维分层表明,这些无机分层是在自由生活的原核生物中发现的细胞壁和细胞膜的前身。已知FeS和NiS能够催化一氧化碳和甲基硫化物(热液的成分)合成乙酰-甲基硫化物,这表明生物前的合成发生在这些金属硫化物壁室的内表面,......"<br />
== Pertinent geological environments ==<br />
<br />
相关地质环境<br />
===Darwin's little pond===<br />
<br />
Darwin的小池塘 <br />
<br />
An early concept, that life originated from non-living matter in slow stages, appeared in [[Herbert Spencer]]'s 1864–1867 book ''Principles of Biology''. In 1879 [[William Turner Thiselton-Dyer]] referred to this in a paper "On spontaneous generation and evolution". On 1 February 1871 [[Charles Darwin]] wrote about these publications to [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]], and set out his own speculation,<ref name="Darwin DCP-LETT-7471">{{cite web | title=Letter no. 7471, Charles Darwin to Joseph Dalton Hooker, 1 February (1871) | website=Darwin Correspondence Project | date= | url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/DCP-LETT-7471.xml | access-date=7 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/polar_essay1.jsp|title=Origin and Evolution of Life on a Frozen Earth|last=Priscu|first=John C.|authorlink=John Charles Priscu|publisher=[[National Science Foundation]]|location=Arlington County, VA|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218070241/http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/polar_essay1.jsp|archivedate=18 December 2013|url-status=live|accessdate=2014-03-01}}</ref> suggesting that the original spark of life may have begun in a < blockquote >warm little pond, with all sorts of ammonia and phosphoric salts, light, heat, electricity, {{sic|hide=y|&c.}}, present, that a {{sic|hide=y|[[protein]]e}} compound was chemically formed ready to undergo still more complex changes.< /blockquote > He went on to explain that < blockquote >at the present day such matter would be instantly devoured or absorbed, which would not have been the case before living creatures were formed.< /blockquote ><br />
<br />
一个早期的概念,即生命起源于非生命物质的缓慢阶段,出现在Herbert Spencer 1864-1867年的《生物学原理》一书中。1879年William Turner Thiselton-Dyer在 "论自然发生和进化 "一文中提到了这一点。1871年2月1日,Charles Darwin将这些出版物写信给Joseph Hooker,并提出了自己的推测,认为生命的最初火花可能是始于<br />
<br />
<br />
温暖的小池塘,加上各种氨和磷盐,光、热、电等的存在,一种蛋白质化合物已经在化学上形成,准备进行更复杂的变化。<br />
<br />
<br />
他继续解释说,<br />
<br />
< blockquote ><br />
在今天,这种物质会被立即吞噬或吸收,而在生物形成之前是不会有这种情况的。<br />
< blockquote ><br />
<br />
{{harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.3&pageseq=30 18]}}:<br />
<br />
Darwin 1887年,第18页。<br />
<br />
It is often said that all the conditions for the first production of a living organism are now present, which could ever have been present. But if (and oh! what a big if!) we could conceive in some warm little pond, with all sorts of ammonia and phosphoric salts, light, heat, electricity, {{sic|&c.|hide=y}}, present, that a {{sic|[[protein]]e|hide=y}} compound was chemically formed ready to undergo still more complex changes, at the present day such matter would be instantly devoured or absorbed, which would not have been the case before living creatures were formed.<br />
<br />
人们常说,现在已经具备了生物体第一次生产的所有条件,而这些条件本来是可以存在的。但是,如果(哦!多么大的如果啊!)我们可以设想在某个温暖的小池塘里,在各种氨和磷盐、光、热、电等条件存在的情况下,一种蛋白质化合物被化学形成,准备进行更复杂的变化,在现在,这种物质会立即被吞噬或吸收,这在生物形成之前是不会出现的。<br />
<br />
— Darwin, 1 February 1871<br />
—达尔文,1871年2月1日<br />
<br />
More recent studies, in 2017, support the notion that life may have begun right after the Earth was formed as RNA molecules emerging from "warm little ponds".<ref name="IND-20171002">{{cite web |last=Johnston |first=Ian |title=Life first emerged in 'warm little ponds' almost as old as the Earth itself – Darwin's famous idea backed by new scientific study |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/origins-life-ponds-organisms-earth-age-study-a7978906.html |date=2 October 2017 |work=[[The Independent]] |accessdate=2 October 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003003027/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/origins-life-ponds-organisms-earth-age-study-a7978906.html |archivedate=3 October 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
2017年,更多的最新研究支持这样的观点:生命可能在地球形成后就开始了,因为RNA分子从 "温暖的小池塘 "中出现。<br />
<br />
===Volcanic hot springs and hydrothermal vents, shallow or deep===<br />
<br />
浅层或深层的火山温泉和热液喷口<br />
<br />
{{for|branching of Bacteria phyla|Bacterial phyla}}<br />
<br />
Martin Brazier has shown that early micro-fossils came from a hot world of gases such as [[methane]], [[ammonia]], [[carbon dioxide]] and [[hydrogen sulphide]], which are toxic to much current life.<ref><br />
<br />
M.D> Brasier (2012), "Secret Chambers: The Inside Story of Cells and Complex Life" (Oxford Uni Press), p.298</ref> Another analysis of the conventional threefold tree of life shows thermophilic and hyperthermophilic [[bacteria]] and [[archaea]] are closest to the root, suggesting that life may have evolved in a hot environment.<ref>Ward, Peter & Kirschvink, Joe, op cit, p. 42</ref><br />
<br />
马丁-布劳泽尔Martin Brazier曾表明,早期的微体化石来自于甲烷、氨、二氧化碳和硫化氢等气体的高温世界,这些气体对目前的许多生命都是有毒的。另一种对传统的三重生命树的分析表明,嗜热和嗜高温的细菌和古菌最接近根部,这表明生命可能是在高温环境中进化的。<br />
<br />
===Deep sea hydrothermal vents===<br />
<br />
深海热液喷口<br />
[[File:Blacksmoker in Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|upright|Deep-sea hydrothermal vent or [[black smoker]]]]<br />
<br />
深海热液喷口或黑烟<br />
The deep sea vent, or alkaline [[hydrothermal vent]], theory posits that life may have begun at submarine hydrothermal vents,<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|author1=Colín-García, M.|author2=A. Heredia|author3=G. Cordero|author4=A. Camprubí|author5=A. Negrón-Mendoza|author6=F. Ortega-Gutiérrez|author7=H. Berald|author8=S. Ramos-Bernal|year=2016|title=Hydrothermal vents and prebiotic chemistry: a review|url=http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/index.php/component/content/article/309-sitio/articulos/cuarta-epoca/6803/1620-6803-13-colin|journal=Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana|volume=68|issue=3|pages=599–620|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818175803/http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/index.php/component/content/article/309-sitio/articulos/cuarta-epoca/6803/1620-6803-13-colin|archivedate=18 August 2017|doi=10.18268/BSGM2016v68n3a13|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="hydrothermal vents NASA 2014">{{cite web|url=https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/articles/2014/6/24/hydrothermal-vents-could-explain-chemical-precursors-to-life/ |title=Hydrothermal Vents Could Explain Chemical Precursors to Life |last=Schirber |first=Michael |date=24 June 2014 |website=NASA Astrobiology: Life in the Universe |publisher=NASA |accessdate=2015-06-19 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129051724/http://astrobiology.nasa.gov/articles/2014/6/24/hydrothermal-vents-could-explain-chemical-precursors-to-life/ |archivedate=29 November 2014}}</ref> Martin and Russell have suggested < blockquote >that life evolved in structured iron monosulphide precipitates in a seepage site hydrothermal mound at a redox, pH, and temperature gradient between sulphide-rich hydrothermal fluid and iron(II)-containing waters of the Hadean ocean floor. The naturally arising, three-dimensional compartmentation observed within fossilized seepage-site metal sulphide precipitates indicates that these inorganic compartments were the precursors of cell walls and membranes found in free-living prokaryotes. The known capability of FeS and NiS to catalyze the synthesis of the acetyl-methylsulphide from carbon monoxide and methylsulphide, constituents of hydrothermal fluid, indicates that pre-biotic syntheses occurred at the inner surfaces of these metal-sulphide-walled compartments,...<ref name="Martin2003" />< /blockquote > These form where hydrogen-rich fluids emerge from below the sea floor, as a result of [[Serpentinite|serpentinization]] of ultra-[[mafic]] [[olivine]] with seawater and a pH interface with carbon dioxide-rich ocean water. The vents form a sustained chemical energy source derived from redox reactions, in which electron donors (molecular hydrogen) react with electron acceptors (carbon dioxide); see [[Iron–sulfur world theory]]. These are highly [[exothermic reaction]]s.<ref name=":1" />{{efn|The reactions are:<br /><br />
<br />
深海喷口或碱性热液喷口理论认为生命可能始于海底热液喷口,Martin和Russell认为<br />
<br />
< blockquote ><br />
<br />
生命是在一个渗漏点热液丘中的结构化单硫化铁沉淀物中演化出来的,其氧化还原、pH值和温度梯度介于富含硫化物的热液和哈丹洋底的含铁(II)水之间。在化石渗出地金属硫化物沉淀物中观察到的自然生成的三维分层表明,这些无机分层是自由生活的原核生物中发现的细胞壁和膜的前体。已知FeS和NiS能够催化一氧化碳和甲基硫化物(热液的成分)合成乙酰-甲基硫化物,这表明生物前的合成发生在这些金属硫化物壁隔室的内表面,<br />
< blockquote ><br />
<br />
这些喷口形成于富氢流体从海底下冒出的地方,是超基性橄榄石与海水发生蛇纹石化以及与富含二氧化碳的海水发生pH值界面的结果。这些喷口形成了一个来自氧化还原反应的持续化学能源,其中电子供体(分子氢)与电子受体(二氧化碳)发生反应;见铁-硫世界理论。这些都是高度放热的反应。<br />
<br />
Russell demonstrated that alkaline vents created an abiogenic [[Proton electromotive force|proton motive force]] (PMF) [[Chemiosmosis|chemiosmotic]] gradient,<ref name="Martin2003" /> in which conditions are ideal for an abiogenic hatchery for life. Their microscopic compartments "provide a natural means of concentrating organic molecules," composed of iron-sulfur minerals such as [[mackinawite]], endowed these mineral cells with the catalytic properties envisaged by [[Günter Wächtershäuser]].<ref name="Lane 2009" /> This movement of ions across the membrane depends on a combination of two factors:<br />
<br />
Russell证明,碱性喷口创造了一个非生物质质子动力(PMF)化生梯度,其中的条件是理想的非生物生命孵化器。它们的微观隔间 "提供了集中有机分子的天然手段",由铁硫矿物组成,如麦饭石,赋予这些矿物细胞以金特·沃特肖泽 Günter Wächtershäuser设想的催化特性。这种离子在膜上的运动取决于两个因素的组合:<br />
<br />
# [[Diffusion]] force caused by concentration gradient—all particles including ions tend to diffuse from higher concentration to lower.<br />
<br />
由浓度梯度引起的扩散力--包括离子在内的所有粒子都倾向于从高浓度向低浓度扩散。<br />
<br />
# Electrostatic force caused by electrical potential gradient—[[cations]] like [[proton]]s H<sup>+</sup> tend to diffuse down the electrical potential, [[anions]] in the opposite direction.<br />
<br />
电位梯度引起的静电力--质子H+等阳离子倾向于顺着电位扩散,阴离子则相反。<br />
<br />
These two gradients taken together can be expressed as an [[electrochemical gradient]], providing energy for abiogenic synthesis. The proton motive force can be described as the measure of the potential energy stored as a combination of proton and voltage gradients across a membrane (differences in proton concentration and electrical potential).<br />
<br />
这两个梯度综合起来可以表示为电化学梯度,为非生物合成提供能量。质子动力可以描述为质子和电压梯度穿过膜的组合(质子浓度和电动势的差异)所储存的势能的量度。<br />
<br />
Szostak suggested that geothermal activity provides greater opportunities for the origination of life in open lakes where there is a buildup of minerals. In 2010, based on spectral analysis of sea and hot mineral water, Ignat Ignatov and Oleg Mosin demonstrated that life may have predominantly originated in hot mineral water. The hot mineral water that contains [[bicarbonate]] and [[calcium]] ions has the most optimal range.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ignatov |first1=Ignat |last2=Mosin |first2=Oleg V. |year=2013 |title=Possible Processes for Origin of Life and Living Matter with modeling of Physiological Processes of Bacterium ''Bacillus Subtilis'' in Heavy Water as Model System |journal=Journal of Natural Sciences Research |volume=3 |issue=9 |pages=65–76}}</ref> This case is similar to the origin of life in hydrothermal vents, but with bicarbonate and calcium ions in hot water. This water has a pH of 9–11 and is possible to have the reactions in seawater. According to [[Melvin Calvin]], certain reactions of condensation-dehydration of amino acids and nucleotides in individual blocks of peptides and nucleic acids can take place in the primary hydrosphere with pH 9–11 at a later evolutionary stage.<ref>{{harvnb|Calvin|1969}}</ref> Some of these compounds like [[Hydrogen cyanide|hydrocyanic acid]] (HCN) have been proven in the experiments of Miller. This is the environment in which the [[stromatolite]]s have been created. David Ward of [[Montana State University]] described the formation of stromatolites in hot mineral water at the [[Yellowstone National Park]]. Stromatolites survive in hot mineral water and in proximity to areas with volcanic activity.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schirber |first=Michael |date=1 March 2010 |title=First Fossil-Makers in Hot Water |url=http://www.astrobio.net/news-exclusive/first-fossil-makers-in-hot-water/ |journal=[[Astrobiology Magazine]] |accessdate=2015-06-19 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714085640/http://www.astrobio.net/news-exclusive/first-fossil-makers-in-hot-water/ |archivedate=14 July 2015}}</ref> Processes have evolved in the sea near geysers of hot mineral water. <br />
<br />
Szostak提出,在有矿物质堆积的开放湖泊中,地热活动为生命的起源提供了更大的机会。2010年,Ignat Ignatov伊格纳特-伊格纳托夫和Oleg Mosin奥列格-莫辛根据对海水和热矿泉水的光谱分析,证明生命可能主要起源于热矿泉水。含有碳酸氢盐和钙离子的热矿泉水具有最理想的范围。这种情况类似于热液喷口中的生命起源,但热水中含有碳酸氢盐和钙离子。这种水的pH值为9-11,有可能在海水中发生反应。根据Melvin Calvin梅尔文-卡尔文的观点,在以后的进化阶段,在pH值为9-11的原生水球中,可以发生某些氨基酸和核苷酸单个区块的缩合-脱水反应.其中一些化合物如氢氰酸(HCN)已经在米勒的实验中得到证明。这就是产生气相石的环境。蒙大拿州立大学的David Ward描述了黄石国家公园的热矿泉水中形成的叠层石。叠层石生存在热矿泉水中和靠近火山活动的地区。在热矿泉水的喷泉附近的海中也有演化过程。2011年,东京大学的Tadashi Sugawara在热水中创造了一个原生细胞。<br />
<br />
Experimental research and computer modelling suggest that the surfaces of mineral particles inside hydrothermal vents have catalytic properties similar to those of enzymes and are able to create simple organic molecules, such as [[methanol]] (CH<sub>3</sub>OH) and [[Formic acid|formic]], [[Acetic acid|acetic]] and [[Pyruvic acid|pyruvic]] acid out of the dissolved CO<sub>2</sub> in the water.<ref name="organics">{{cite press release |last=Usher |first=Oli |date=27 April 2015 |title=Chemistry of seabed's hot vents could explain emergence of life |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/silva/mathematical-physical-sciences/maps-news-publication/maps1526 |publisher=[[University College London]] |accessdate=2015-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620012231/https://www.ucl.ac.uk/silva/mathematical-physical-sciences/maps-news-publication/maps1526 |archive-date=20 June 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roldan |first1=Alberto |last2=Hollingsworth |first2=Nathan |last3=Roffey |first3=Anna |last4=Islam |first4=Husn-Ubayda |last5=Goodall |first5=Josephine B. M. |last6=Catlow |first6=C. Richard A. |authorlink6=Richard Catlow |last7=Darr |first7=Jawwad A. |last8=Bras |first8=Wim |last9=Sankar |first9=Gopinathan |last10=Holt |first10=Katherine B. |last11=Hogarth |first11=Graeme |last12=de Leeuw |first12=Nora Henriette |display-authors=4 |date=May 2015 |title=Bio-inspired CO2 conversion by iron sulfide catalysts under sustainable conditions |url=http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2015/cc/c5cc02078f|journal=Chemical Communications |volume=51 |issue=35 |pages=7501–7504 |doi=10.1039/C5CC02078F |pmid=25835242 |accessdate=2015-06-19 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620003943/http://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2015/cc/c5cc02078f |archivedate=20 June 2015|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
<br />
实验研究和计算机建模表明,热液喷口内的矿物颗粒表面具有类似酶的催化特性,能够从水中溶解的二氧化碳中制造出简单的有机分子,如甲醇(CH<sub>3</sub>OH)和甲酸、乙酸和丙酮酸。<br />
<br />
The research reported above by Martin in 2016 supports the thesis that life arose at hydrothermal vents,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baross | first1 = J.A. | last2 = Hoffman | first2 = S.E. | year = 1985 | title = Submarine hydrothermal vents and associated gradient environments as sites for the origin and evolution of life | journal = Origins LifeEvol. B | volume = 15 | issue = 4 | pages = 327–345 | doi=10.1007/bf01808177| bibcode = 1985OrLi...15..327B | s2cid = 4613918 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Russell | first1 = M.J. | last2 = Hall | first2 = A.J. | year = 1997 | title = The emergence of life from iron monosulphide bubbles at a submarine hydrothermal redox and pH front | journal = Journal of the Geological Society| volume = 154 | issue = 3 | pages = 377–402 | doi=10.1144/gsjgs.154.3.0377| pmid = 11541234 | bibcode = 1997JGSoc.154..377R | s2cid = 24792282 }}</ref> that spontaneous chemistry in the Earth's crust driven by rock–water interactions at disequilibrium thermodynamically underpinned life's origin<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Amend | first1 = J.P. | last2 = LaRowe | first2 = D.E. | last3 = McCollom | first3 = T.M. | last4 = Shock | first4 = E.L. | year = 2013 | title = The energetics of organic synthesis inside and outside the cell | journal = Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B | volume = 368 | issue = 1622 | page = 20120255 | doi=10.1098/rstb.2012.0255| pmid = 23754809 | pmc = 3685458 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Shock | first1 = E.L. | last2 = Boyd | first2 = E.S. | year = 2015 | title = Geomicrobiology and microbial geochemistry:principles of geobiochemistry | journal = Elements | volume = 11 | pages = 389–394 | doi = 10.2113/gselements.11.6.395 }}</ref> and that the founding lineages of the archaea and bacteria were H2-dependent autotrophs that used CO2 as their terminal acceptor in energy metabolism.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Martin | first1 = W. | last2 = Russell | first2 = M.J. | year = 2007 | title = On the origin of biochemistry at an alkaline hydrothermal vent | journal = Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B | volume = 362 | issue = 1486 | pages = 1887–1925 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2006.1881 | pmid = 17255002 | pmc = 2442388 }}</ref> Martin suggests, based upon this evidence that [[LUCA]] "may have depended heavily on the geothermal energy of the vent to survive".<ref>Nature, Vol 535, 28 July 2016. p.468</ref><br />
<br />
Martin在2016年报告的上述研究支持这样的论点,即生命产生于热液喷口,地壳中由岩石-水相互作用驱动的非平衡热力学自发化学作用是生命起源的基础,古菌和细菌的创始系是依赖H2的自养生物,它们在能量代谢中使用CO2作为终端接受体。Martin根据这些证据提出,LUCA "可能严重依赖喷口的地热能而生存"。<br />
<br />
=== Fluctuating hydrothermal pools on volcanic islands or proto-continents ===<br />
<br />
火山岛或原大陆上的波动性热液池<br />
<br />
Mulkidjanian and co-authors think that the marine environments did not provide the ionic balance and composition universally found in cells, as well as of ions required by essential proteins and ribozymes found in virtually all living organisms, especially with respect to K<sup>+</sup>/Na<sup>+</sup> ratio, Mn<sup>2+</sup>, Zn<sup>2+</sup> and phosphate concentrations. The only known environments that mimic the needed conditions on Earth are found in terrestrial hydrothermal pools fed by steam vents.<ref name=":1" /> Additionally, mineral deposits in these environments under an anoxic atmosphere would have suitable pH (as opposed to current pools in an oxygenated atmosphere), contain precipitates of sulfide minerals that block harmful UV radiation, have wetting/drying cycles that concentrate substrate solutions to concentrations amenable to spontaneous formation of polymers of nucleic acids, polyesters<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chandru |first1=Kuhan |last2=Guttenberg |first2=Nicholas |last3=Giri |first3=Chaitanya |last4=Hongo |first4=Yayoi |last5=Butch |first5=Christopher |last6=Mamajanov |first6=Irena |last7=Cleaves |first7=H. James |title=Simple prebiotic synthesis of high diversity dynamic combinatorial polyester libraries |journal=Communications Chemistry |date=31 May 2018 |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.1038/s42004-018-0031-1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and depsipeptides,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Forsythe |first1=Jay G |last2=Yu |first2=Sheng-Sheng |last3=Mamajanov |first3=Irena |last4=Grover |first4=Martha A |last5=Krishnamurthy |first5=Ramanarayanan |last6=Fernández |first6=Facundo M |last7=Hud |first7=Nicholas V |title=Ester-Mediated Amide Bond Formation Driven by Wet–Dry Cycles: A Possible Path to Polypeptides on the Prebiotic Earth |journal=Angewandte Chemie (International ed. In English) |date=17 August 2015 |volume=54 |issue=34 |pages=9871–9875 |doi=10.1002/anie.201503792 |pmid=26201989 |pmc=4678426 }}</ref> both by chemical reactions in the hydrothermal environment, as well as by exposure to [[UV light]] during transport from vents to adjacent pools. Their hypothesized pre-biotic environments are similar to the deep-oceanic vent environments most commonly hypothesized, but add additional components that help explain peculiarities found in reconstructions of the [[Last Universal Common Ancestor]] (LUCA) of all living organisms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mulkidjanian |first1=Armid |last2=Bychkov |first2=Andrew |last3=Dibrova |first3=Daria |last4=Galperin |first4=Michael |last5=Koonin |first5=Eugene |date=3 April 2012 |title=Origin of first cells at terrestrial, anoxic geothermal fields |journal=PNAS |volume=109 |issue=14 |pages=E821–E830 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117774109 |pmid=22331915 |pmc=3325685|bibcode=2012PNAS..109E.821M }}</ref><br />
<br />
Mulkidjanian和其合著者认为,海洋环境没有提供细胞中普遍存在的离子平衡和组成,也没有提供几乎所有生物体中基本蛋白质和核糖体所需的离子,特别是K+/Na+比率、Mn2+、Zn2+和磷酸盐浓度。唯一已知的模拟地球上所需条件的环境是在由蒸汽喷口供给的陆地热液池中发现的。此外,这些环境中的矿藏在缺氧气氛下会有合适的pH值(而不是目前在含氧气氛下的池子),含有能阻挡有害紫外线辐射的硫化物矿物质沉淀物,有湿润/干燥循环,能将基质溶液浓缩到适合自发形成核酸、聚酯和去肽的聚合物的浓度,这些都是通过热液环境中的化学反应,以及通过从喷口向相邻池子运输过程中暴露在紫外线下形成的。他们推测的生物前环境与通常推测的深海喷口环境相似,但增加了额外的成分,有助于解释在重建所有生物的最后普遍共同祖先(LUCA)中发现的奇特之处。<br />
<br />
Colín-García ''et al.'' (2016) discuss the advantages and disadvantages of hydrothermal vents as primitive environments.<ref name=":1"/> They mention the exergonic reactions in such systems could have been a source of free energy that promoted chemical reactions, additional to their high mineralogical diversity which implies the induction of important chemical gradients, thus favoring the interaction between electron donors and acceptors. Colín-García ''et al.'' (2016) also summarize a set of experiments proposed to test the role of hydrothermal vents in prebiotic synthesis.<ref name=":1"/><br />
<br />
Colín-García等人(2016)讨论了热液喷口作为原始环境的优势和劣势。他们提到,这种系统中的放能反应可能是促进化学反应的自由能量来源,此外,它们的矿物学多样性很高,这意味着重要的化学梯度的诱导,从而有利于电子供体和受体之间的相互作用。Colín-García等(2016)还总结了一组拟用于测试热液喷口在前生物合成中的作用的实验。<br />
<br />
===Volcanic ash in the ocean===<br />
<br />
海洋中的火山灰<br />
<br />
[[Geoffrey W. Hoffmann]] has argued that a complex nucleation event as the origin of life involving both polypeptides and nucleic acid is compatible with the time and space available in the primitive oceans of Earth<ref>{{cite biorxiv|last1=Hoffmann|first1=Geoffrey William|title=A network theory of the origin of life|date=24 December 2016|biorxiv=10.1101/096701}}</ref> Hoffmann suggests that volcanic ash may provide the many random shapes needed in the postulated complex nucleation event. This aspect of the theory can be tested experimentally.<br />
<br />
Geoffrey W.Hoffmann认为,作为生命起源的复杂成核事件涉及多肽和核酸,与地球原始海洋中可用的时间和空间相适应Hoffmann认为,火山灰可能提供了假设的复杂成核事件中所需要的许多随机形状。这方面的理论可以通过实验来检验。<br />
<br />
=== Gold's deep-hot biosphere ===<br />
<br />
黄金的深热生物圈 <br />
<br />
In the 1970s, [[Thomas Gold]] proposed the theory that life first developed not on the surface of the Earth, but several kilometers below the surface. It is claimed that the discovery of microbial life below the surface of another body in our Solar System would lend significant credence to this theory. Gold also asserted that a trickle of food from a deep, unreachable, source is needed for survival because life arising in a puddle of organic material is likely to consume all of its food and become extinct. Gold's theory is that the flow of such food is due to out-gassing of primordial methane from the Earth's mantle; more conventional explanations of the food supply of deep microbes (away from sedimentary carbon compounds) is that the organisms [[Microbial metabolism#Hydrogen oxidation|subsist on hydrogen]] released by an interaction between water and (reduced) iron compounds in rocks.<br />
<br />
20世纪70年代,托马斯-戈德Thomas Gold提出了生命最初不是在地球表面,而是在地球表面以下几公里处发展起来的理论。据称,如果在太阳系另一个天体表面以下发现微生物生命,将使这一理论得到重要的证实。Gold还断言,来自深不可测的涓涓细流的食物是生存所需要的,因为在一滩有机物中产生的生命很可能会消耗掉所有的食物而灭绝。Gold的理论是,这种食物的流动是由于地幔中原始甲烷的外放所致;对深层微生物(远离沉积碳化合物)的食物供应,更传统的解释是,生物靠水和岩石中(还原)铁化合物之间的相互作用释放的氢气为生。<br />
<br />
=== Radioactive beach hypothesis ===<br />
<br />
放射性海滩假说 <br />
<br />
Zachary Adam claims that tidal processes that occurred during a time when the Moon was much closer may have concentrated grains of [[uranium]] and other radioactive elements at the high-water mark on primordial beaches, where they may have been responsible for generating life's building blocks.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dartnell |first=Lewis |date=12 January 2008 |title=Did life begin on a radioactive beach? |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19726384.000-did-life-begin-on-a-radioactive-beach.html |journal=New Scientist |issue=2638 |page=8 |accessdate=2015-06-26 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627101858/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19726384.000-did-life-begin-on-a-radioactive-beach.html |archivedate=27 June 2015}}</ref> According to computer models,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Adam |first=Zachary |year=2007 |title=Actinides and Life's Origins |journal=Astrobiology |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=852–872 |bibcode=2007AsBio...7..852A |doi=10.1089/ast.2006.0066|pmid=18163867}}</ref> a deposit of such radioactive materials could show the same [[Natural nuclear fission reactor|self-sustaining nuclear reaction]] as that found in the [[Oklo]] uranium ore seam in [[Gabon]]. Such radioactive beach sand might have provided sufficient energy to generate organic molecules, such as amino acids and sugars from [[acetonitrile]] in water. Radioactive [[monazite]] material also has released soluble phosphate into the regions between sand-grains, making it biologically "accessible." Thus amino acids, sugars, and soluble phosphates might have been produced simultaneously, according to Adam. Radioactive [[actinide]]s, left behind in some concentration by the reaction, might have formed part of [[Organometallic chemistry|organometallic complexes]]. These complexes could have been important early catalysts to living processes.<br />
<br />
扎卡里-亚当Zachary Adam声称,在月球更接近月球的时期发生的潮汐过程可能将铀和其他放射性元素的颗粒集中在原始海滩的高水位线上,在那里它们可能负责生成生命的构件。根据计算机模型,这种放射性物质的沉积可能显示出与加蓬奥克洛铀矿缝中发现的相同的自我维持的核反应。这种放射性海滩沙子可能提供了足够的能量来生成有机分子,如水中的乙腈生成氨基酸和糖类。放射性单晶石物质还将可溶性磷酸盐释放到沙粒之间的区域,使其成为生物上的 "可利用物质"。据Adam说,因此氨基酸、糖类和可溶性磷酸盐可能是同时产生的。放射性的锕系元素,在反应中留下了一定的浓度,可能已经形成了有机金属复合物的一部分。这些复合物可能是生命过程的重要早期催化剂。<br />
<br />
John Parnell has suggested that such a process could provide part of the "crucible of life" in the early stages of any early wet rocky planet, so long as the planet is large enough to have generated a system of plate tectonics which brings radioactive minerals to the surface. As the early Earth is thought to have had many smaller plates, it might have provided a suitable environment for such processes.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Parnell |first=John |date=December 2004 |title=Mineral Radioactivity in Sands as a Mechanism for Fixation of Organic Carbon on the Early Earth |journal=Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=533–547 |bibcode=2004OLEB...34..533P |doi=10.1023/B:ORIG.0000043132.23966.a1 |pmid=15570707|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.8955 |s2cid=6067448 }}</ref><br />
<br />
约翰-帕内尔John Parnell认为,在任何早期湿岩行星的早期阶段,这种过程都可能提供部分 "生命的坩埚",只要该行星足够大,产生了板块构造系统,将放射性矿物带到地表。由于早期地球被认为有许多较小的板块,它可能为这种过程提供了合适的环境。<br />
<br />
== Origin of metabolism: physiology ==<br />
<br />
代谢起源:生理学<br />
Different forms of life with variable origin processes may have appeared quasi-simultaneously in the early [[history of Earth]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Davies |first=Paul |authorlink=Paul Davies |date=December 2007 |title=Are Aliens Among Us? |url=http://www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/kalthoff/bio301c/readings/07Davies.pdf |journal=Scientific American |volume=297 |issue=6 |pages=62–69 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1207-62 |accessdate=2015-07-16 |quote=...if life does emerge readily under terrestrial conditions, then perhaps it formed many times on our home planet. To pursue this possibility, deserts, lakes and other extreme or isolated environments have been searched for evidence of "alien" life-forms—organisms that would differ fundamentally from known organisms because they arose independently. |bibcode=2007SciAm.297f..62D |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304185832/http://www.zo.utexas.edu/courses/kalthoff/bio301c/readings/07Davies.pdf |archivedate=4 March 2016}}</ref> The other forms may be extinct (having left distinctive fossils through their different biochemistry—e.g., [[hypothetical types of biochemistry]]). It has been proposed that:<br />
<br />
在地球的早期历史中,具有不同起源过程的不同生命形式可能同时出现。其他形式可能已经灭绝(通过其不同的生物化学--如假设的生物化学类型--留下了独特的化石)。有人提出:<br />
<br />
< blockquote >The first organisms were self-replicating iron-rich clays which fixed carbon dioxide into oxalic and other [[dicarboxylic acid]]s. This system of replicating clays and their metabolic phenotype then evolved into the sulfide rich region of the hotspring acquiring the ability to fix nitrogen. Finally phosphate was incorporated into the evolving system which allowed the synthesis of nucleotides and phospholipids. If biosynthesis recapitulates biopoiesis, then the synthesis of amino acids preceded the synthesis of the purine and pyrimidine bases. Furthermore, the polymerization of the amino acid thioesters into polypeptides preceded the directed polymerization of amino acid esters by polynucleotides.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hartman |first=Hyman |date=1998 |title=Photosynthesis and the Origin of Life |journal=Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres |volume=28 |issue=4–6 |pages=515–521 |bibcode=1998OLEB...28..515H |doi=10.1023/A:1006548904157 |pmid=11536891|s2cid=2464 }}</ref>< /blockquote ><br />
<br />
< blockquote ><br />
最早的生物是自我复制的富铁粘土,它将二氧化碳固定成草酸和其他二羧酸。这种复制粘土系统及其新陈代谢表型随后进化到富含硫化物的热泉区获得了固氮的能力。最后磷酸盐被纳入进化的系统,使核苷酸和磷脂的合成成为可能。如果说生物合成重述了生物生成,那么氨基酸的合成就先于嘌呤和嘧啶碱基的合成。此外,氨基酸硫酯聚合成多肽,先于多核苷酸定向聚合氨基酸酯。<br />
<br />
Metabolism-like reactions could have occurred naturally in early oceans, before the first organisms evolved.<ref name="Ralser 2014" /><ref name="Metabolism 2014">{{cite press release |last=Senthilingam |first=Meera |date=25 April 2014 |title=Metabolism May Have Started in Early Oceans Before the Origin of Life |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/wt-mmh042314.php |publisher=[[Wellcome Trust]] |agency=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science|EurekAlert!]] |accessdate=2015-06-16 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617102656/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/wt-mmh042314.php |archivedate=17 June 2015}}</ref> Metabolism may predate the origin of life, which may have evolved from the chemical conditions in the earliest oceans. Reconstructions in laboratories show that some of these reactions can produce RNA, and some others resemble two essential reaction cascades of metabolism: [[glycolysis]] and the [[pentose phosphate pathway]], that provide essential precursors for nucleic acids, amino acids and lipids.<ref name="Metabolism 2014" /><br />
<br />
类似新陈代谢的反应可能在早期海洋中自然发生,在第一批生物进化之前。新陈代谢可能早于生命的起源,它可能是由最早的海洋中的化学条件演化而来的。实验室的重建表明,其中一些反应可以产生RNA,另外一些反应类似于新陈代谢的两个基本反应级联:糖酵解和磷酸戊糖途径,它们为核酸、氨基酸和脂类提供了必要的前体。<br />
<br />
=== Clay hypothesis ===<br />
<br />
粘土假说<br />
<br />
[[Montmorillonite]], an abundant [[clay]], is a catalyst for the polymerization of RNA and for the formation of membranes from lipids.<ref>{{cite press release |last=Perry |first=Caroline |date=7 February 2011 |title=Clay-armored bubbles may have formed first protocells |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2011-02/hu-cbm020411.php |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=[[Harvard University]] |agency=EurekAlert! |accessdate=2015-06-20 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714101638/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2011-02/hu-cbm020411.php |archivedate=14 July 2015}}</ref> A model for the origin of life using clay was forwarded by Alexander Cairns-Smith in 1985 and explored as a plausible mechanism by several scientists.<ref>{{harvnb|Dawkins|1996|pp=148–161}}</ref> The clay hypothesis postulates that complex organic molecules arose gradually on pre-existing, non-organic replication surfaces of silicate crystals in solution.<br />
<br />
蒙脱石是一种丰富的粘土,是RNA聚合和脂质形成膜的催化剂。1985年,亚历山大-凯恩斯-史密斯Alexander Cairns-Smith提出了一个利用粘土进行生命起源的模型,并被一些科学家作为一种可信的机制进行了探讨。粘土假说假定复杂的有机分子是在溶液中的硅酸盐晶体预先存在的非有机复制表面上逐渐产生的。<br />
<br />
At the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]], James Ferris' studies have also confirmed that montmorillonite clay minerals catalyze the formation of RNA in aqueous solution, by joining nucleotides to form longer chains.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Wenhua Huang |last2=Ferris |first2=James P. |date=12 July 2006 |title=One-Step, Regioselective Synthesis of up to 50-mers of RNA Oligomers by Montmorillonite Catalysis |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=128 |issue=27 |pages=8914–8919 |doi=10.1021/ja061782k |pmid=16819887}}</ref><br />
<br />
在伦斯勒理工学院,James Ferris的研究也证实,蒙脱石粘土矿物在水溶液中催化RNA的形成,通过连接核苷酸形成较长的链。<br />
<br />
In 2007, Bart Kahr from the [[University of Washington]] and colleagues reported their experiments that tested the idea that crystals can act as a source of transferable information, using crystals of [[potassium hydrogen phthalate]]. "Mother" crystals with imperfections were cleaved and used as seeds to grow "daughter" crystals from solution. They then examined the distribution of imperfections in the new crystals and found that the imperfections in the mother crystals were reproduced in the daughters, but the daughter crystals also had many additional imperfections. For gene-like behavior to be observed, the quantity of inheritance of these imperfections should have exceeded that of the mutations in the successive generations, but it did not. Thus Kahr concluded that the crystals "were not faithful enough to store and transfer information from one generation to the next."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Moore |first=Caroline |date=16 July 2007 |title=Crystals as genes? |url=http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/ChemScience/Volume/2007/08/Crystals_as_genes.asp |journal=Highlights in Chemical Science |accessdate=2015-06-21 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714094855/http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/ChemScience/Volume/2007/08/Crystals_as_genes.asp |archivedate=14 July 2015}}<br />
* {{cite journal |last1=Bullard |first1=Theresa |last2=Freudenthal |first2=John |last3=Avagyan |first3=Serine |last4=Kahr |first4=Bart |display-authors=3 |year=2007 |title=Test of Cairns-Smith's 'crystals-as-genes' hypothesis |journal=[[Faraday Discussions]] |volume=136 |pages=231–245 |bibcode=2007FaDi..136..231B |doi=10.1039/b616612c |pmid=17955812 }}</ref><br />
<br />
2007年,来自华盛顿大学的巴特-卡尔Bart Kahr 及其同事报告了他们的实验,利用邻苯二甲酸氢钾的晶体,检验了晶体可以作为可转移信息的来源的观点。切割有缺陷的 "母 "晶体,作为种子以从溶液中生长出 "子体"晶体。然后,他们检查了新晶体中的缺陷分布,发现母晶体中的缺陷在子晶体中重现,但子晶体也有许多额外的缺陷。要想观察到类似基因的行为,这些缺陷的遗传量应该超过历代的突变量,但事实并非如此。因此Kahr 得出结论,这些晶体 "不够忠实,无法存储信息并将信息从一代传给下一代”。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Iron–sulfur world ===<br />
铁硫世界<br />
{{Main|Iron–sulfur world theory}}<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Günter Wächtershäuser, encouraged and supported by [[Karl R. Popper|Karl Popper]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Yue-Ching Ho |first=Eugene |date=July–September 1990 |title=Evolutionary Epistemology and Sir Karl Popper's Latest Intellectual Interest: A First-Hand Report |url=http://www.tkpw.net/hk-ies/n15/ |journal=Intellectus |volume=15 |pages=1–3 |oclc=26878740 |accessdate=2012-08-13 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311074143/http://www.tkpw.net/hk-ies/n15/ |archivedate=11 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |date=22 April 1997 |title=Amateur Shakes Up Ideas on Recipe for Life |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/22/science/amateur-shakes-up-ideas-on-recipe-for-life.html?src=pm&pagewanted=2&pagewanted=all |newspaper=The New York Times |location=New York |accessdate=2015-06-16 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617122450/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/22/science/amateur-shakes-up-ideas-on-recipe-for-life.html?src=pm&pagewanted=2&pagewanted=all |archivedate=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Popper |first=Karl R. |authorlink=Karl Popper |date=29 March 1990 |title=Pyrite and the origin of life |journal=Nature |volume=344 |issue=6265 |page=387 |bibcode=1990Natur.344..387P |doi=10.1038/344387a0 |s2cid=4322774 }}</ref> postulated his iron–sulfur world, a theory of the evolution of pre-biotic chemical pathways as the starting point in the evolution of life. It systematically traces today's biochemistry to primordial reactions which provide alternative pathways to the synthesis of organic building blocks from simple gaseous compounds.<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代,Günter Wächtershäuser在Karl Popper的鼓励和支持下,提出了他的铁-硫世界,这是一个关于生物前化学途径进化的理论,是生命进化的起点。它系统地将今天的生物化学追溯到原始反应,原始反应提供了从简单的气体化合物合成有机构件的替代途径。<br />
<br />
<br />
In contrast to the classical Miller experiments, which depend on external sources of energy (simulated lightning, ultraviolet [[irradiation]]), "Wächtershäuser systems" come with a built-in source of energy: [[sulfide]]s of iron (iron [[pyrite]]) and other minerals. The energy released from [[redox]] reactions of these metal sulfides is available for the synthesis of organic molecules, and such systems may have evolved into autocatalytic sets constituting self-replicating, metabolically active entities predating the life forms known today.<ref name="Ralser 2014" /><ref name="Metabolism 2014" /> Experiments with such sulfides in an aqueous environment at 100&nbsp;°C produced a relatively small yield of [[dipeptide]]s (0.4% to 12.4%) and a smaller yield of [[tripeptide]]s (0.10%) although under the same conditions, dipeptides were quickly broken down.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Huber |first1=Claudia |last2=Wächtershäuser |first2=Günter |authorlink2=Günter Wächtershäuser |date=31 July 1998 |title=Peptides by Activation of Amino Acids with CO on (Ni,Fe)S Surfaces: Implications for the Origin of Life |journal=Science |volume=281 |issue=5377 |pages=670–672 |bibcode=1998Sci...281..670H |doi=10.1126/science.281.5377.670 |pmid=9685253}}</ref><br />
<br />
与经典的Miller实验依赖外部能量来源(模拟闪电、紫外线照射)不同,"韦氏系统 "自带内置能量来源:铁的硫化物(黄铁矿)和其他矿物。这些金属硫化物的氧化还原反应所释放的能量可用于有机分子的合成,这种系统可能已经演化成自催化组,构成自我复制、代谢活跃的实体,早于今天已知的生命形式.在100℃的水环境中用这种硫化物进行实验,产生了相对较小的二肽产量(0.4%~12.4%)和较小的三肽产量(0.10%),尽管在相同的条件下,二肽很快被分解。<br />
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<br />
Several models reject the self-replication of a "naked-gene", postulating instead the emergence of a primitive metabolism providing a safe environment for the later emergence of RNA replication. The centrality of the [[Citric acid cycle|Krebs cycle]] (citric acid cycle) to energy production in aerobic organisms, and in drawing in carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions in biosynthesis of complex organic chemicals, suggests that it was one of the first parts of the metabolism to evolve.<ref name="Lane 2009">{{harvnb|Lane|2009}}</ref> Concordantly, [[Geochemistry|geochemist]] Russell has proposed that "the purpose of life is to hydrogenate carbon dioxide" (as part of a "metabolism-first," rather than a "genetics-first," scenario). <ref name="Musser">{{cite web |url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/how-life-arose-on-earth-and-how-a-singularity-might-bring-it-down/ |title=How Life Arose on Earth, and How a Singularity Might Bring It Down |last=Musser |first=George |authorlink=George Musser |date=23 September 2011 |work=Observations |type=Blog |accessdate=2015-06-17 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617211804/http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/how-life-arose-on-earth-and-how-a-singularity-might-bring-it-down/ |archivedate=17 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="Carroll">{{cite web |url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/cosmicvariance/2010/03/10/free-energy-and-the-meaning-of-life/ |title=Free Energy and the Meaning of Life |last=Carroll |first=Sean |authorlink=Sean M. Carroll |date=10 March 2010 |work=Cosmic Variance |type=Blog |publisher=Discover|accessdate=2015-06-17 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714074327/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/cosmicvariance/2010/03/10/free-energy-and-the-meaning-of-life/ |archivedate=14 July 2015}}</ref> [[Physicist]] [[Jeremy England]] has proposed that life was inevitable from general thermodynamic considerations: < blockquote >... when a group of atoms is driven by an external source of energy (like the sun or chemical fuel) and surrounded by a heat bath (like the ocean or atmosphere), it will often gradually restructure itself in order to dissipate increasingly more energy. This could mean that under certain conditions, matter inexorably acquires the key physical attribute associated with life.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wolchover |first=Natalie |date=22 January 2014 |title=A New Physics Theory of Life |url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/20140122-a-new-physics-theory-of-life/ |journal=Quanta Magazine |accessdate=2015-06-17 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613052830/https://www.quantamagazine.org/20140122-a-new-physics-theory-of-life/ |archivedate=13 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=England |first=Jeremy L. |authorlink=Jeremy England |date=28 September 2013 |title=Statistical physics of self-replication |url=http://www.englandlab.com/uploads/7/8/0/3/7803054/2013jcpsrep.pdf |journal=[[Journal of Chemical Physics]] |volume=139 |issue=12 |page=121923 |arxiv=1209.1179 |bibcode=2013JChPh.139l1923E |doi=10.1063/1.4818538 |pmid=24089735 |accessdate=2015-06-18 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150604131515/http://www.englandlab.com/uploads/7/8/0/3/7803054/2013jcpsrep.pdf |archivedate=4 June 2015|hdl=1721.1/90392 |s2cid=478964 }}</ref>< /blockquote ><br />
<br />
有几个模型否定了 "裸基因 "的自我复制,而是假设出现了一种原始的新陈代谢,为后来出现的RNA复制提供了安全的环境。Krebs循环(柠檬酸循环)在好氧生物体内产生能量,以及在复杂有机化学物的生物合成中吸取二氧化碳和氢离子的中心地位,表明它是新陈代谢中最早进化的部分之一。 与此相一致的是,地球化学家Russell 罗素提出“生命的目的是使二氧化碳氢化”(这是“新陈代谢优先”而不是“基因优先”方案的一部分)。物理学家杰里米-英格兰Jeremy England提出,从一般的热力学考虑,生命是不可避免的:<br />
<br />
<br />
...当一组原子受到外部能量源(如太阳或化学燃料)的驱动,并被热浴(如海洋或大气层)所包围时,它往往会逐渐进行自我重组,以便散失越来越多的能量。这可能意味着,在某些条件下,物质不可避免地获得了与生命相关的关键物理属性。<br />
<br />
One of the earliest incarnations of this idea was put forward in 1924 with Oparin's notion of primitive self-replicating vesicles which predated the discovery of the structure of DNA. Variants in the 1980s and 1990s include Wächtershäuser's iron–sulfur world theory and models introduced by [[Christian de Duve]] based on the chemistry of [[thioester]]s. More abstract and theoretical arguments for the plausibility of the emergence of metabolism without the presence of genes include a mathematical model introduced by [[Freeman Dyson]] in the early 1980s and [[Stuart Kauffman]]'s notion of collectively autocatalytic sets, discussed later that decade.<br />
<br />
这一思想最早的化身之一是在1924年提出的Oparin的原始自我复制囊泡的概念,这比DNA结构的发现还要早。20世纪80年代和90年代的变体包括Wächtershäuser的铁硫世界理论和Christian de Duve提出的基于硫酯化学的模型。更加抽象和理论化的论证,认为新陈代谢在没有基因存在的情况下出现的合理性,包括弗里曼-戴森Freeman Dyson在20世纪80年代初提出的数学模型和斯图亚特-考夫曼Stuart Kauffman的集体自催化集的概念,该观点在随后的十年中进行了讨论。。<br />
<br />
<br />
Orgel summarized his analysis by stating, < blockquote >There is at present no reason to expect that multistep cycles such as the reductive citric acid cycle will self-organize on the surface of FeS/FeS<sub>2</sub> or some other mineral."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Orgel |first=Leslie E. |date=7 November 2000 |title=Self-organizing biochemical cycles |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=97 |issue=23 |pages=12503–12507 |bibcode=2000PNAS...9712503O |doi=10.1073/pnas.220406697|pmc=18793 |pmid=11058157}}</ref>< /blockquote > It is possible that another type of metabolic pathway was used at the beginning of life. For example, instead of the reductive citric acid cycle, the "open" [[acetyl-CoA]] pathway (another one of the five recognized ways of carbon dioxide fixation in nature today) would be compatible with the idea of self-organization on a metal sulfide surface. The key enzyme of this pathway, [[carbon monoxide dehydrogenase]]/[[CO-methylating acetyl-CoA synthase|acetyl-CoA synthase]], harbors mixed nickel-iron-sulfur clusters in its reaction centers and catalyzes the formation of acetyl-CoA (similar to acetyl-thiol) in a single step. There are increasing concerns, however, that prebiotic [[Thioacetic acid|thiolated]] and [[thioester]] compounds are thermodynamically and kinetically unfavorable to accumulate in presumed prebiotic conditions (i.e. hydrothermal vents).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chandru|first1=Kuhan|last2=Gilbert|first2=Alexis|last3=Butch|first3=Christopher|last4=Aono|first4=Masashi|last5=Cleaves|first5=Henderson James II|title=The Abiotic Chemistry of Thiolated Acetate Derivatives and the Origin of Life|journal=Scientific Reports|date=21 July 2016|volume=6|issue=29883|pages=29883|doi=10.1038/srep29883|pmid=27443234|pmc=4956751|bibcode=2016NatSR...629883C}}</ref> It has also been proposed that [[cysteine]] and [[homocysteine]] may have reacted with [[nitrile]]s resulting from the [[Strecker amino acid synthesis|Stecker reaction]], readily forming catalytic thiol-reach poplypeptides.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vallee|first1=Yannick|last2=Shalayel|first2=Ibrahim|last3=Ly|first3=Kieu-Dung|last4=Rao|first4=K. V. Raghavendra|last5=Paëpe|first5=Gael De|last6=Märker|first6=Katharina|last7=Milet|first7=Anne|date=2017-11-08|title=At the very beginning of life on Earth: the thiol-rich peptide (TRP) world hypothesis|url=http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper/170028yv/at-the-very-beginning-of-life-on-earth-the-thiol-rich-peptide-trp-world-hypothesis|journal=International Journal of Developmental Biology|volume=61|issue=8–9|pages=471–478|doi=10.1387/ijdb.170028yv|pmid=29139533|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
<br />
Orgel总结他的分析说,<br />
<br />
目前没有理由期望多步循环,如还原性柠檬酸循环会在FeS/FeS2或其他一些矿物的表面自组织。"<br />
<br />
有可能在生命诞生之初就使用了另一种代谢途径。例如,"开放的 "乙酰-CoA途径(当今自然界公认的五种二氧化碳固定方式中的另一种)代替了还原性柠檬酸循环,就符合金属硫化物表面自组织的想法。该途径的关键酶--一氧化碳脱氢酶/乙酰-CoA合成酶,在其反应中心藏有镍-铁-硫混合簇,并在一个步骤中催化形成乙酰-CoA(类似乙酰-硫醇)。然而,越来越多的人担心,在热力学和动力学上,生命起源以前的硫醇化和硫酯化合物不利于在假定的生命起源以前的条件(即热液喷口)中积累。然而也有人提出,半胱氨酸和同型半胱氨酸可能已经与Stecker反应产生的亚硝酸盐反应,容易形成催化硫醇达到的弹力肽。<br />
<br />
=== Zinc-world hypothesis ===<br />
锌世界假说<br />
The zinc world (Zn-world) theory of Mulkidjanian<ref name="Mulkidjanian">{{cite journal |last=Mulkidjanian |first=Armen Y. |date=24 August 2009 |title=On the origin of life in the zinc world: 1. Photosynthesizing, porous edifices built of hydrothermally precipitated zinc sulfide as cradles of life on Earth |journal=Biology Direct |volume=4 |page=26 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-4-26 |pmid=19703272 |pmc=3152778 }}</ref> is an extension of Wächtershäuser's pyrite hypothesis. Wächtershäuser based his theory of the initial chemical processes leading to informational molecules (RNA, peptides) on a regular mesh of electric charges at the surface of pyrite that may have facilitated the primeval [[polymerization]] by attracting reactants and arranging them appropriately relative to each other.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wächtershäuser |first=Günter |date=December 1988 |title=Before Enzymes and Templates: Theory of Surface Metabolism |journal=[[Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews|Microbiological Reviews]] |volume=52 |pages=452–484 |issue=4 |pmc=373159 |pmid=3070320 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.52.4.452-484.1988 }}</ref> The Zn-world theory specifies and differentiates further.<ref name="Mulkidjanian" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mulkidjanian |first1=Armen Y. |last2=Galperin |first2=Michael Y. |date=24 August 2009 |title=On the origin of life in the zinc world. 2. Validation of the hypothesis on the photosynthesizing zinc sulfide edifices as cradles of life on Earth |journal=Biology Direct |volume=4 |page=27 |doi=10.1186/1745-6150-4-27 |pmid=19703275 |pmc=2749021 }}</ref> Hydrothermal fluids rich in H<sub>2</sub>S interacting with cold primordial ocean (or Darwin's "warm little pond") water leads to the precipitation of metal sulfide particles. Oceanic [[Hydrothermal vent|vent systems]] and other hydrothermal systems have a zonal structure reflected in ancient [[Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit|volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits]] (VMS) of hydrothermal origin. They reach many kilometers in diameter and date back to the [[Archean]] Eon. Most abundant are pyrite (FeS<sub>2</sub>), [[chalcopyrite]] (CuFeS<sub>2</sub>), and [[sphalerite]] (ZnS), with additions of [[galena]] (PbS) and [[alabandite]] (MnS). ZnS and MnS have a unique ability to store radiation energy, e.g. from UV light. During the relevant time window of the origins of replicating molecules, the primordial atmospheric pressure was high enough (>100&nbsp;bar, about 100 atmospheres) to precipitate near the Earth's surface, and UV irradiation was 10 to 100 times more intense than now; hence the unique photosynthetic properties mediated by ZnS provided just the right energy conditions to energize the synthesis of informational and metabolic molecules and the selection of photostable nucleobases.<br />
<br />
Mulkidjanian的锌世界(Zn-world)理论是Wächtershäuser的黄铁矿假说的延伸。Wächtershäuser根据他的理论,将导致信息分子(RNA、肽)的初始化学过程建立在黄铁矿表面有规律的电荷网状结构上,这种网状结构可能通过吸引反应物并将它们适当地相对排列,促进了原始聚合。"锌世界 "理论进一步明确和区分了富含H2S的热液与寒冷的原始海洋(或Darwin的 "温暖的小池塘")水相互作用,导致金属硫化物颗粒的沉淀。大洋喷口系统和其他热液系统的区系结构反映在热液起源的古火山块状硫化物矿床(VMS)中。它们的直径达数千米,可追溯到考古纪元。最丰富的是黄铁矿(FeS<sub>2</sub>)、黄铜矿(CuFeS<sub>2</sub>)和闪锌矿(ZnS),另外还有方铅矿(PbS)和铝钒矿(MnS)。ZnS和MnS具有独特的储存辐射能量的能力,例如来自紫外线的能量。在复制分子起源的相关时间窗内,原始大气压足够高(>100巴,约100个大气压),可以在地球表面附近沉淀,紫外线照射强度是现在的10~100倍,因此,ZnS所介导的独特的光合作用特性正好为信息分子和代谢分子的合成以及光稳定核碱的选择提供了能量条件。<br />
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The Zn-world theory has been further filled out with experimental and theoretical evidence for the ionic constitution of the interior of the first proto-cells before archaea, bacteria and [[Origin of eukaryotes|proto-eukaryotes]] evolved. [[Archibald Macallum]] noted the resemblance of body fluids such as blood and lymph to seawater;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Macallum |first=A. B. |authorlink=Archibald Macallum |date=1 April 1926 |title=The Paleochemistry of the body fluids and tissues |journal=[[Physiological Reviews]] |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=316–357|doi=10.1152/physrev.1926.6.2.316 }}</ref> however, the inorganic composition of all cells differ from that of modern seawater, which led Mulkidjanian and colleagues to reconstruct the "hatcheries" of the first cells combining geochemical analysis with [[Phylogenomics|phylogenomic]] scrutiny of the inorganic ion requirements of universal components of modern cells. The authors conclude that ubiquitous, and by inference primordial, proteins and functional systems show affinity to and functional requirement for K<sup>+</sup>, Zn<sup>2+</sup>, Mn<sup>2+</sup>, and {{chem|[PO|4|]|3−}}. Geochemical reconstruction shows that the ionic composition conducive to the origin of cells could not have existed in what we today call marine settings but is compatible with emissions of vapor-dominated zones of what we today call inland geothermal systems. Under the oxygen depleted, CO<sub>2</sub>-dominated primordial atmosphere, the chemistry of water condensates and exhalations near geothermal fields would resemble the internal milieu of modern cells. Therefore, the precellular stages of evolution may have taken place in shallow "Darwin ponds" lined with porous [[silicate minerals]] mixed with metal sulfides and enriched in K<sup>+</sup>, Zn<sup>2+</sup>, and phosphorus compounds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mulkidjanian |first1=Armen Y. |last2=Bychkov |first2=Andrew Yu. |last3=Dibrova |first3=Daria V. |last4=Galperin |first4=Michael Y. |last5=Koonin |first5=Eugene V. |display-authors=3 |date=3 April 2012 |title=Origin of first cells at terrestrial, anoxic geothermal fields |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=109 |issue=14 |pages=E821–E830 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109E.821M |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117774109 |pmc=3325685 |pmid=22331915}}</ref><ref>For a deeper integrative version of this hypothesis, see in particular {{harvnb|Lankenau|2011|pp=225–286}}, interconnecting the "Two RNA worlds" concept and other detailed aspects; and {{cite journal |last1=Davidovich |first1=Chen |last2=Belousoff |first2=Matthew |last3=Bashan |first3=Anat |last4=Yonath |first4=Ada |authorlink4=Ada Yonath |date=September 2009 |title=The evolving ribosome: from non-coded peptide bond formation to sophisticated translation machinery |journal=Research in Microbiology |volume=160 |issue=7 |pages=487–492 |doi=10.1016/j.resmic.2009.07.004 |pmid=19619641}}</ref><br />
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在古生物、细菌和原真核生物进化之前,Zn-世界理论已经有了实验和理论上的证据,进一步充实了第一批原细胞内部的离子构成。Archibald Macallum注意到血液和淋巴等体液与海水的相似性;然而,所有细胞的无机成分与现代海水的无机成分不同,这使得Mulkidjanian及其同事结合地球化学分析和系统发育学审查现代细胞普遍成分的无机离子需求,重建了第一批细胞的 "孵化器"。作者认为,蛋白质和功能系统是普遍存在的,并通过原始的推断,显示出对K<sup>+</sup>, Zn<sup>2+</sup>, Mn<sup>2+</sup>和[PO4]3−的亲和性和功能需求。<br />
地球化学重建表明,有利于细胞起源的离子成分不可能存在于我们今天所说的海洋环境中,而是与我们今天所说的内陆地热系统的蒸汽主导区的排放相适应。在缺氧的、以二氧化碳为主的原始大气下,地热田附近的水凝结物和呼出物的化学性质会类似于现代细胞的内部环境。因此,进化的前阶段可能发生在浅层的 "达尔文池塘 "中,池塘内有多孔硅酸盐矿物与金属硫化物混合,富含K+、Zn2+和磷化合物。<br />
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==Other abiogenesis scenarios==<br />
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其他自然发生的场景<br />
We define a scenario as a set of related concepts pertinent to the origin of life that is or has been investigated. The concepts related to the Iron-Sulfur world can be considered as a scenario. We consider some other scenarios that may partially overlap with scenarios discussed above or with each other.<br />
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我们将场景定义为与已经或已经研究过的生命起源相关的一组相关概念。可以将与铁硫世界有关的概念视为一种情况。我们考虑一些其他方案,这些方案可能与上面讨论的方案或彼此部分重叠。<br />
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===Chemical pathways described by computer===<br />
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计算机描述的化学途径<br />
In September 2020, chemists described, for the first time, possible chemical pathways from nonliving prebiotic chemicals to [[Biochemistry|complex biochemicals]] that could give rise to [[Earliest known life forms|living organisms]], based on a new computer program named ALLCHEMY.<ref name="SA-20200103">{{cite news |last=Starr |first=Michelle |title=A New Chemical 'Tree of The Origins of Life' Reveals Our Possible Molecular Evolution |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/a-new-chemical-tree-of-the-origins-of-life-reveals-our-possible-chemical-evolution |date=3 October 2020 |work=[[ScienceAlert]] |accessdate=3 October 2020 }}</ref><ref name="SCI-20200925">{{cite journal |author=Wolos, Agnieszka |display-authors=et al. |title=Synthetic connectivity, emergence, and self-regeneration in the network of prebiotic chemistry |url=https://science.sciencemag.org/content/369/6511/eaaw1955 |date=25 September 2020 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=369 |issue=6511 |doi=10.1126/science.aaw1955 |doi-broken-date=10 October 2020 |pmid=32973002 |accessdate=3 October 2020 }}</ref><br />
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2020年9月,化学家们首次基于一个名为“ALLCHEMY”的新计算机程序,描述了从无生命前的化学物质到复杂的生物化学物质可能产生生命体的化学途径。2020年9月,化学家们首次基于一个名为“ALLCHEMY”的新计算机程序,描述了从无生命前的化学物质到复杂的生物化学物质可能产生生命体的化学途径。<br />
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===The hypercycle===<br />
超循环理论<br />
In the early 1970s, Manfred Eigen and [[Peter Schuster]] examined the transient stages between the molecular chaos and a self-replicating [[Hypercycle (chemistry)|hypercycle]] in a prebiotic soup.<ref>{{harvnb|Eigen|Schuster|1979}}</ref> In a hypercycle, the [[information]] storing system (possibly RNA) produces an [[enzyme]], which catalyzes the formation of another information system, in sequence until the product of the last aids in the formation of the first information system. Mathematically treated, hypercycles could create [[Quasispecies model|quasispecies]], which through natural selection entered into a form of Darwinian evolution. A boost to hypercycle theory was the discovery of [[ribozyme]]s capable of catalyzing their own chemical reactions. The hypercycle theory requires the existence of complex biochemicals, such as nucleotides, which do not form under the conditions proposed by the Miller–Urey experiment.<br />
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20世纪70年代初,曼弗雷德-艾根Manfred Eigen和彼得-舒斯特Peter Schuster研究了分子混沌和前生物汤中的自我复制超循环之间的瞬时阶段。在超循环中,信息存储系统(可能是RNA)产生一种酶,这种酶依次催化另一个信息系统的形成,直到最后一个信息系统的产物帮助第一个信息系统的形成。经过数学处理,超循环可以创造准物种,通过自然选择进入达尔文进化论的一种形式。对超周期理论的推动是发现了能够催化自身化学反应的核糖体。超循环理论要求存在核苷酸等复杂的生化物质,而在Miller–Urey实验提出的条件下,核苷酸是不会形成的。<br />
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===Organic pigments in dissipative structures===<br />
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耗散结构中的有机颜料<br />
In his "Thermodynamic Dissipation Theory of the Origin and Evolution of Life",<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=2011ESD.....2...37M |title= Thermodynamic Origin of Life |journal=Earth System Dynamics |volume=0907 |issue=2011 |pages=37–51 |last1=Michaelian |first1=K |year=2009 |arxiv=0907.0042 |doi=10.5194/esd-2-37-2011 |s2cid= 14574109 }}</ref><ref name="Michaelian, K. 2011">{{cite journal |doi=10.5194/esd-2-37-2011 |title= Thermodynamic dissipation theory for the origin of life |journal=Earth System Dynamics |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=37–51 |year=2011 |last1= Michaelian |first1=K |bibcode=2011ESD.....2...37M |arxiv=0907.0042 |s2cid= 14574109 }}</ref><ref name="Michaelian, K. 2017">{{cite journal |doi= 10.1016/j.heliyon.2017.e00424 |pmid=29062973 |pmc=5647473 |title=Microscopic dissipative structuring and proliferation at the origin of life |journal=Heliyon |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=e00424 |year=2017 |last1=Michaelian |first1=Karo }}</ref> Karo Michaelian has taken the insight of Boltzmann and the work of Prigogine to its ultimate consequences regarding the origin of life. This theory postulates that the hallmark of the origin and evolution of life is the microscopic dissipative structuring of [[Biological pigment|organic pigments]] and their proliferation over the entire Earth surface.<ref name="Michaelian, K. 2017" /> Present day life augments the entropy production of Earth in its solar environment by dissipating [[ultraviolet]] and [[Visible spectrum|visible]] [[photon]]s into heat through organic pigments in water. This heat then catalyzes a host of secondary dissipative processes such as the [[water cycle]], [[Ocean current|ocean]] and [[wind]] currents, [[Tropical cyclone|hurricanes]], etc.<ref name="Michaelian, K. 2011"/><ref name="HESS Opinions 'Biological catalysis"/> Michaelian argues that if the thermodynamic function of life today is to produce entropy through photon dissipation in organic pigments, then this probably was its function at its very beginnings. It turns out that both [[RNA]] and [[DNA]] when in water solution are very strong absorbers and extremely rapid dissipaters of ultraviolet light within the 230–290&nbsp;nm wavelength (UV-C) region, which is a part of the Sun's spectrum that could have penetrated the prebiotic [[Atmosphere of Earth|atmosphere]].<ref>Sagan, C. (1973) Ultraviolet Selection Pressure on the Earliest Organisms, J. Theor. Biol., 39, 195–200.</ref> In fact, not only RNA and DNA, but many fundamental molecules of life (those common to all three [[Domain (biology)|domains]] of life) are also pigments that absorb in the UV-C, and many of these also have a chemical affinity to RNA and DNA.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.5194/bg-12-4913-2015 |title=Fundamental molecules of life are pigments which arose and co-evolved as a response to the thermodynamic imperative of dissipating the prevailing solar spectrum |journal=Biogeosciences |volume=12 |issue=16 |pages=4913–4937 |year=2015 |last1=Michaelian |first1=K |last2=Simeonov |first2=A |bibcode=2015BGeo...12.4913M |arxiv=1405.4059v2 }}</ref> [[Nucleic acid]]s may thus have acted as acceptor molecules to the UV-C photon [[Excited state|excited]] antenna pigment donor molecules by providing an [[Conical intersection|ultrafast channel]] for dissipation. Michaelian has shown using the formalism of non-linear irreversible thermodynamics that there would have existed during the [[Archean]] a thermodynamic imperative to the abiogenic UV-C [[Photochemistry|photochemical]] synthesis and proliferation of these pigments over the entire Earth surface if they acted as [[Catalysis|catalysts]] to augment the dissipation of the solar photons.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/475/1/012010 |title=A non-linear irreversible thermodynamic perspective on organic pigment proliferation and biological evolution |journal= Journal of Physics: Conference Series |volume=475 |issue=1 |pages=012010 |year=2013 |last1=Michaelian |first1=K |bibcode= 2013JPhCS.475a2010M |arxiv=1307.5924 |s2cid=118564759 }}</ref> By the end of the Archean, with life-induced [[ozone]] dissipating UV-C light in the Earth's upper atmosphere, it would have become ever more improbable for a completely new life to emerge that did not rely on the complex metabolic pathways already existing since now the free energy in the photons arriving at Earth's surface would have been insufficient for direct breaking and remaking of [[covalent bond]]s. It has been suggested, however, that such changes in the surface flux of ultraviolet radiation due to geophysical events affecting the atmosphere could have been what promoted the development of complexity in life based on existing metabolic pathways, for example during the [[Cambrian explosion]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Doglioni | first1 = C. | last2 = Pignatti | first2 = J. | last3 = Coleman | first3 = M. | year = 2016 | title = Why did life develop on the surface of the Earth in the Cambrian? | journal = Geoscience Frontiers | volume = 7 | issue = 6| pages = 865–873 | doi=10.1016/j.gsf.2016.02.001| url = https://iris.uniroma1.it/bitstream/11573/925124/1/Doglioni_Why_2016.pdf }}</ref><br />
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在他的 "生命起源和进化的热力学耗散理论 "中,卡洛-米迦勒安Karo Michaelian将Boltzmann的见解和Prigogine的研究用于关于生命起源的最终结果。该理论假设生命起源和进化的标志是有机颜料的微观耗散结构及其在整个地球表面的扩散。现今的生命通过将紫外线和可见光子通过水中的有机颜料耗散成热能,增强了地球在太阳环境中的熵产。这种热量就会催化一系列的二次耗散过程,如水循环、洋流和风流、飓风等。Michaelian认为,如果说今天生命的热力学功能是通过有机颜料中的光子耗散产生熵,那么这可能是它在一开始就具有的功能。事实证明,RNA和DNA在水溶液中时,都是230-290nm波长(UV-C)区域内紫外线的极强吸收者和极快耗散者,这是太阳光谱中可能穿透前生物大气层的一部分。事实上,不仅是RNA和DNA,许多生命的基本分子(生命三大领域共同的分子)也是在UV-C中吸收的色素,其中许多也与RNA和DNA有化学亲和力。因此,核酸可能通过提供一个超快的消散通道,充当了UV-C光子激发的天线色素供体分子的接受分子。Michaelian用非线性不可逆热力学的形式论表明,在太古代,如果这些色素作为催化剂来增强太阳光子的耗散,那么这些色素的非生物UV-C光化学合成和增殖在整个地球表面就会存在一种热力学上的必然性。 到了太古代末期,随着生命诱导的臭氧使地球上层大气中的UV-C光消散,要想出现一个不依赖已有的复杂代谢途径的全新生命将变得越来越不可能,因为现在到达地球表面的光子中的自由能已经不足以直接破坏和重造共价键。然而,有人认为,由于影响大气层的地球物理事件造成的紫外线辐射表面通量的这种变化,可能是在现有代谢途径的基础上促进生命复杂性发展的原因,例如在寒武纪生命大爆发期间。<br />
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Some of the most difficult problems concerning the origin of life, such as enzyme-less [[DNA replication|replication]] of RNA and DNA,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michaelian |first1=Karo |last2=Santillán |first2=Norberto |title=UVC photon-induced denaturing of DNA: A possible dissipative route to Archean enzyme-less replication |journal=Heliyon |date=June 2019 |volume=5 |issue=6 |page=e01902 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01902|pmid=31249892 |pmc=6584779 }}</ref> [[homochirality]] of the fundamental molecules,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michaelian |first1=Karo |title=Homochirality through Photon-Induced Denaturing of RNA/DNA at the Origin of Life |journal=Life |date=June 2018 |volume=8 |issue=2 |page=21 |doi=10.3390/life8020021 |pmid=29882802 |pmc=6027432 }}</ref> and the origin of [[Genetic code|information encoding]] in RNA and DNA, also find an explanation within the same dissipative thermodynamic framework by considering the probable existence of a relation between primordial replication and UV-C photon dissipation. Michaelian suggests that it is erroneous to expect to describe the emergence, proliferation, or even evolution, of life without overwhelming reference to entropy production through the dissipation of a generalized thermodynamic potential, in particular, the prevailing solar photon flux.<br />
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关于生命起源的一些最困难的问题,如RNA和DNA的无酶复制,基本分子的同向性,以及RNA和DNA中信息编码的起源,也可以通过考虑原始复制和UV-C光子耗散之间可能存在的关系,在同一耗散热力学框架内找到解释。Michaelian认为,如果期望描述生命的出现、增殖甚至进化,而不大量提及通过耗散广义热力学势能,特别是普遍的太阳光子通量产生的熵,那是错误的。<br />
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===Protein amyloid===<br />
淀粉样蛋白<br />
A new origin-of-life theory based on self-replicating beta-sheet structures has been put forward by Maury in 2009.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Maury | first1 = CP | year = 2009 | title = Self-proagating beta-sheet polypeptide structures as prebiotic informational entities:The amyloid world | journal = Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres | volume = 39 | issue = 2| pages = 141–150 | doi = 10.1007/s11084-009-9165-6 | pmid = 19301141 | s2cid = 20073536 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Maury | first1 = CP | year = 2015 | title = Origin of Life.Primordial genetics: Information transfer in a pre-RNA world based on self-replicating beta-sheet amyloid conformers | journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology | volume = 382 | pages = 292–297 | doi = 10.1016/j.jtbi.2015.07.008 | pmid = 26196585 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The theory suggest that self-replicating and self-assembling catalytic [[amyloid]]s were the first informational polymers in a primitive pre-RNA world. The main arguments for the ''amyloid hypothesis'' is based on the structural stability, autocatalytic and catalytic properties, and evolvability of beta-sheet based informational systems. Such systems are also error correcting<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nanda | first1 = J | last2 = Rubinov | first2 = B | last3 = Ivnitski | first3 = D | last4 = Mukherjee | first4 = R | last5 = Shtelman | first5 = E | last6 = Motro | first6 = Y | last7 = Miller | first7 = Y | last8 = Wagner | first8 = N | last9 = Cohen-Luria | first9 = R | last10 = Ashkenasy | first10 = G | year = 2017 | title = Emergence of native peptide seuqences in prebiotic replication networks | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 8 | issue = 1| page = 343 | doi = 10.1038/s41467-017-00463-1 | pmid = 28874657 | pmc = 5585222 | bibcode = 2017NatCo...8..434N }}</ref> and [[chiroselective]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rout | first1 = SK | last2 = Friedmann | first2 = MP | last3 = Riek | first3 = R | last4 = Greenwald | first4 = J | year = 2018 | title = A prebiotic templated-directed synthesis based on amyloids | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 234–242 | doi = 10.1038/s41467-017-02742-3 | pmid = 29339755 | pmc = 5770463 }}</ref><br />
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2009年Maury提出了一种新的基于自我复制β片结构的生命起源理论。该理论认为,自我复制和自我组装催化的淀粉样蛋白是原始的前RNA世界中的第一个信息聚合物。淀粉样蛋白假说的主要论据是基于β片为基础的信息系统的结构稳定性、自催化和催化性以及可进化性。这种系统还具有纠错性和手性选择性。<br />
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=== Fluctuating salinity: dilute and dry-down ===<br />
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变化的盐度:稀释和干涸。 <br />
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Theories of abiogenesis seldom address the caveat raised by Harold Blum:<ref>Blum, H.F. (1957). On the origin of self-replicating systems. In Rhythmic and Synthetic Processes in Growth, ed. Rudnick, D., pp. 155–170. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.</ref> if the key informational elements of life – proto-nucleic acid chains – spontaneously form duplex structures, then there is no way to dissociate them. < blockquote >Somewhere in this cycle work must be done, which means that free energy must be expended. If the parts assemble themselves on a template spontaneously, work has to be done to take the replica off; or, if the replica comes off the template of its own accord, work must be done to put the parts on in the first place.< /blockquote ><br />
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非生物起源理论很少涉及哈罗德-布卢姆Harold Blum提出的警告:如果生命的关键信息元素--原核酸链--自发形成双联结构,那么就没有办法将它们解离。<br />
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在这个循环的某个地方,必须做功,这意味着自由能必须被消耗。如果零件自发地在模板上组装起来,就必须做功才能把复制品取下来;或者,如果复制品自动从模板上脱落,必须先把零件装上。<br />
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The Oparin–Haldane conjecture addresses the formation, but not the dissociation, of nucleic acid polymers and duplexes. However, nucleic acids are unusual because, in the absence of counterions (low salt) to neutralize the high charges on opposing phosphate groups, the nucleic acid duplex dissociates into single chains.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2003.10.018|title = Fast tidal cycling and the origin of life|year = 2004|last1 = Lathe|first1 = Richard|journal = Icarus|volume = 168|issue = 1|pages = 18–22|bibcode = 2004Icar..168...18L}}</ref> Early tides, driven by a close moon, could have generated rapid cycles of dilution (high tide, low salt) and concentration (dry-down at low tide, high salt) that exclusively promoted the replication of nucleic acids<ref name="ReferenceB"/> through a process dubbed tidal chain reaction (TCR).<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1017/S1473550405002314|title = Tidal chain reaction and the origin of replicating biopolymers|year = 2005|last1 = Lathe|first1 = Richard|journal = International Journal of Astrobiology|volume = 4|issue = 1|pages = 19–31|bibcode = 2005IJAsB...4...19L}}</ref> This theory has been criticized on the grounds that early tides may not have been so rapid,<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2005.04.022|title = Comment on the paper "Fast tidal cycling and the origin of life" by Richard Lathe|year = 2006|last1 = Varga|first1 = P.|last2 = Rybicki|first2 = K.|last3 = Denis|first3 = C.|journal = Icarus|volume = 180|issue = 1|pages = 274–276|bibcode = 2006Icar..180..274V}}</ref> although regression from current values requires an Earth–Moon juxtaposition at around two Ga, for which there is no evidence, and early tides may have been approximately every seven hours.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2005.08.019|title = Early tides: Response to Varga et al|year = 2006|last1 = Lathe|first1 = R.|journal = Icarus|volume = 180|issue = 1|pages = 277–280|bibcode = 2006Icar..180..277L}}</ref> Another critique is that only 2–3% of the Earth's crust may have been exposed above the sea until late in terrestrial evolution.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2008.08.029| title=A case for late-Archaean continental emergence from thermal evolution models and hypsometry| year=2008| last1=Flament| first1=Nicolas| last2=Coltice| first2=Nicolas| last3=Rey| first3=Patrice F.| journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters| volume=275| issue=3–4| pages=326–336| bibcode=2008E&PSL.275..326F}}</ref><br />
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Oparin-Haldane猜想解决的是核酸聚合物和双联体的形成,但不是解离。然而,核酸是不寻常的,因为在没有反离子(低盐)中和对立的磷酸基团上的高电荷时,核酸双联会解离成单链.早期的潮汐,在近月的驱动下,可能产生了快速的稀释(高潮、低盐)和浓缩(低潮、高盐时干涸)循环,通过被称为潮汐链式反应(TCR)的过程,专门促进核酸的复制。 这一理论受到了批评,理由是早期的潮汐可能并不那么快,尽管从目前的数值回归需要在两个Ga左右的地月并置,但没有证据表明这一点,而且早期的潮汐可能大约是每7个小时一次。另一种批评认为,在陆地演化的晚期,只有2-3%的地壳可能暴露在海面上。<br />
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The TCR (tidal chain reaction) theory has mechanistic advantages over thermal association/dissociation at deep-sea vents because TCR requires that chain assembly (template-driven polymerization) takes place during the dry-down phase, when precursors are most concentrated, whereas thermal cycling needs polymerization to take place during the cold phase, when the rate of chain assembly is lowest and precursors are likely to be more dilute.<br />
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在深海喷口,潮汐链式反应(TCR)理论与热联合/解离相比,在力学上具有优势,因为潮汐链式反应要求链的组装(模板驱动的聚合)发生在干涸阶段,即前体最集中的时候,而热循环则需要聚合发生在冷阶段,即链的组装速度最低,前体可能更稀薄的时候。<br />
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=== A first protein that condenses substrates during thermal cycling: thermosynthesis===<br />
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第一个在热循环过程中凝结底物的蛋白质:热合成作用<br />
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[[File:ConvectionCells.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Convection cells in fluid placed in a gravity field are selforganizing and enable thermal cycling of the suspended contents in the fluid such as protocells containing protoenzymes that work on thermal cycling.]]<br />
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放置在重力场中的流体中的对流细胞是自组织的,能够使流体中的悬浮物进行热循环,例如含有在热循环中起作用的原酶的原始细胞。<br />
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'''Emergence of chemiosmotic machinery''' Today's bioenergetic process of [[fermentation]] is carried out by either the aforementioned citric acid cycle or the Acetyl-CoA pathway, both of which have been connected to the primordial Iron–sulfur world.<br />
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化学渗透机制的出现<br />
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今天发酵的生物能过程是由上述柠檬酸循环或乙酰-CoA途径进行的,这两种途径都与原始的铁-硫世界有关。<br />
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In a different approach, the thermosynthesis hypothesis considers the bioenergetic process of [[chemiosmosis]], which plays an essential role in [[cellular respiration]] and photosynthesis, more basal than fermentation: the [[ATP synthase]] enzyme, which sustains chemiosmosis, is proposed as the currently extant enzyme most closely related to the first metabolic process.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Muller |first=Anthonie W. J. |date=7 August 1985 |pages=429–453 |title=Thermosynthesis by biomembranes: Energy gain from cyclic temperature changes |journal=[[Journal of Theoretical Biology]] |volume=115 |issue=3 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5193(85)80202-2 |pmid=3162066}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Muller |first=Anthonie W. J. |year=1995 |title=Were the first organisms heat engines? A new model for biogenesis and the early evolution of biological energy conversion |journal=Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=193–231 |doi=10.1016/0079-6107(95)00004-7 |pmid=7542789}}</ref><br />
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热合成假说则用不同的方法,认为在细胞呼吸和光合作用中起着重要作用的化生过程比发酵更基础:提出维持化生的ATP合成酶是目前现存的与第一代谢过程关系最密切的酶。<br />
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First life needed an energy source to bring about the condensation reaction that yielded the peptide bonds of proteins and the [[phosphodiester bond]]s of RNA. In a generalization and thermal variation of the [[ATP synthase#Binding model|binding change mechanism]] of today's ATP synthase, the "first protein" would have bound substrates (peptides, phosphate, nucleosides, RNA 'monomers') and condensed them to a reaction product that remained bound until it was released after a temperature change by a thermal unfolding. The primordial '''first protein''' would therefore have strongly resembled the beta subunits of the [[ATP synthase alpha/beta subunits]] of today's F<sub>1</sub> moiety in the F<sub>o</sub>F<sub>1</sub> [[ATP synthase]]. Note however that today's enzymes function during isothermal conditions, whereas the hypothetical first protein worked on and during thermal cycling.<br />
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第一个生命需要一个能量源来实现缩合反应,产生蛋白质的肽键和RNA的磷酸二酯键。在今天ATP合成酶的结合变化机制的概括和热变化中,"第一蛋白 "应该是结合了底物(肽、磷酸盐、核苷、RNA "单体"),并将它们缩合成反应产物,这种产物一直保持结合,直到温度变化后通过热展开释放出来。因此,原始的第一个蛋白质应该与今天FoF1 ATP合成酶中的α/β亚基的β亚基非常相似。但请注意,今天的酶是在等温条件下工作的,而假设的第一个蛋白质则是在和热循环下工作的。<br />
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The energy source under the thermosynthesis hypothesis was thermal cycling, the result of suspension of protocells in a [[convection]] current, as is plausible in a volcanic hot spring; the convection accounts for the self-organization and [[Dissipative system|dissipative structure]] required in any origin of life model. The still ubiquitous role of thermal cycling in germination and cell division is considered a relic of primordial thermosynthesis.<br />
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热合成假说下的能量来源是热循环,是原细胞悬浮在对流中的结果,就像在火山温泉中一样是可信的;对流说明了任何生命起源模型中所需要的自组织和耗散结构。热循环在发芽和细胞分裂中仍然无处不在的作用被认为是原始热合成的遗迹。<br />
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By [[Phosphorylation|phosphorylating]] cell membrane lipids, this '''first protein''' gave a selective advantage to the lipid protocell that contained the protein. This protein also synthesized a library of many proteins, of which only a minute fraction had thermosynthesis capabilities. As proposed by Dyson,<ref name="Dyson 1999" /> it propagated functionally: it made daughters with similar capabilities, but it did not copy itself. Functioning daughters consisted of different amino acid sequences.<br />
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通过对细胞膜脂质的磷酸化,这第一种蛋白质给含有该蛋白质的脂质原细胞带来了选择性优势。这种蛋白质还合成了一个由许多蛋白质组成的库,其中只有一小部分具有热合成能力。正如戴森提出的那样,[14]它在功能上进行了传播:它制造了具有类似能力的子代,但它没有复制自己。有功能的子代由不同的氨基酸序列组成。<br />
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Whereas the iron–sulfur world identifies a circular pathway as the most simple, the thermosynthesis hypothesis does not even invoke a pathway: [[ATP synthase#Binding model|ATP synthase's binding change mechanism]] resembles a physical adsorption process that yields free energy,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Muller |first1=Anthonie W. J. |last2=Schulze-Makuch |first2=Dirk |authorlink2=Dirk Schulze-Makuch |date=1 April 2006 |title=Sorption heat engines: Simple inanimate negative entropy generators |journal=[[Physica (journal)#Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications|Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications]] |volume=362 |issue=2 |pages=369–381 |arxiv=physics/0507173 |bibcode=2006PhyA..362..369M |doi=10.1016/j.physa.2005.12.003 |s2cid=96186464 }}</ref> rather than a regular enzyme's mechanism, which decreases the free energy.<br />
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铁硫界确定的循环途径是最简单的,而热合成假说甚至没有引用途径。ATP合成酶的结合变化机制类似于物理吸附过程,产生自由能,而不是普通酶的机制,减少自由能。<br />
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The described first protein may be simple in the sense that is requires only a short sequence of conserved amino acid residues, a sequent sufficient for the appropriate catalytic cleft. In contrast, it has been claimed that the emergence of cyclic systems of protein catalysts such as required by fermentation is implausible because of the length of many required sequences.<ref>{{harvnb|Orgel|1987|pp=9–16}}</ref><br />
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所述的第一种蛋白质可能是简单的,因为是只需要一个保守的氨基酸残基的短序列,这个序列足以满足适当的催化裂隙。相反,有人声称,由于许多所需序列的长度,出现诸如发酵所需的蛋白质催化剂的循环系统是不可信的。<br />
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=== Pre-RNA world: The ribose issue and its bypass ===<br />
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前RNA世界:核糖问题和及其旁路<br />
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It is possible that a different type of nucleic acid, such as peptide nucleic acid, threose nucleic acid or glycol nucleic acid, was the first to emerge as a self-reproducing molecule, only later replaced by RNA. Larralde et al., say that < blockquote >the generally accepted prebiotic synthesis of ribose, the formose reaction, yields numerous sugars without any selectivity.< /blockquote > and they conclude that their < blockquote >results suggest that the backbone of the first genetic material could not have contained ribose or other sugars because of their instability.< /blockquote > The ester linkage of ribose and phosphoric acid in RNA is known to be prone to hydrolysis.<br />
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有可能是一种不同类型的核酸,如肽核酸、苏糖核酸或 乙二醇核酸,最先以自我繁殖分子的形式出现,只是后来被 RNA 所取代。Larralde 等人说,<br />
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< blockquote ><br />
普遍接受的原生合成核糖,即甲酸糖反应,产生了许多没有任何选择性的糖类。<br />
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他们得出结论,他们的<br />
< blockquote ><br />
结果表明,第一个遗传物质的主干不可能含有核糖或其他糖类,因为它们不稳定。<br />
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已知RNA中核糖和磷酸的酯连接容易发生水解。<br />
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Pyrimidine ribonucleosides and their respective nucleotides have been prebiotically synthesized by a sequence of reactions which by-pass the free sugars, and are assembled in a stepwise fashion by using nitrogenous or oxygenous chemistries. Sutherland has demonstrated high yielding routes to cytidine and uridine ribonucleotides built from small 2 and 3 carbon fragments such as glycolaldehyde, glyceraldehyde or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, cyanamide and cyanoacetylene. One of the steps in this sequence allows the isolation of enantiopure ribose aminooxazoline if the enantiomeric excess of glyceraldehyde is 60% or greater. This can be viewed as a prebiotic purification step, where the said compound spontaneously crystallized out from a mixture of the other pentose aminooxazolines. Ribose aminooxazoline can then react with cyanoacetylene in a mild and highly efficient manner to give the alpha cytidine ribonucleotide. Photoanomerization with UV light allows for inversion about the 1' anomeric centre to give the correct beta stereochemistry. In 2009 they showed that the same simple building blocks allow access, via phosphate controlled nucleobase elaboration, to 2',3'-cyclic pyrimidine nucleotides directly, which are known to be able to polymerize into RNA. This paper also highlights the possibility for the photo-sanitization of the pyrimidine-2',3'-cyclic phosphates.<br />
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嘧啶核苷及其各自的核苷酸已经通过一连串的反应,绕过游离的糖类,利用含氮或含氧的化学反应,一步步地组装起来,进行了生物起源以前的合成。Sutherland已经证明了由小的2和3个碳片段如乙醛、甘油醛或甘油醛-3-磷酸、氰胺和氰基乙炔构建的胞苷和尿苷核苷酸的高产路线。该序列中的一个步骤允许分离出对映纯的核糖氨基噁唑啉,如果甘油醛的对映体过量为大于或等于60%。这可以看作是一个生物起源以前的纯化步骤,所述化合物自发地从其他戊糖氨基恶唑啉的混合物中结晶出来。然后,核糖氨基恶唑啉可以以温和和高效的方式与氰基乙炔反应,给出α胞嘧啶核苷酸。用紫外光进行光异构化,可以实现关于1'异构中心的倒置,从而给出正确的β立体化学。2009年,他们表明,同样的简单构件允许通过磷酸控制的核碱基阐释,直接获得2',3'-环状嘧啶核苷酸,已知这些核苷酸能够聚合成RNA。本文还强调了嘧啶-2',3'-环状磷酸盐光致消毒的可能性。<br />
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===RNA structure===<br />
RNA结构<br />
While features of self-organization and self-replication are often considered the hallmark of living systems, there are many instances of abiotic molecules exhibiting such characteristics under proper conditions. Stan Palasek suggested based on a theoretical model that self-assembly of ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules can occur spontaneously due to physical factors in hydrothermal vents. Virus self-assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the origin of life, as it lends further credence to the hypothesis that life could have started as self-assembling organic molecules.<br />
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虽然自我组织和自我复制的特征通常被认为是生命系统的标志,但有许多非生物分子在适当条件下表现出这种特征的实例。斯坦-帕拉塞克Stan Palasek根据理论模型提出,核糖核酸分子可以由于热液喷口的物理因素而自发地自我组装。病毒在宿主细胞内的自我组装对生命起源的研究有意义,因为它进一步证实了生命可能是从自我组装有机分子开始的假说。<br />
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===Viral origin===<br />
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病毒的起源 <br />
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Recent evidence for a "virus first" hypothesis, which may support theories of the RNA world, has been suggested. One of the difficulties for the study of the origins of viruses is their high rate of mutation; this is particularly the case in RNA retroviruses like HIV. A 2015 study compared protein fold structures across different branches of the tree of life, where researchers can reconstruct the evolutionary histories of the folds and of the organisms whose genomes code for those folds. They argue that protein folds are better markers of ancient events as their three-dimensional structures can be maintained even as the sequences that code for those begin to change. Thus, the viral protein repertoire retain traces of ancient evolutionary history that can be recovered using advanced bioinformatics approaches. Those researchers think that "the prolonged pressure of genome and particle size reduction eventually reduced virocells into modern viruses (identified by the complete loss of cellular makeup), meanwhile other coexisting cellular lineages diversified into modern cells." The data suggest that viruses originated from ancient cells that co-existed with the ancestors of modern cells. These ancient cells likely contained segmented RNA genomes.<br />
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最近有人提出了 "病毒优先”假说的证据,这可能支持RNA世界的理论。研究病毒起源的困难之一是它们的高突变率;尤其是像HIV这样的RNA逆转录病毒。2015年的一项研究比较了生命树不同分支的蛋白质褶皱结构,研究人员可以重建褶皱和基因组编码这些褶皱的生物体的进化史。他们认为,蛋白质褶皱是古代事件的更好标志,因为即使编码这些褶皱的序列开始发生变化,它们的三维结构也能保持不变。因此,病毒蛋白库保留了古代进化史的痕迹,可以使用先进的生物信息学方法来恢复。这些研究人员认为,"基因组和颗粒大小减少的长期压力最终将病毒细胞还原成现代病毒(通过细胞组成的完全丧失来识别),同时其他共存的细胞系也多样化成了现代细胞。"这些数据表明,病毒起源于与现代细胞的祖先共存的古细胞。这些古细胞很可能包含分段的RNA基因组。<br />
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A computational model (2015) has shown that virus capsids may have originated in the RNA world and that they served as a means of horizontal transfer between replicator communities since these communities could not survive if the number of gene parasites increased, with certain genes being responsible for the formation of these structures and those that favored the survival of self-replicating communities. The displacement of these ancestral genes between cellular organisms could favor the appearance of new viruses during evolution. Viruses retain a replication module inherited from the prebiotic stage since it is absent in cells. So this is evidence that viruses could originate from the RNA world and could also emerge several times in evolution through genetic escape in cells.<br />
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一个计算模型(2015)表明,病毒的帽壳可能起源于RNA世界,它们作为复制群落之间横向转移的手段,因为如果基因寄生虫的数量增加,这些群落就无法生存,某些基因负责这些结构的形成,而那些基因有利于自我复制群落的生存。 这些祖先基因在细胞生物之间的位移可能有利于进化过程中新病毒的出现。病毒保留了从前生物阶段继承的复制模块,因为它在细胞中是不存在的。所以这是病毒可能起源于RNA世界的证据,也可能在进化过程中通过细胞中的基因逃逸而多次出现。<br />
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=== RNA world ===<br />
RNA世界<br />
{{Main|RNA world}}<br />
[[File:Jack-szostak.jpg|thumb|upright|Jack Szostak]]<br />
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杰克·索斯塔克(Jack Szostak)<br />
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A number of hypotheses of formation of RNA have been put forward. {{As of|1994}}, there were difficulties in the explanation of the abiotic synthesis of the nucleotides cytosine and uracil.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Orgel |first=Leslie E. |date=October 1994 |title=The origin of life on Earth|journal=Scientific American |volume=271 |issue=4 |pages=76–83 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1094-76 |pmid=7524147|bibcode=1994SciAm.271d..76O }}</ref> Subsequent research has shown possible routes of synthesis; for example, formamide produces all four ribonucleotides and other biological molecules when warmed in the presence of various terrestrial minerals.<ref name="Saladino2012" /><ref name="Saladino2012b" /> Early cell membranes could have formed spontaneously from proteinoids, which are protein-like molecules produced when amino acid solutions are heated while in the correct concentration of aqueous solution. These are seen to form micro-spheres which are observed to behave similarly to membrane-enclosed compartments. Other possible means of producing more complicated organic molecules include chemical reactions that take place on [[clay]] substrates or on the surface of the mineral [[pyrite]].<br />
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对RNA的形成提出了一些假说。截至1994年,在解释核苷酸胞嘧啶和尿嘧啶的非生物合成方面还存在困难。随后的研究表明了可能的合成途径;例如,甲酰胺在各种陆地矿物质存在的情况下加热时可产生所有四种核糖核苷酸和其他生物分子。早期的细胞膜可能是由类蛋白自发形成的,类蛋白是氨基酸溶液在正确浓度的水溶液中加热时产生的蛋白质类分子。这些被视为形成微球体,观察到其行为类似于膜封闭的隔室。其他可能产生更复杂的有机分子的方法包括发生在粘土基质或矿物黄铁矿表面的化学反应。<br />
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Factors supporting an important role for RNA in early life include its ability to act both to store information and to catalyze chemical reactions (as a ribozyme); its many important roles as an intermediate in the expression of and maintenance of the genetic information (in the form of DNA) in modern organisms; and the ease of chemical synthesis of at least the components of the RNA molecule under the conditions that approximated the early Earth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Camprubí |first1=E. |last2=de Leeuw|first2=J.W. |last3=House |first3=C.H. |last4=Raulin |first4=F. |last5=Russell |first5=M.J. |last6=Spang|first6=A. | last7=Tirumalai|first7=M.R. |last8=Westall|first8=F. |date=12 December 2019|title=Emergence of Life |journal=Space Sci Rev.|volume=215 |issue=56 |page=56 |doi=10.1007/s11214-019-0624-8 |bibcode=2019SSRv..215...56C |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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支持RNA在早期生命中发挥重要作用的因素包括:它既能储存信息,又能催化化学反应(作为核糖核苷酸);它作为现代生物体内遗传信息(以DNA形式)表达和维持的中间体,发挥着许多重要作用;在近似于早期地球的条件下,至少RNA分子的成分很容易进行化学合成。<br />
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Relatively short RNA molecules have been synthesized, capable of replication.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnston |first1=Wendy K. |last2=Unrau |first2=Peter J. |last3=Lawrence |first3=Michael S. |last4=Glasner |first4=Margaret E. |last5=Bartel |first5=David P. |authorlink5=David Bartel |display-authors=3 |date=18 May 2001 |title=RNA-Catalyzed RNA Polymerization: Accurate and General RNA-Templated Primer Extension |journal=Science |volume=292 |issue=5520 |pages=1319–1325 |bibcode=2001Sci...292.1319J |doi=10.1126/science.1060786 |pmid=11358999|citeseerx=10.1.1.70.5439 |s2cid=14174984 }}</ref> Such replicase RNA, which functions as both code and catalyst provides its own template upon which copying can occur. Szostak has shown that certain catalytic RNAs can join smaller RNA sequences together, creating the potential for self-replication. If these conditions were present, Darwinian natural selection would favour the proliferation of such [[autocatalytic set]]s, to which further functionalities could be added.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hhmi.org/research/origins-cellular-life |title=The Origins of Function in Biological Nucleic Acids, Proteins, and Membranes |last=Szostak |first=Jack W. |authorlink=Jack W. Szostak |date=5 February 2015 |publisher=[[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]] |location=Chevy Chase (CDP), MD |accessdate=2015-06-16 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714092225/http://www.hhmi.org/research/origins-cellular-life |archivedate=14 July 2015}}</ref> Such autocatalytic systems of RNA capable of self-sustained replication have been identified.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lincoln |first1=Tracey A. |last2=Joyce |first2=Gerald F. |date=27 February 2009 |title=Self-Sustained Replication of an RNA Enzyme |journal=Science |volume=323 |issue=5918 |pages=1229–1232 |bibcode=2009Sci...323.1229L |doi=10.1126/science.1167856 |pmc=2652413 |pmid=19131595}}</ref> The RNA replication systems, which include two ribozymes that catalyze each other's synthesis, showed a doubling time of the product of about one hour, and were subject to natural selection under the conditions that existed in the experiment.<ref name="Joyce2009" /> In evolutionary competition experiments, this led to the emergence of new systems which replicated more efficiently.<ref name="Robertson2012" /> This was the first demonstration of evolutionary adaptation occurring in a molecular genetic system.<ref name="Joyce2009">{{cite journal |last=Joyce |first=Gerald F. |year=2009 |title=Evolution in an RNA world |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology |volume=74 |issue=Evolution: The Molecular Landscape |pages=17–23 |doi=10.1101/sqb.2009.74.004 |pmc=2891321 |pmid=19667013 }}</ref><br />
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已经合成了相对较短的RNA分子,能够进行复制。这种复制酶RNA,既是代码,又是催化剂,提供了自己的模板,可以在其上进行复制。Szostak已经证明,某些催化RNA可以将较小的RNA序列连接在一起,从而产生自我复制的可能性。如果具备这些条件,Darwin的自然选择就会有利于这种自催化套的增殖,可以在其上添加进一步的功能。这种能够自我维持复制的RNA自催化系统已经被发现。RNA复制系统包括两个相互催化合成的核酶,产物的翻倍时间约为1小时,并且在实验存在的条件下,受到自然选择的影响。在进化竞争实验中,这导致了新系统的出现,它们的复制效率更高。这是在分子遗传系统中发生进化适应的第一次证明。<br />
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Depending on the definition, life started when RNA chains began to self-replicate, initiating the three mechanisms of Darwinian selection: [[heritability]], variation of type, and differential reproductive output. The fitness of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely be a function of its intrinsic adaptive capacities, determined by its nucleotide sequence, and the availability of resources.<ref name="Bernstein">{{cite journal |last1=Bernstein |first1=Harris |last2=Byerly |first2=Henry C. |last3=Hopf |first3=Frederick A. |last4=Michod |first4=Richard A. |last5=Vemulapalli |first5=G. Krishna |display-authors=3 |date=June 1983 |title=The Darwinian Dynamic |journal=[[The Quarterly Review of Biology]] |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=185–207 |doi=10.1086/413216 |jstor=2828805}}</ref><ref name="Michod 1999">{{harvnb|Michod|1999}}</ref> The three primary adaptive capacities may have been: (1) replication with moderate fidelity, giving rise to both heritability while allowing variation of type, (2) resistance to decay, and (3) acquisition of process resources.<ref name="Bernstein" /><ref name="Michod 1999" /> These capacities would have functioned by means of the folded configurations of the RNA replicators resulting from their nucleotide sequences.<br />
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根据定义,当RNA链开始自我复制时,生命就开始了,启动了达尔文选择的三种机制:遗传性、类型的变异和生殖输出差异。一个RNA复制因子的适应性(其人均增长率)很可能是其内在适应能力的函数,由其核苷酸序列以及资源的可用性决定。三种主要的适应能力可能是。(1) 中等保真度的复制,在允许类型变异的同增加生遗传性;(2) 抗衰变能力;(3) 获得加工资源。 这些能力将通过核苷酸序列产生的RNA复制因子的褶皱构型来发挥作用。<br />
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==Experiments on the origin of life==<br />
关于生命起源的实验<br />
[[File:J. Craig Venter crop 2011 CHAO2011-49.jpg|thumb|upright|J. Craig Venter]]<br />
<br />
克雷格·文特<br />
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Both Eigen and [[Sol Spiegelman]] demonstrated that evolution, including replication, variation, and [[natural selection]], can occur in populations of molecules as well as in organisms.<ref name="Follmann2009">{{cite journal |last1= Follmann |first1= Hartmut |last2= Brownson |first2= Carol |date= November 2009 |title= Darwin's warm little pond revisited: from molecules to the origin of life |journal= [[Naturwissenschaften]] |volume= 96 |issue= 11 |pages= 1265–1292 |bibcode= 2009NW.....96.1265F |pmid= 19760276 |doi= 10.1007/s00114-009-0602-1|s2cid= 23259886 }}</ref> Following on from chemical evolution came the initiation of [[Evolution|biological evolution]], which led to the first cells.<ref name="Follmann2009" /> No one has yet synthesized a "[[protocell]]" using simple components with the necessary properties of life (the so-called "[[Top-down and bottom-up design|bottom-up-approach]]"). Without such a proof-of-principle, explanations have tended to focus on [[chemosynthesis]].<ref>{{cite press release |last1= McCollom |first1= Thomas |last2= Mayhew |first2= Lisa |last3= Scott |first3= Jim |date= 7 October 2014 |title= NASA awards CU-Boulder-led team $7 million to study origins, evolution of life in universe |url= http://www.colorado.edu/news/releases/2014/10/07/nasa-awards-cu-boulder-led-team-7-million-study-origins-evolution-life |location= Boulder, CO |publisher= [[University of Colorado Boulder]] |accessdate= 2015-06-08 |url-status= dead |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20150731015530/http://www.colorado.edu/news/releases/2014/10/07/nasa-awards-cu-boulder-led-team-7-million-study-origins-evolution-life |archivedate= 31 July 2015}}</ref> However, some researchers work in this field, notably [[Steen Rasmussen (physicist)|Steen Rasmussen]] and Szostak.<br />
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Eigen和索尔-斯皮格尔曼Sol Spiegelman都证明了进化,包括复制、变异和自然选择,可以发生在分子群体中,也可以发生在生物体中。继化学进化之后,生物进化的开始,导致了第一个细胞的出现。目前还没有人用简单的成分合成一个具有生命必要特性的 "原始细胞"(所谓 "自下而上的方法")。在没有这样的原理证明的情况下,解释往往集中在化学合成上。然而,一些研究者从事这一领域的研究,著名的有Steen Rasmussen和Szostak。<br />
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Others have argued that a "[[Top-down and bottom-up design|top-down approach]]" is more feasible, starting with simple forms of current life. Spiegelman took advantage of natural selection to synthesize the [[Spiegelman Monster]], which had a genome with just 218 [[nucleotide]] bases, having deconstructively evolved from a 4500-base bacterial RNA. Eigen built on Spiegelman's work and produced a similar system further degraded to just 48 or 54 nucleotides—the minimum required for the binding of the replication enzyme.<ref name="EIG">{{cite journal|last1=Oehlenschläger|first1=Frank|last2=Eigen|first2=Manfred|authorlink2=Manfred Eigen|date=December 1997|title=30 Years Later – a New Approach to Sol Spiegelman's and Leslie Orgel's in vitro Evolutionary Studies Dedicated to Leslie Orgel on the occasion of his 70th birthday|journal=[[Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres]]|volume=27|issue=5–6|pages=437–457|doi=10.1023/A:1006501326129|pmid=9394469|bibcode=1997OLEB...27..437O|s2cid=26717033}}</ref> [[Craig Venter]] and others at [[J. Craig Venter Institute]] engineered existing prokaryotic cells with progressively fewer genes, attempting to discern at which point the most minimal requirements for life are reached.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Gibson |first1= Daniel G.|last2= Glass |first2= John I. |last3= Lartigue |first3= Carole | last4 = Noskov | first4 = V.| last5 = Chuang | first5 = R.| last6 = Algire | first6 = M.| last7 = Benders | first7 = G.| last8 = Montague | first8 = M.| last9 = Ma | first9 = L.| last10 = Moodie | first10 = M.M.| last11 = Merryman | first11 = C.| last12 = Vashee | first12 = S.| last13 = Krishnakumar | first13 = R.| last14 = Assad-Garcia | first14 = N.| last15 = Andrews-Pfannkoch | first15 = C.| last16 = Denisova | first16 = E.A.| last17 = Young | first17 = L.| last18 = Qi | first18 = Z.-Q.| last19 = Segall-Shapiro | first19 = T.H.| last20 = Calvey | first20 = C.H.| last21 = Parmar | first21 = P.P.| last22 = Hutchison Ca | first22 = C.A.| last23 = Smith | first23 = H.O.| last24 = Venter | first24 = J.C. |display-authors= 3 |date= 2 July 2010 |title= Creation of a Bacterial Cell Controlled by a Chemically Synthesized Genome |journal= Science |volume= 329 |issue= 5987 |pages= 52–56 |bibcode= 2010Sci...329...52G |doi= 10.1126/science.1190719 |pmid= 20488990| citeseerx = 10.1.1.167.1455 |s2cid= 7320517}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Swaby |first= Rachel |date= 20 May 2010 |title= Scientists Create First Self-Replicating Synthetic Life |url= https://www.wired.com/2010/05/scientists-create-first-self-replicating-synthetic-life-2/ |work= [[Wired (website)|Wired]] |location= New York |accessdate= 2015-06-08 |url-status= live |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20150617125555/http://www.wired.com/2010/05/scientists-create-first-self-replicating-synthetic-life-2/ |archivedate= 17 June 2015}}</ref><ref>Coughlan, Andy (2016) "Smallest ever genome comes to life: Humans built it but we don't know what a third of its genes actually do" (New Scientist 2 April 2016 No 3067)p.6</ref><br />
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另一些人则认为 "自上而下的方法 "更可行,从当前生命的简单形式开始。Spiegelman利用自然选择的优势合成了Spiegelman怪兽,它的基因组只有218个核苷酸碱基,是由4500个碱基的细菌RNA解构进化而来的。Eigen在Spiegelman的研究基础上,制造了一个类似的系统,该系统进一步降解为仅有48或54个核苷酸--这是复制酶结合所需的最低限度。J.Craig Venter研究所的Craig Venter等人对现有的原核细胞进行了基因逐渐减少的工程设计,试图分辨出在哪一点上达到了生命的最基本要求。<br />
<br />
In October 2018, researchers at [[McMaster University]] announced the development of a new technology, called a ''[[Planet Simulator]]'', to help study the [[origin of life]] on planet [[Earth]] and beyond.<ref name="BW-20181004">{{cite news |last=Balch |first=Erica |title=Ground-breaking lab poised to unlock the mystery of the origins of life on Earth and beyond |url=https://brighterworld.mcmaster.ca/articles/ground-breaking-lab-poised-to-unlock-the-mystery-of-the-origins-of-life-on-earth-and-beyond/ |date=4 October 2018 |work=[[McMaster University]] |accessdate=4 October 2018 }}</ref><ref name="EA-20181004">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Ground-breaking lab poised to unlock the mystery of the origins of life |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-10/mu-glp100418.php |date=4 October 2018 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |accessdate=14 October 2018 }}</ref><ref name="IVG-2018">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Planet Simulator |url=https://www.intravisiongroup.com/planet-simulator |date=2018 |work=IntraVisionGroup.com |accessdate=14 October 2018 }}</ref><ref name="ES-209181014">{{cite web |last=Anderson |first=Paul Scott |title=New technology may help solve mystery of life's origins – How did life on Earth begin? A new technology, called Planet Simulator, might finally help solve the mystery. |url=http://earthsky.org/space/new-technology-solve-mystery-of-lifes-origins |date=14 October 2018 |work=[[EarthSky]] |accessdate=14 October 2018 }}</ref> It consists of a sophisticated climate chamber to study how the building blocks of life were assembled and how these prebiotic molecules transitioned into self-replicating RNA molecules.<ref name="BW-20181004"/><br />
<br />
2018年10月,麦克马斯特大学的研究人员宣布开发出一种名为 "行星模拟器 "的新技术,以帮助研究地球及其他星球上生命的起源。它由一个复杂的气候室组成,以研究生命的构件是如何组装的,以及这些前生物分子如何过渡到自我复制的RNA分子。<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
另请参阅<br />
{{div col}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Anthropic principle}} Anthropic principle – Philosophical premise that all scientific observations presuppose a universe compatible with the emergence of sentient organisms that make those observations<br />
人类学原理--哲学前提,即所有的科学观察都预设了一个宇宙,与使这些观察得以实现的有意识生物的出现相适应。<br />
* {{annotated link|Artificial cell}} 人工细胞<br />
* {{annotated link|Artificial life}} Artificial life – A field of study wherein researchers examine systems related to natural life, its processes, and its evolution, through the use of simulations 人工生命--研究人员通过使用模拟技术,对与自然生命相关的系统、其过程和进化进行研究的一个研究领域。<br />
* {{annotated link|Bathybius haeckelii}}巴氏比目鱼<br />
* {{annotated link|Entropy and life}} 熵与生命<br />
* {{annotated link|Formamide-based prebiotic chemistry}} 基于甲酰胺的生命起源以前的化学<br />
* {{annotated link|GADV-protein world hypothesis}} GADV-蛋白世界假说<br />
* {{annotated link|Hemolithin}} Hemolithin – Protein claimed to be of extraterrestrial origin 卵磷脂 -- -- 据称来自外星的蛋白质。<br />
* {{annotated link|Hypothetical types of biochemistry}} Hypothetical types of biochemistry – Possible alternative biochemicals used by life forms 假设的生物化学类型----生命形式可能使用的替代性生物化学物。<br />
* {{annotated link|Mediocrity principle}} 平庸原则<br />
* {{annotated link|Nexus for Exoplanet System Science}} Nexus for Exoplanet System Science – Dedicated to the search for life on exoplanets 外行星系统科学联盟--致力于寻找外行星上的生命。<br />
* {{annotated link|Noogenesis}} Noogenesis – Emergence and evolution of intelligence 新生代--智慧的出现和进化<br />
* {{annotated link|Planetary habitability}} Planetary habitability – Extent to which a planet is suitable for life as we know it 行星宜居性--行星适合我们所知的生命的程度。<br />
* {{annotated link|Protocell}} Protocell – Lipid globule proposed as a precursor of living cells 原细胞--被认为是活细胞的前体的脂质球。<br />
* {{annotated link|Rare Earth hypothesis}} Rare Earth hypothesis – Hypothesis that complex extraterrestrial life is improbable and extremely rare 稀土假说--认为复杂的地外生命是不可能的,而且极其罕见的假说。<br />
* {{annotated link|Shadow biosphere}} Shadow biosphere – A hypothetical microbial biosphere of Earth that would use radically different biochemical and molecular processes from that of currently known life 影子生物圈 -- -- 假设的地球微生物生物圈,将使用与目前已知生命完全不同的生化和分子过程。<br />
* {{annotated link|Tholin}} Tholin – Class of molecules formed by ultraviolet irradiation of organic compounds 噻唑啉--有机化合物经紫外线照射形成的一类分子。<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E8%BE%BE%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87&diff=20917达尔文2021-01-16T06:23:58Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条由Jie翻译<br />
<br />
{{other people}}<br />
{{otheruses|Darwin (disambiguation){{!}}Darwin}}<br />
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}<br />
{{pp-move-indef}}<br />
{{short description|English naturalist and biologist}}<br />
{{EngvarB|date=June 2019}}<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}<br />
{{featured article}}<br />
{{Infobox scientist<br />
|name = Charles Darwin<br />
|honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|FRGS|FLS|FZS|size=100%}}<br />
|birth_name = Charles Robert Darwin<br />
|image = Charles Darwin seated crop.jpg<br />
|caption = Darwin, {{circa}} 1854, when he was preparing ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' for publication{{sfn|Freeman|2007|p=76}}<br />
|birth_date = {{birth date|1809|2|12|df=y}}<br />
|birth_place = [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|The Mount]], [[Shrewsbury]], [[Shropshire]], England<br />
|death_date = {{death date and age|1882|4|19|1809|2|12|df=yes}}<br />
|death_place = [[Down House]], [[Downe]], [[Kent]], England<br />
|resting_place = [[Westminster Abbey]]<br />
|fields = [[Natural history]], [[geology]]<br />
|workplaces ={{plainlist|'''Tertiary education:'''<br />
* [[University of Edinburgh Medical School]] (medicine, no degree)<br />
* [[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] [[Bachelor of Arts]] (1831)<br />
* [[Master of Arts]] (1836)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/5032354/Charles-Darwins-personal-finances-revealed-in-new-find.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019230458/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/5032354/Charles-Darwins-personal-finances-revealed-in-new-find.html|url-status=dead|title=Charles Darwin's personal finances revealed in new find|date=22 March 2009|archivedate=19 October 2017|via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref><br />
<br />
'''Professional institution:'''<br />
* [[Geological Society of London]]}}<br />
|doctoral_advisor = <!--there were no PhDs in Cambridge at the time--><br />
|academic_advisors = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[John Stevens Henslow]]<br />
* [[Adam Sedgwick]]}}<br />
|doctoral_students = <!--there were no PhDs in Cambridge at the time--><br />
|notable_students =<br />
|known_for = {{plainlist|<br />
* ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]''<br />
* ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''<br />
* ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]''}}<br />
|author_abbrev_bot =<br />
|author_abbrev_zoo =<br />
|influences = {{plainlist|<br />
* [[Charles Lyell]]<br />
* [[Alexander von Humboldt]]<br />
* [[John Herschel]]<br />
* [[Thomas Malthus]]<br />
* [[Gilbert White]]}}<br />
|influenced = [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Hooker]], [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]], [[George Romanes|Romanes]], [[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]], [[John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury|Lubbock]] <br />
|awards = {{Plainlist|<br />
* [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] (1839)<ref name=frs>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316060617/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/|archivedate=16 March 2015|url=https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/|publisher=Royal Society|location=London|title=Fellows of the Royal Society}}</ref><br />
* [[Royal Medal]] (1853)<br />
* [[Wollaston Medal]] (1859)<br />
* [[Copley Medal]] (1864)<br />
* [[Legum Doctor|Doctor of Laws]] (Honorary), Cambridge (1877)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinendlessforms.org/darwin-in-cambridge/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170323205747/http://www.darwinendlessforms.org/darwin-in-cambridge/|url-status=dead|title=Darwin Endless Forms » Darwin in Cambridge|archivedate=23 March 2017}}</ref>}}<br />
|signature = Charles Darwin Signature.svg<br />
|signature_alt = "Charles Darwin", with the surname underlined by a downward curve that mimics the curve of the initial "C"<br />
|footnotes =<br />
|spouse = {{marriage|[[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]]|1839}}<br />
|children = 10<br />
}}<br />
<!--Please consider discussing changes on the talk page, as this opening is the result of a very long consensus-building process.--><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ 查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文<br />
|-<br />
! 标题文字 !! 1854年的达尔文,当时他正准备出版《物种起源》<br />
|-<br />
| 出生 || 查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文<br />
1809年2月12日<br />
什鲁斯伯里的达尔文庄园,英格兰什罗普郡<br />
|-<br />
| 逝世 || 1882年4月19日(73岁)<br />
Down House,郡达温,肯特,英格兰<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| 公墓所在地 || 威斯敏斯特大教堂<br />
|-<br />
| 闻名于 || 猎犬号航行<br />
物种起源<br />
人类的由来<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| 配偶 || 艾玛·韦奇伍德 (结婚于. 1839年)<br />
|-<br />
| 儿女 || 10<br />
|-<br />
| 获奖 || •FRS(1839)[2]<br />
•皇家勋章(1853)<br />
•沃拉斯顿勋章(1859)<br />
•科普利奖章(1864)<br />
•剑桥法学博士(荣誉)(1877年)[3]<br />
|-<br />
| || 科学事业<br />
|-<br />
| 领域 || 自然历史,地质<br />
|-<br />
| || 高等教育机构:<br />
爱丁堡大学医学院(医学,无学位)基督学院,<br />
剑桥艺术学士(1831)<br />
文学硕士(1836)[4]<br />
专业机构:<br />
伦敦地质学会<br />
|-<br />
| 学术顾问 || 约翰·史蒂文斯·汉斯洛<br />
亚当·塞奇威克<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| 影响 || •影响•查尔斯·莱尔<br />
•亚历山大·冯·洪堡<br />
•约翰·赫歇尔<br />
•托马斯·马尔萨斯<br />
•吉尔伯特·怀特<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| 影响于 || 胡克,赫胥黎,罗曼斯,海克尔,拉伯克<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Charles Robert Darwin''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|FRGS|FLS|FZS}}<ref name=frs /> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɑr|w|ɪ|n}};<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin "Darwin"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718234042/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin |date=18 July 2014 }} entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.</ref> 12 February 1809&nbsp;– 19 April 1882) was an English [[natural history#Before 1900|naturalist]], [[geologist]] and [[biologist]],<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004}}</ref> best known for his contributions to the science of [[evolution]].{{Ref label|A|I|none}} His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from [[common ancestors]] is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science.<ref>{{cite book|author=Coyne, Jerry A.|title=Why Evolution is True|publisher=Viking|year=2009|pages=[https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8 8–11]|isbn=978-0-670-02053-9|url=https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8}}</ref> In a joint publication with [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], he introduced his scientific theory that this [[Phylogenetics|branching pattern]] of [[evolution]] resulted from a process that he called [[natural selection]], in which the [[struggle for existence]] has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in [[selective breeding]].<ref name="Larson79-111">{{Harvnb|Larson|2004| pp=79–111}}</ref> Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200|title=Special feature: Darwin 200|accessdate=2 April 2011|work=New Scientist|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211051412/http://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200|archivedate=11 February 2011}}</ref> and he was honoured by [[Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey|burial in Westminster Abbey]].<ref name="Westminster Abbey CD" /><br />
<br />
Charles Robert Darwin FRS FRGS FLS FZS[2] (/ˈdɑːrwɪn/;[5] 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist,[6] best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.[I] His proposition that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors is now widely accepted, and considered a foundational concept in science.[7] In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection, in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding.[8] Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history,[9] and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey.[10]<br />
<br />
'''<font color="#ff8000"> 查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文Charles Robert Darwin </font>'''(/ ˈdɑːrwɪn /; 1809年2月12日至1882年4月19日)是英国博物学家,地质学家和生物学家。他因其对进化科学的贡献而闻名。他认为,所有的生命物种都拥有着'''<font color="#ff8000"> 共同祖先Common ancestors</font>''',只是随着时间的流失不停地进化而来。现在该假设已被广泛接受,并被认为是科学的理论基础。在与阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace的联合出版物中,他详细介绍了他的科学理论,即这种进化的分支模式是由他称为'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然选择Natural selection</font>'''的过程产生的。在这种过程中,为生存而进行的斗争与参与'''<font color="#ff8000"> 选择性育种Selective breeding</font>'''的人工选择具有相似的作用。达尔文被描述为人类历史上最有影响力的人物之一,他因在威斯敏斯特大教堂的葬礼而倍感荣幸。<br />
<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])他因在威斯敏斯特大教堂的葬礼而倍感荣幸。 这段话再斟酌一下<br />
<br />
Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Why Evolution is True |last=Coyne |first=Jerry A. |authorlink=Jerry Coyne |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-923084-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 17] |quote=In ''The Origin'', Darwin provided an alternative hypothesis for the development, diversification, and design of life. Much of that book presents evidence that not only supports evolution but at the same time refutes creationism. In Darwin's day, the evidence for his theories was compelling but not completely decisive. |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Forerunners of Darwin |last=Glass |first=Bentley |authorlink=Bentley Glass |year=1959 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore, MD |isbn= 978-0-8018-0222-5|page=iv |quote=Darwin's solution is a magnificent synthesis of evidence...a synthesis...compelling in honesty and comprehensiveness}}</ref> By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted [[evolution as fact and theory|evolution as a fact]]. However, many favoured [[The eclipse of Darwinism|competing explanations]] which gave only a minor role to natural selection, and it was not until the emergence of the [[modern synthesis (20th century)|modern evolutionary synthesis]] from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.<ref name=JvW>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}</ref><ref name=b3847>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=178–179, 338, 347}}</ref> Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the [[life sciences]], explaining the [[diversity of life]].<ref>[http://darwin-online.org.uk/biography.html The Complete Works of Darwin Online&nbsp;– Biography.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070107165048/http://darwin-online.org.uk/biography.html |date=7 January 2007 }} ''darwin-online.org.uk''. Retrieved 2006-12-15<br />{{Harvnb|Dobzhansky|1973}}</ref><ref>As Darwinian scholar Joseph Carroll of the University of Missouri–St. Louis puts it in his introduction to a modern reprint of Darwin's work: "''The Origin of Species'' has special claims on our attention. It is one of the two or three most significant works of all time—one of those works that fundamentally and permanently alter our vision of the world...It is argued with a singularly rigorous consistency but it is also eloquent, imaginatively evocative, and rhetorically compelling." {{cite book |title=On the origin of species by means of natural selection |editor=Carroll, Joseph |year=2003 |publisher=Broadview |location= Peterborough, Ontario|isbn= 978-1-55111-337-1|page=15 |url= }}</ref><br />
<br />
Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species.[11][12] By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted evolution as a fact. However, many favoured competing explanations which gave only a minor role to natural selection, and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.[13][14] Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.<br />
<br />
达尔文在1859年出版的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物种起源On the Origin of Species </font>'''》一书中,以令人信服的证据发表了他的进化论。到了19世纪70年代,科学界和大多数受过教育的公众已经开始接受进化论这一事实。但是,仍然有许多人持有不同的解释,其解释认为自然选择的作用很小,直到二十世纪三十到五十年代,才开始出现'''<font color="#ff8000"> 现代进化综合论Modern evolutionary synthesis </font>''',之后逐渐形成了广泛共识,认为自然选择是进化的基本机制。达尔文的科学发现是生命科学的综合理论,解释了生命的多样性。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the [[University of Edinburgh Medical School|University of Edinburgh]]; instead, he helped to investigate [[marine invertebrates]]. Studies at the [[University of Cambridge]] ([[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]]) encouraged his passion for [[natural science]].<ref name=whowas>{{Harvnb|Leff|2000|loc=[http://www.aboutdarwin.com/darwin/WhoWas.html About Charles Darwin]}}</ref> [[Second voyage of HMS Beagle|His five-year voyage]] on {{HMS|Beagle}} established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported [[Charles Lyell]]'s [[uniformitarian|conception of gradual geological change]], and publication of his [[The Voyage of the Beagle|journal of the voyage]] made him famous as a popular author.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 210, 284–285}}</ref><br />
<br />
Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine invertebrates. Studies at the University of Cambridge (Christ's College) encouraged his passion for natural science.[17] His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell's conception of gradual geological change, and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author.<br />
<br />
一开始达尔文对自然的兴趣使他忽视了在爱丁堡大学的医学教育。相反,他帮助调查了海洋无脊椎动物。在剑桥大学基督学院的研究工作激发了他对自然科学的热情。他在比格犬号HMS Beagle经历的为期五年的航行使他成为了一位杰出的地质学家,他的观察和理论为查尔斯·莱尔Charles Lyell提出的地质变化渐进概念提供了支持,后期他出版的航行日记使他同时成为了著名的作家。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations, and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=263–274}}</ref> Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=184, 187}}</ref> He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of [[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection|both of their theories]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Beddall | first1 = B. G. | title = Wallace, Darwin, and the Theory of Natural Selection | journal = Journal of the History of Biology | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 261–323 | year = 1968 | doi = 10.1007/BF00351923 | s2cid = 81107747 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature.<ref name = JvW /> In 1871 he examined [[human evolution]] and [[sexual selection]] in ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'', followed by ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'' (1872). His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, [[The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms|''The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms'']] (1881), he examined [[earthworm]]s and their effect on soil.<ref>{{Harvnb|Freeman|1977}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aboutdarwin.com/literature/CD_Books.html|title=AboutDarwin.com – All of Darwin's Books|website=www.aboutdarwin.com|access-date=30 March 2016|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160401191909/http://www.aboutdarwin.com/literature/CD_Books.html|archivedate=1 April 2016}}</ref><br />
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Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations, and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection.[19] Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority.[20] He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories.[21] Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature.[13] In 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms (1881), he examined earthworms and their effect on soil.<br />
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在长达五年的航行过程中,达尔文对收集到的野生动植物和化石的地理分布记录感到困惑,于是开始了详细的研究,并于1838年提出了他的自然选择理论。尽管他与数位博物学家讨论了他的想法,但他仍需要时间进行更广泛的研究来验证,而且他的本职地质工作仍然需要继续。1858年,当阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace给他写了一篇描述同样想法的文章时,他正在撰写自己的理论,因此就促使了他们联合发表他们的理论。达尔文的工作建立了适应性调节进化的理论基础,作为自然界多元化的主要科学解释。1871年,他在《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人类起源和性选择The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex </font>'''》一书中研究了人类的进化和性选择,以及与性相关的其他选择,之后在1872年还出版了另一本书《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人与动物的情感表达The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals </font>'''》。他对植物的研究也发表在一系列著作中,在他的最后一本书《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 通过蠕虫的作用而形成的植物霉菌The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms </font>'''》(1881年)中,他研究了蚯蚓及其对土壤的影响。<br />
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== Biography 个人简介==<br />
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=== Early life and education 早年生活和教育经历 ===<br />
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{{See also|Charles Darwin's education|Darwin-Wedgwood family}}<br />
Charles Robert Darwin was born in [[Shrewsbury]], Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his family's home, [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|The Mount]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Desmond|first=Adrian J.|title=Charles Darwin|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=13 September 2002|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin|access-date=11 February 2018|archive-date=6 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206114419/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|title= The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin)|author= John H. Wahlert|date= 11 June 2001|work= Darwin and Darwinism|publisher= [[Baruch College]]|accessdate= 26 November 2008|url-status=dead|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010149/http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/|archivedate= 6 December 2008|df= dmy-all}}</ref> He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier [[Robert Darwin]] and [[Susannah Darwin]] (''née'' Wedgwood). His grandfathers [[Erasmus Darwin]] and [[Josiah Wedgwood]] were both prominent [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionists]]. Erasmus Darwin had praised general concepts of evolution and [[common descent]] in his ''[[Zoonomia]]'' (1794), a poetic fantasy of gradual creation including undeveloped ideas anticipating concepts his grandson expanded.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|date=1952|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/339 339–40]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</ref><br />
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Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his family's home, The Mount.[24][25] He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin (née Wedgwood). His grandfathers Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood were both prominent abolitionists. Erasmus Darwin had praised general concepts of evolution and common descent in his Zoonomia (1794), a poetic fantasy of gradual creation including undeveloped ideas anticipating concepts his grandson expanded.<br />
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查尔斯·罗伯特·达尔文于1809年2月12日出生在什罗普郡什鲁斯伯里Shrewsbury自家山顶的小屋中。他的父亲是非常富裕的社会医生,金融家罗伯特·达尔文Robert Darwin,母亲苏珊娜·达尔文Susannah Darwin则是韦奇伍德陶器家族的女儿,达尔文在六个孩子中排名第五。他的祖父伊拉斯谟·达尔文Erasmus Darwin和约西亚·韦奇伍德Josiah Wedgwood都是著名的废奴主义者。伊拉斯谟·达尔文在他的著作《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 动物法则Zoonomia </font>'''》(1794年)中称赞了进化和'''<font color="#ff8000"> 共同祖先Common descent</font>'''这个概念。本书以一种渐进式创作的诗意幻想方式呈现,其中包括未成熟的观念,这些观念预示着他孙子未来提出的概念。<br />
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[[文件:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|缩略图|左|1816年,埃伦·夏普莱斯Ellen Sharples用粉笔绘制了七岁抱着盆栽的查尔斯·达尔文Charles Darwin]]<br />
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Both families were largely [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], though the Wedgwoods were adopting [[Anglicanism]]. Robert Darwin, himself quietly a [[Freethought#England and France|freethinker]], had baby Charles [[baptism|baptised]] in November 1809 in the Anglican [[St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury]], but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. That July, his mother died. From September 1818, he joined his older brother [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin|Erasmus]] attending the nearby Anglican [[Shrewsbury School]] as a [[boarding school|boarder]].<ref name=skool>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 12–15}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=21 21–25]}}</ref><br />
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Both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. Robert Darwin, himself quietly a freethinker, had baby Charles baptised in November 1809 in the Anglican St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury, but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. That July, his mother died. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder.<br />
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尽管韦奇伍德一家信仰英国国教,但两个家庭基本上都是一神论主义者。罗伯特·达尔文本身是一名默默地信奉自由主义者的人。他于1809年11月在什鲁斯伯里英国国教圣乍得教堂进行了婴儿洗礼,但他和他的兄弟姐妹,还有母亲则一起去一神论教堂祷告。八岁的达尔文在1817年加入由传教士经营的日间学校时,此时他已经对自然历史和收藏产生了兴趣。那年七月,他的母亲去世了。从1818年9月起,他与哥哥伊拉斯谟一起在附近的圣公会什鲁斯伯里学校作为寄宿生就读。<br />
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Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the [[University of Edinburgh Medical School]] (at the time the best medical school in the UK) with his brother Erasmus in October 1825. Darwin found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so he neglected his studies. He learned [[taxidermy]] in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from [[John Edmonstone]], a freed black slave who had accompanied [[Charles Waterton]] in the South American [[rainforest]].<ref name=eddy>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=48 47–51]}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | pp=18–26}}</ref><br />
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Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the University of Edinburgh Medical School (at the time the best medical school in the UK) with his brother Erasmus in October 1825. Darwin found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so he neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, a freed black slave who had accompanied Charles Waterton in the South American rainforest.<br />
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1825年夏天,达尔文作为实习医生,帮助父亲治疗什罗普郡的穷人,然后在1825年10月与他的兄弟伊拉斯谟一起就读于爱丁堡大学医学院(当时是英国最好的医学院)。达尔文发现讲座乏味,手术令人痛苦,因此他对学业丧失了兴趣。后来,他坚持了40天,每天大约一小时长的课程,从约翰·埃德蒙斯顿John Edmonstone那里学到动物标本剥制术,约翰·埃德蒙斯顿是一名重获自由的黑人奴隶,曾陪伴查尔斯·沃特顿Charles Waterton进入过南美雨林。<br />
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In Darwin's second year at the university he joined the [[Plinian Society]], a student [[natural history|natural-history]] group featuring lively debates in which [[radicalism (historical)#Popular agitation|radical democratic]] students with [[materialism|materialistic]] views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=31–34}} He assisted [[Robert Edmond Grant]]'s investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of [[marine invertebrates]] in the [[Firth of Forth]], and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in [[oyster]] shells were the eggs of a skate [[leech]]. One day, Grant praised [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]]'s [[Lamarckism|evolutionary ideas]]. Darwin was astonished by Grant's audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus' journals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=72–88}}</ref> Darwin was rather bored by [[Robert Jameson]]'s natural-history course, which covered geology—including the debate between [[Neptunism]] and [[Plutonism]]. He learned the [[alpha taxonomy|classification]] of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the [[Royal Museum|University Museum]], one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=42–43}}</ref><br />
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In Darwin's second year at the university he joined the Plinian Society, a student natural-history group featuring lively debates in which radical democratic students with materialistic views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science. He assisted Robert Edmond Grant's investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates in the Firth of Forth, and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. One day, Grant praised Lamarck's evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grant's audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus' journals. Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson's natural-history course, which covered geology—including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.<br />
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达尔文在他大学的第二年,加入了布里尼学会Plinian Society,这是由一群研究自然历史的学生组成的团体,在其中经常会有激烈的辩论,激进的民主学生以唯物主义的观点挑战了正统的科学宗教观念。期间,达尔文协助罗伯特·埃德蒙·格兰特Robert Edmond Grant对福斯峡湾Firth of Forth海洋无脊椎动物的解剖结构和生命周期进行了调查,并于1827年3月27日在布里尼学会期刊上提出了自己的发现,即牡蛎壳中发现的黑孢子是滑冰水蛭的卵。有一天,格兰特称赞拉马克的进化思想。格兰特的大胆令达尔文感到十分震惊,但当时他在祖父伊拉斯谟日记中也读到了类似的观点。同时期,达尔文还选择了罗伯特·詹姆森Robert Jameson教授的自然历史课程,涵盖了地质学,包括'''<font color="#ff8000"> 水成论Neptunism</font>'''与'''<font color="#ff8000"> 火成论Plutonism</font>'''之间的争辩,但这使达尔文倍感无聊。他转向开始了解植物的分类,并协助大学博物馆开展收藏工作,当时该大学是欧洲最大的博物馆之一。<br />
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Darwin's neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who shrewdly sent him to [[Christ's College, Cambridge]], to study for a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican country [[parson]]. As Darwin was unqualified for the ''[[Tripos]]'', he joined the ''ordinary'' degree course in January 1828.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=47–48, 89–91}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | pp=47–48}}</ref> He preferred [[equestrianism|riding]] and [[shooting sports|shooting]] to studying. During the first few months of Darwin's enrollment, his second cousin [[William Darwin Fox]] was also studying at Christ's Church. Fox impressed him with his butterfly collection, introducing Darwin to [[entomology]] and influencing him to pursue [[beetle]] collecting.<ref name=":02">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Homer W.|url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit|title=Man and His Gods|date=1952|publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]]|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/357 357–58]|author-link=Homer W. Smith|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{cite book|author=Darwin|first=Charles|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw2nmd;view=1up;seq=61|title=The life and letters of Charles Darwin|publisher=D. Appleton|year=1901|volume=vol. 1|location=|pages=43–44|access-date=3 July 2020|archive-date=24 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924204343/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.hw2nmd;view=1up;seq=61|url-status=live}}</ref> He did this zealously, and had some of his finds published in [[James Francis Stephens]]' ''Illustrations of British entomology'' (1829–32).<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|editor-last=Van Wyhe|editor-first=John|title=Darwin's insects in Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829-32)|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html|url-status=dead|access-date=2020-07-03|website=Darwin Online|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901090213/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html}}</ref> Also through Fox, Darwin became a close friend and follower of botany professor [[John Stevens Henslow]].<ref name=":02" /> He met other leading [[parson-naturalist]]s who saw scientific work as religious [[natural theology]], becoming known to these [[University don|dons]] as "the man who walks with Henslow". When his own exams drew near, Darwin applied himself to his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of [[William Paley]]'s ''Evidences of Christianity''<ref name=dar57>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 73–79}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=59 57–67]}}</ref> (1794). In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ''ordinary'' degree.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=97}}</ref><br />
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Darwin's neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who shrewdly sent him to Christ's College, Cambridge, to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican country parson. As Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying. During the first few months of Darwin's enrollment, his second cousin William Darwin Fox was also studying at Christ's Church. Fox impressed him with his butterfly collection, introducing Darwin to entomology and influencing him to pursue beetle collecting. He did this zealously, and had some of his finds published in James Francis Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829–32). Also through Fox, Darwin became a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow. (1794). In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree.<br />
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达尔文对医学研究的忽视使他的父亲非常恼火,因此特地将他送到了剑桥大学基督学院去攻读文学学士学位,因为这是迈向成为英国国教乡村牧师的第一步。但由于达尔文不符合文学士荣誉学位考试的资格,他于1828年1月加入了普通学位课程。然而他却喜欢骑马和射击而不是学习。在达尔文入学的头几个月,他的第二任堂兄威廉·达尔文·福克斯William Darwin Fox也进入基督教堂读书。福克斯的蝴蝶收藏给他留下了深刻的印象,使达尔文认识了昆虫学,并影响了他进行甲虫收藏。他对此产生了极大的兴趣,并在詹姆斯·弗朗西斯·史蒂芬斯James Francis Stephens的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 英国昆虫图志Illustrations of British entomology </font>'''》(1892-32年)中提出了一系列发现。也是通过福克斯,达尔文成为了植物学教授约翰·史蒂文斯·汉斯洛的密友和追随者。随后他遇到了其他一流的牧师自然学家,他们将科学工作视为宗教自然神学,并被这些教员称为“与汉斯洛同行的人”。当他自己的考试临近时,达尔文开始专心学习。他对威廉·佩利William Paley的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 天道溯源Evidences of Christianity </font>'''》(1794)中描述的语言和逻辑感到惊喜。后来达尔文在1831年1月的期末考试中表现出色,在178个普通学位候选人中排名第十。<br />
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Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831. He studied Paley's ''[[Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity]]'' (first published in 1802), which made an [[teleological argument|argument for divine design in nature]], explaining [[adaptation]] as God acting through [[Physical law|laws of nature]].<ref name="syd5-7">{{Harvnb|von Sydow|2005|pp=5–7}}</ref> He read [[John Herschel]]'s new book, ''Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy'' (1831), which described the highest aim of [[natural philosophy]] as understanding such laws through [[inductive reasoning]] based on observation, and [[Alexander von Humboldt]]'s ''Personal Narrative'' of scientific travels in 1799–1804. Inspired with "a burning zeal" to contribute, Darwin planned to visit [[Tenerife]] with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the [[tropics]]. In preparation, he joined [[Adam Sedgwick]]'s [[geology]] course, then on 4 August travelled with him to spend a fortnight mapping [[strata]] in [[Wales]].<ref name=db>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=69 67–68]}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=128–129, 133–141}}</ref><br />
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Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831. He studied Paley's Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity (first published in 1802), which made an argument for divine design in nature, explaining adaptation as God acting through laws of nature. He read John Herschel's new book, Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy (1831), which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation, and Alexander von Humboldt's Personal Narrative of scientific travels in 1799–1804. Inspired with "a burning zeal" to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. In preparation, he joined Adam Sedgwick's geology course, then on 4 August travelled with him to spend a fortnight mapping strata in Wales.<br />
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为了能够顺利毕业,达尔文必须在剑桥呆到1831年6月。期间他研究了佩利Paley的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然神学Natural Theology </font>'''》或《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 神存在与其属性的证据Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity </font>'''》(于1802年首次出版),该书为自然界中的神性设计辩解,解释了适应其实是神通过自然法则行事。他阅读了约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel的新书《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然哲学研究的初步论述Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy </font>'''》(1831),其中描述了自然哲学的最高目标,即通过基于观察的归纳推理来理解此类定律,以及亚历山大·冯·洪堡Alexander von Humboldt于1799–1804年科学旅行的个人叙事记录。<br />
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=== Survey voyage on HMS ''Beagle'' HMS猎犬号的航行调查 ===<br />
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[[文件:Voyage of the Beagle-en.svg|缩略图|右|猎犬号环游世界,1831-1836年]]<br />
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{{details|Second voyage of HMS Beagle}}<br />
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After leaving Sedgwick in Wales, Darwin spent a week with student friends at [[Barmouth]], then returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) [[natural history|naturalist]] for a self-funded [[wikt:supernumerary|supernumerary]] place on {{HMS|Beagle}} with captain [[Robert FitzRoy]], emphasising that this was a position for a [[gentleman]] rather than "a mere collector". The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-105.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Letter 105&nbsp;– Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 24 Aug 1831|accessdate=29 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116035549/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-105.html|archivedate=16 January 2009}}</ref> [[Robert Darwin]] objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, [[Josiah Wedgwood II]], to agree to (and fund) his son's participation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 94–97}}</ref> Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.<ref name="Browne">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=204–210}}</ref><br />
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After leaving Sedgwick in Wales, Darwin spent a week with student friends at Barmouth, then returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for a self-funded supernumerary place on with captain Robert FitzRoy, emphasising that this was a position for a gentleman rather than "a mere collector". The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America. Robert Darwin objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, Josiah Wedgwood II, to agree to (and fund) his son's participation. Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.<br />
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离开威尔士的塞奇威克后,达尔文在巴茅斯与学生朋友呆了一个星期,然后于8月29日返回家乡,找到了汉斯洛的来信。信中汉斯洛建议他适当考虑一下做个博物学家,与船长罗伯·菲茨罗伊Robert FitzRoy一起为HMS Beagle猎犬号自筹资金,这样或许可以得到一个编外名额登船。汉斯洛特地强调这是一个绅士的职位,而不是“单纯的收集者”。该船将在四周内离开,以绘制南美海岸线图。该船将于四周内启航,绘制南美海岸线图。罗伯特·达尔文反对儿子未来的两年航程,因为他认为这是在浪费时间,但他的姐夫约西亚·韦奇伍德二世Josiah Wedgwood II说服了他同意并资助儿子的计划。后来达尔文小心翼翼地以私人身份保留着对藏品的控制权,他打算将其用于大型科学机构。<br />
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After delays, the voyage began on 27 December 1831; it lasted almost five years. As FitzRoy had intended, Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections, while HMS ''Beagle'' [[hydrography|surveyed and charted]] coasts.<ref name=JvW /><ref name=kix>{{harvnb|Keynes|2000|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1840&pageseq=12 ix–xi]}}</ref> He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations, and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters including a copy of [[The Voyage of the Beagle|his journal]] for his family.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|pp=18–21}}</ref> He had some expertise in geology, beetle collecting and dissecting [[marine invertebrates]], but in all other areas was a novice and ably collected specimens for expert appraisal.<ref name=fnGal>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|title=Darwin's field notes on the Galapagos: 'A little world within itself'|author=Gordon Chancellor|author2=Randal Keynes|date=October 2006|publisher=[[Darwin Online]]|accessdate=16 September 2009|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901082402/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|archivedate=1 September 2009|author2-link=Randal Keynes}}</ref> Despite suffering badly from seasickness, Darwin wrote copious notes while on board the ship. Most of his zoology notes are about marine invertebrates, starting with [[plankton]] collected in a calm spell.<ref name=kix /><ref name=plankton>{{Harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1925&viewtype=text&pageseq=53 21–22]}}</ref><br />
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After delays, the voyage began on 27 December 1831; it lasted almost five years. As FitzRoy had intended, Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections, while HMS Beagle surveyed and charted coasts. He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations, and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters including a copy of his journal for his family. He had some expertise in geology, beetle collecting and dissecting marine invertebrates, but in all other areas was a novice and ably collected specimens for expert appraisal. Despite suffering badly from seasickness, Darwin wrote copious notes while on board the ship. Most of his zoology notes are about marine invertebrates, starting with plankton collected in a calm spell.<br />
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航行后来延误到1831年12月27日启航,而且它持续了将近五年。正如菲茨罗伊所希望的那样,达尔文大部分时间都在土地上进行地质调查和自然历史采集,而HMS Beagle则在调查和绘制海岸图。他仔细记录了自己的观察和理论推测,并在航行中不定期将标本与信件一起寄到剑桥,其中包括他的家人日记。他在地质学,甲虫收集和解剖海洋无脊椎动物方面具有一定的专业知识,但在所有其他领域都是新手。不过他会妥善收集标本并供专家评估。尽管遭受晕船之苦,达尔文还是在船上写下了大量笔记。他的大部分动物学笔记都是关于海洋无脊椎动物的,自无风期的浮游生物开始。<br />
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On their first stop ashore at [[Santiago, Cape Verde|St Jago]] in [[Cape Verde]], Darwin found that a white band high in the [[volcanic rock]] cliffs included seashells. FitzRoy had given him the first volume of [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''[[Principles of Geology]]'', which set out [[uniformitarian]] concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods,{{Ref label|B|II|none}} and Darwin saw things Lyell's way, theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=183–190}}</ref> When they reached [[Brazil]], Darwin was delighted by the [[Bahia coastal forests|tropical forest]],<ref>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=73 41–42]}}</ref> but detested the sight of [[slavery]], and disputed this issue with Fitzroy.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=75 73–74]}}</ref><br />
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On their first stop ashore at St Jago in Cape Verde, Darwin found that a white band high in the volcanic rock cliffs included seashells. FitzRoy had given him the first volume of Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology, which set out uniformitarian concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods, and Darwin saw things Lyell's way, theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology. When they reached Brazil, Darwin was delighted by the tropical forest, but detested the sight of slavery, and disputed this issue with Fitzroy.<br />
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达尔文在佛得角圣哈戈上岸的第一站中,发现火山岩峭壁中高处白色带中包含贝壳。菲茨罗伊为他提供了查尔斯·莱尔Charles Lyell的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 地质学原理Principles of Geology </font>'''》的第一卷,其中阐述了土地在各个时期缓慢上升或下降的统一概念。当达尔文看到莱尔所作的一切,他也在思索着写地质学著作的想法。当他们到达巴西时,达尔文对热带森林感到惊喜好奇,但也因目睹奴隶制的景象而感到愤怒,并与菲茨罗伊产生了争执。<br />
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The survey continued to the south in [[Patagonia]]. They stopped at [[Bahía Blanca]], and in cliffs near [[Punta Alta]] Darwin made a major find of fossil bones of huge extinct [[mammal]]s beside modern seashells, indicating recent [[extinction]] with no signs of change in climate or catastrophe. He identified the little-known ''[[Megatherium]]'' by a tooth and its association with bony armour, which had at first seemed to him to be like a giant version of the armour on local [[armadillo]]s. The finds brought great interest when they reached England.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp= 223–235}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1835|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1&viewtype=text&pageseq=7 7]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p= 210}}</ref><ref name=k206>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=138 206–209]}}</ref><br />
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The survey continued to the south in Patagonia. They stopped at Bahía Blanca, and in cliffs near Punta Alta Darwin made a major find of fossil bones of huge extinct mammals beside modern seashells, indicating recent extinction with no signs of change in climate or catastrophe. He identified the little-known Megatherium by a tooth and its association with bony armour, which had at first seemed to him to be like a giant version of the armour on local armadillos. The finds brought great interest when they reached England.<br />
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后来调查继续在巴塔哥尼亚南部进行。他们在巴伊亚布兰卡停了下来,在蓬塔阿尔塔附近的悬崖上,一堆现代贝壳的旁边,达尔文发现了大量已灭绝哺乳动物的化石,这表明最近的灭绝并不是因为气候或灾难的变化。他用牙齿识别出了鲜为人知的大地懒,并将其与骨甲联系起来,在他看来,它最初看起来像是本地犰狳身上的巨型盔甲。这些发现到达英国后引起了当地研究学者极大的兴趣。<br />
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On rides with [[gaucho]]s into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, political and [[anthropology|anthropological]] insights into both native and colonial people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two types of [[rhea (bird)|rhea]] had separate but overlapping territories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 189–192, 198}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref> Further south, he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells as [[raised beach]]es showing a series of elevations. He read Lyell's second volume and accepted its view of "centres of creation" of species, but his discoveries and theorising challenged Lyell's ideas of smooth continuity and of extinction of species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 131, 159}}<br />{{harvnb|Herbert|1991|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=16 174–179]}}</ref><ref name=HurrahChiloe>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.8.html|title=Darwin Online: 'Hurrah Chiloe': an introduction to the Port Desire Notebook|accessdate=24 October 2008|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204201413/http://www.darwin-online.org.uk./EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.8.html|archivedate=4 December 2008}}</ref><br />
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On rides with gauchos into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, political and anthropological insights into both native and colonial people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two types of rhea had separate but overlapping territories. Further south, he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells as raised beaches showing a series of elevations. He read Lyell's second volume and accepted its view of "centres of creation" of species, but his discoveries and theorising challenged Lyell's ideas of smooth continuity and of extinction of species.<br />
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在高乔人随同下,达尔文进入领地内去探索地质并收集更多化石,他因此对本土人民和革命时期殖民地人民的社会,政治和人类学方面都获得了独到的见解。并了解到两种类型的美洲鸵具有独立但重叠的领地。在更南的地方,他还看到阶梯状的带状平原和贝壳状的高架海滩,它们呈现出一系列不同的高地。他阅读了莱尔的第二卷,接受了其关于物种“创造中心”的观点,但是他的发现和理论挑战了莱尔关于平稳连续性和物种灭绝的思想。<br />
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[[文件:HMS Beagle by Conrad Martens.jpg|缩略图|左|当比猎犬号调查南美洲海岸时,达尔文提出了关于地质学和巨型哺乳动物灭绝的理论。]]<br />
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Three [[Fuegians]] on board had been seized during the [[HMS Beagle#First voyage|first ''Beagle'' voyage]], then during a year in England were educated as missionaries. Darwin found them friendly and civilised, yet at [[Tierra del Fuego]] he met "miserable, degraded savages", as different as wild from domesticated animals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1845|pp= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=218 205–208]}}</ref> He remained convinced that, despite this diversity, all humans were interrelated with [[Monogenism|a shared origin]] and potential for improvement towards civilisation. Unlike his scientist friends, he now thought there was no unbridgeable gap between humans and animals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp= 243–244, 248–250, 382–383}}</ref> A year on, the mission had been abandoned. The Fuegian they had named [[Jemmy Button]] lived like the other natives, had a wife, and had no wish to return to England.<ref>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=258 226–227]}}</ref><br />
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Three Fuegians on board had been seized during the first Beagle voyage, then during a year in England were educated as missionaries. Darwin found them friendly and civilised, yet at Tierra del Fuego he met "miserable, degraded savages", as different as wild from domesticated animals. He remained convinced that, despite this diversity, all humans were interrelated with a shared origin and potential for improvement towards civilisation. Unlike his scientist friends, he now thought there was no unbridgeable gap between humans and animals. A year on, the mission had been abandoned. The Fuegian they had named Jemmy Button lived like the other natives, had a wife, and had no wish to return to England.<br />
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在第一次的猎犬号航行中,船上的3名火地岛人被抓获,然后在英国接受了一年的传教士教育。达尔文发现他们友好且文明,但在火地岛,他也遇到了与野生动物不同,“悲惨的,退化的野蛮人”。他仍然坚信,尽管存在这种多样性,但所有人类都具有共同的血统和改善文明的潜力。与科学家朋友不同,他现在认为人与动物之间没有不可逾越的鸿沟。一年后,该教育任务停止了,其中一位他们曾取名为杰米·巴顿Jemmy Button的火地岛人过着与其他当地人一样的生活,有妻子,而且他不愿再返回英国。<br />
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Darwin experienced [[1835 Concepción earthquake|an earthquake in Chile]] in 1835 and saw signs that the land had just been raised, including [[mussel]]-beds stranded above high tide. High in the [[Andes]] he saw seashells, and several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach. He theorised that as the land rose, [[island|oceanic islands]] sank, and [[coral reef]]s round them grew to form [[atoll]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 160–168, 182}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1452.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=278 260]}}</ref><ref name=atolls>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=100 pp. 98–99]}}</ref><br />
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Darwin experienced an earthquake in Chile in 1835 and saw signs that the land had just been raised, including mussel-beds stranded above high tide. High in the Andes he saw seashells, and several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach. He theorised that as the land rose, oceanic islands sank, and coral reefs round them grew to form atolls.<br />
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达尔文于1835年在智利经历了一次地震,并看到土地刚刚被抬高的迹象,包括在涨潮时搁浅的蚌床。在安第斯山脉的高处,他还看到了贝壳,以及在沙滩上生长的几棵化石树。他因此得到的理论是,随着土地的上升,海洋岛屿沉没,周围的珊瑚礁逐渐形成环礁。<br />
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On the geologically new [[Galápagos Islands]], Darwin looked for evidence attaching wildlife to an older "centre of creation", and found [[mockingbird]]s allied to those in Chile but differing from island to island. He heard that slight variations in the shape of [[tortoise]] shells showed which island they came from, but failed to collect them, even after eating tortoises taken on board as food.<ref name=k356>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=388 356–357]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sulloway|1982|p=19}}</ref> In Australia, the [[marsupial]] [[Potoridae|rat-kangaroo]] and the [[platypus]] seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work.<ref name=Crows>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.3.html|title=Darwin Online: Coccatoos & Crows: An introduction to the Sydney Notebook|accessdate=2 January 2009|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114015611/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.3.html|archivedate=14 January 2009}}</ref> He found the [[Indigenous Australians|Aborigines]] "good-humoured & pleasant", and noted their depletion by European settlement.<ref>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=430 398–399].}}</ref><br />
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On the geologically new Galápagos Islands, Darwin looked for evidence attaching wildlife to an older "centre of creation", and found mockingbirds allied to those in Chile but differing from island to island. He heard that slight variations in the shape of tortoise shells showed which island they came from, but failed to collect them, even after eating tortoises taken on board as food. In Australia, the marsupial rat-kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work. He found the Aborigines "good-humoured & pleasant", and noted their depletion by European settlement.<br />
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在地理上的新加拉帕戈斯群岛上,达尔文寻找证据证明野生生物具有“创造中心”这一观点,他发现了智利存在一种类似的,但在各个岛屿之间又有所不同的知更鸟。他听说根据乌龟壳略有变化的形状,可以得知它们来自哪个岛,但最后他即使食用了船上的乌龟,也未能将它们收集起来。在澳大利亚,存活着鼠袋鼠和鸭嘴兽似乎很不寻常,以至于达尔文依稀觉得好像两个不同的造物者在工作。他发现原住民“幽默愉快”,并注意到本岛上那些欧洲定居点对原住民的文化个性的影响,促使其消失。<br />
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FitzRoy investigated how the atolls of the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] had formed, and the survey supported Darwin's theorising.<ref name=atolls /> FitzRoy began writing the official ''Narrative'' of the ''Beagle'' voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary he proposed incorporating it into the account.<ref name=Letter301>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-301.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Letter 301&nbsp;– Darwin, C.R. to Darwin, C.S., 29 Apr 1836|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084605/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-301.html|archivedate=5 December 2008|access-date=3 September 2008}}</ref> Darwin's ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Journal]]'' was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on natural history.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p= 336}}</ref><br />
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FitzRoy investigated how the atolls of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands had formed, and the survey supported Darwin's theorising. Darwin's Journal was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on natural history.<br />
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菲茨罗伊研究了科科斯基林群岛环礁的形成方式,并为达尔文的理论提供了支持。随后他开始撰写猎犬号航行的官方叙事,在阅读达尔文的日记后,他提议将其纳入其中。最终,《达尔文日记Darwin's Journal》被改写为单独的第三卷,归类为自然史。<br />
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In [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]], Darwin and FitzRoy met [[John Herschel]], who had recently written to Lyell praising his [[uniformitarianism]] as opening bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" as "a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process".<ref name=Rascals>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=21 197]}}</ref><br />
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In Cape Town, South Africa, Darwin and FitzRoy met John Herschel, who had recently written to Lyell praising his uniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" as "a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process".<br />
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在南非的开普敦,达尔文和菲茨罗伊会见了约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel,约翰曾写过信给莱尔,称赞他的均变论是非常大胆的猜测,将“近乎玄学的概念,由其他未知物种替代已灭绝的物种”,看作是“与奇迹般的过程形成鲜明对比的自然现象”。<br />
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When organising his notes as the ship sailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the [[Falkland Islands wolf|Falkland Islands fox]] were correct, "such facts undermine the stability of Species", then cautiously added "would" before "undermine".<ref name=xix>{{Harvnb|Keynes|2000|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1840&pageseq=22 xix–xx]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref> He later wrote that such facts "seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=16 p. 1]}}</ref><br />
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When organising his notes as the ship sailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the Falkland Islands fox were correct, "such facts undermine the stability of Species", then cautiously added "would" before "undermine". He later wrote that such facts "seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species".<br />
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达尔文在返航时整理了他的笔记,他写道,他对知更鸟,乌龟和福克兰群岛的狐狸的物种相似性和区别不断产生怀疑,因为“这些事实破坏了物种的稳定性”,所以他在“破坏”前面谨慎地加上了“可能将会”。他后来写道,这些事实“似乎让我对物种起源有了一些了解”。<br />
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=== Inception of Darwin's evolutionary theory 达尔文进化论的诞生 ===<br />
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{{details|Inception of Darwin's theory}}<br />
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[[文件:Charles Darwin by G. Richmond.png|缩略图|左|查尔斯·达尔文年轻时,就成为了科学精英。该肖像由乔治·里士满George Richmond创作。]]<br />
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By the time Darwin returned to England, he was already a celebrity in scientific circles as in December 1835 Henslow had fostered his former pupil's reputation by publishing a pamphlet of Darwin's geological letters for select naturalists.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1835|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_LettersOnGeology.html editorial introduction]}}</ref> On 2 October 1836 the ship anchored at [[Falmouth, Cornwall]]. Darwin promptly made the long coach journey to Shrewsbury to visit his home and see relatives. He then hurried to [[Cambridge]] to see Henslow, who advised him on finding naturalists available to catalogue Darwin's animal collections and who agreed to take on the botanical specimens. Darwin's father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded [[gentleman scientist]], and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections. British zoologists at the time had a huge backlog of work due to natural history collecting being promoted and encouraged through the British Empire, and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 195–198}}</ref><br />
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By the time Darwin returned to England, he was already a celebrity in scientific circles as in December 1835 Henslow had fostered his former pupil's reputation by publishing a pamphlet of Darwin's geological letters for select naturalists. On 2 October 1836 the ship anchored at Falmouth, Cornwall. Darwin promptly made the long coach journey to Shrewsbury to visit his home and see relatives. He then hurried to Cambridge to see Henslow, who advised him on finding naturalists available to catalogue Darwin's animal collections and who agreed to take on the botanical specimens. Darwin's father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded gentleman scientist, and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections. British zoologists at the time had a huge backlog of work due to natural history collecting being promoted and encouraged through the British Empire, and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage.<br />
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当达尔文回到英国的时候,他已经是科学界的名人了。因为1835年12月,汉斯洛专为某些博物学家们出版了达尔文的地质学书信册,从而提高了他以前的学生声誉。1836年10月2日,这艘船停泊在康沃尔郡的法尔茅斯。达尔文立马开始了漫长的教练旅程,他回到什鲁斯伯里的家并探望亲戚。随后,他急忙去剑桥看汉斯洛,汉斯洛建议他去找那些能够分类他收集的动物名单,并同意采集植物标本的博物学家。达尔文的父亲负责投资,使他的儿子成为一名自费的绅士科学家,而兴奋的达尔文则前往伦敦一家机构,寻找专家来描述他的那些藏品。当时英国的动物学家们积压了大量工作,因为大英帝国促进和鼓励动物学们进行自然历史的收集,而且将标本留在仓库中也确实危险。<br />
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Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist [[Richard Owen]], who had the facilities of the [[Royal College of Surgeons of England|Royal College of Surgeons]] to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen's surprising results included other gigantic extinct [[ground sloth]]s as well as the ''[[Megatherium]]'', a near complete skeleton of the unknown ''[[Scelidotherium]]'' and a [[hippopotamus]]-sized [[rodent]]-like skull named ''[[Toxodon]]'' resembling a giant [[capybara]]. The armour fragments were actually from ''[[Glyptodon]]'', a huge armadillo-like creature as Darwin had initially thought.<ref>{{Harvnb|Owen|1840|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=26 16], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=83 73], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=116 106]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref><ref name=k206 /> These extinct creatures were related to living species in South America.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 201–205}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=349–350}}</ref><br />
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Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities of the Royal College of Surgeons to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen's surprising results included other gigantic extinct ground sloths as well as the Megatherium, a near complete skeleton of the unknown Scelidotherium and a hippopotamus-sized rodent-like skull named Toxodon resembling a giant capybara. The armour fragments were actually from Glyptodon, a huge armadillo-like creature as Darwin had initially thought.<br />
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查尔斯·莱尔于10月29日首次与达尔文会面,并很快将他介绍给了崭露头角的解剖学家理查德·欧文Richard Owen,欧文可以使用皇家外科医学院的设施,因此他可以处理达尔文收集的化石。后来欧文得出了令人惊讶的结果,包括其他已灭绝的巨大地面树懒以及大地懒,一个近乎完整的伏地懒全骨,和一只河马大小的啮齿动物般的头骨,名为Toxodon,类似于巨大的水豚。还有一些来自雕齿兽盔甲的碎片,达尔文最初以为它是巨大犰狳类动物。所有这些灭绝的生物发现与南美的生物物种有关。<br />
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In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his ''Journal''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=345–347}}</ref> He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing read it to the [[Geological Society of London]] on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the [[Zoological Society of London|Zoological Society]]. The ornithologist [[John Gould]] soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of [[Common blackbird|blackbirds]], "[[Grosbeak|gros-beaks]]" and [[finch]]es, were, in fact, twelve [[Darwin's finches|separate species of finches]]. On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell's presidential address presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 207–210}}<br />{{Harvnb|Sulloway|1982|pp=20–23}}</ref><br />
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In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his Journal. He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing read it to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological Society. The ornithologist John Gould soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of blackbirds, "gros-beaks" and finches, were, in fact, twelve separate species of finches. On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell's presidential address presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.<br />
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同年12月中旬,达尔文寄宿在剑桥,整理他航行中收集的动植物化石标本并重新开始写他的期刊论文。他写的第一篇论文表明了南美大陆正在缓慢上升。他得到了莱尔的热情支持,于1837年1月4日将其发给了伦敦地质学会。当天,他向动物学协会展示了他的哺乳动物和鸟类标本。鸟类学家约翰·古尔德John Gould很快宣布,达尔文认为的加拉帕戈斯鸟类是黑鸟,“喙喙”和十二种雀科的杂交种。2月17日,达尔文被选入理事会地质学会,莱尔的总统发言介绍了欧文关于达尔文化石的发现,并强调了物种的地理连续性可以支撑他的均变论观点。<br />
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Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and [[expert]]s such as [[Charles Babbage]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Letter 346&nbsp;– Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837|accessdate=19 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192201/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}} proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,<br />Darwin's Journal ({{harvnb|Darwin|2006|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1–76&pageseq=22 12 verso]}}) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837</ref> who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his [[freethought|freethinking]] brother Erasmus, part of this [[British Whig Party|Whig]] circle and a close friend of the writer [[Harriet Martineau]], who promoted [[Malthusianism]] underlying the controversial Whig [[Poor Law Amendment Act 1834|Poor Law reforms]] to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], she welcomed the [[radicalism (historical)|radical]] implications of [[transmutation of species]], promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy]]. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=201, 212–221}}</ref> but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in [[John Herschel]]'s letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a [[Physical law|natural cause]] of the origin of new species.<ref name=Rascals /><br />
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Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and experts such as Charles Babbage, who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his freethinking brother Erasmus, part of this Whig circle and a close friend of the writer Harriet Martineau, who promoted Malthusianism underlying the controversial Whig Poor Law reforms to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a Unitarian, she welcomed the radical implications of transmutation of species, promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by Geoffroy. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order, but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in John Herschel's letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a natural cause of the origin of new species. The two rheas were also distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.<br />
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来年3月初,达尔文搬到伦敦,从事这项工作,加入了莱尔的科学家和专家社交圈,例如查尔斯·巴贝奇Charles Babbage,他将上帝描述为法律程序员。达尔文与自由思想的兄弟伊拉斯谟呆在一起,加入了辉格党的圈子,另外,他和作家哈里埃特·马丁诺Harriet Martineau也是密友,哈里埃特推动了'''<font color="#ff8000"> 马尔萨斯主义Malthusianism</font>'''的改革,以制止因福利造成人口过剩和更多的贫困,这引起了辉格党穷人法Whig Poor Law的争议。作为一神论者,她赞同'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物种演变Transmutation</font>'''的深远影响,这个概念由格兰特和受杰夫罗伊影响的年轻外科医生推广。物种演变这个概念,在当时是英国国教为了捍卫社会秩序极力咒逐的,但是著名的科学家们则愿意公开讨论这个话题。约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel在信中赞扬莱尔,他认为这是用自然原因来寻找新物种起源的一种方法,因此引起了学界广泛的兴趣。<br />
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Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagos [[mockingbird]]s from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought was a "[[wren]]" was also [[Warbler-finch|in the finch group]]. Darwin had not labelled the finches by island, but from the notes of others on the ship, including FitzRoy, he allocated species to islands.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sulloway|1982|pp=9, 20–23}}</ref> The two [[rhea (bird)|rheas]] were also distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=360}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1643&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|title=Darwin, C. R. (Read 14 March 1837) Notes on Rhea americana and Rhea darwinii, ''Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London''|accessdate=17 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210085710/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1643&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|archivedate=10 February 2009}}</ref><br />
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Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagos mockingbirds from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought was a "wren" was also in the finch group. Darwin had not labelled the finches by island, but from the notes of others on the ship, including FitzRoy, he allocated species to islands.[79] The two rheas were also distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.<br />
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古尔德Gould后来遇到了达尔文并告诉他,来自不同岛屿的加拉帕戈斯知更鸟是不同的物种,而不仅仅是变种,而且当初达尔文认为的鹪鹩也归属于雀科类。航行中达尔文没有按岛对雀类进行标记,但是从船上其他人(包括菲茨罗伊)的笔记中,他将物种分配到了各个岛上。有两种美洲鸵也是不同的物种,后来3月14日,达尔文宣布其分布向南延申<br />
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[[文件:Darwin Tree 1837.png|缩略图|右|1837年7月中旬,达尔文开始了他《物种演变》一书中的“B”笔记,并在第36页的第一棵进化树上写下了“我认为”。]]<br />
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By mid-March 1837, barely six months after his return to England, Darwin was speculating in his ''Red Notebook'' on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal ''[[Macrauchenia]]'', which resembled a giant [[guanaco]], a llama relative. Around mid-July, he recorded in his "B" notebook his thoughts on lifespan and variation across generations—explaining the variations he had observed in [[Galápagos tortoise]]s, mockingbirds, and rheas. He sketched branching descent, and then a [[genealogical]] branching of a single [[tree of life (science)|evolutionary tree]], in which "It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another", discarding Lamarck's idea of independent [[lineage (evolution)|lineages]] progressing to higher forms.<ref>{{harvnb|Herbert|1980|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1583e&pageseq=9 7–10]}}<br />{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|p=44}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1837|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&pageseq=1 1–13, 26, 36, 74]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=229–232}}</ref><br />
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By mid-March 1837, barely six months after his return to England, Darwin was speculating in his Red Notebook on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal Macrauchenia, which resembled a giant guanaco, a llama relative. Around mid-July, he recorded in his "B" notebook his thoughts on lifespan and variation across generations—explaining the variations he had observed in Galápagos tortoises, mockingbirds, and rheas. He sketched branching descent, and then a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, in which "It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another", discarding Lamarck's idea of independent lineages progressing to higher forms.<br />
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到了1837年3月中旬,即返回英国后仅六个月,达尔文就在他的红色笔记本中推测了这种可能性,他认为“一种物种确实会变成另一种物种”,并用其解释生存的物种(例如,美洲大黄鼠)和灭绝的物种(例如,已灭绝的哺乳动物后弓兽)的地理分布,该物种酷似一种巨大的原驼,是美洲驼的亲戚。大约在7月中旬,他在自己的“B”笔记本中记录了他对寿命和跨代变化的看法,解释他在加拉帕戈斯陆龟,知更鸟和美洲鸵中观察到的变化。他画出了后裔分支,并描绘了单个进化树的家谱分支,其中“谈论一种动物高于另一种动物是荒谬的”,他认为应该摒弃了拉马克Lamarck关于独立血统发展为更高形态的想法。<br />
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Since 2000, notebooks have been missing from [[Cambridge University Library]] that are now believed to have been stolen. One of them contains Darwin's famous Tree of Life sketch (above right), exploring the evolutionary relationship between species. Digitised copies do still exist.<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-55044129</ref><br />
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Since 2000, notebooks have been missing from Cambridge University Library that are now believed to have been stolen. One of them contains Darwin's famous Tree of Life sketch (above right), exploring the evolutionary relationship between species. Digitised copies do still exist.<br />
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自2000年以来,剑桥大学图书馆一直缺少达尔文的笔记,现在普遍认为该笔记已被盗。笔记中包含了达尔文著名的生命之树草图(右上图),探索物种之间的进化关系。不过数字副本仍然存在。<br />
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=== Overwork, illness, and marriage 劳累,疾病和婚姻 ===<br />
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{{See also|Charles Darwin's health}}<br />
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While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his ''Journal'', he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of [[pound sterling|£]]1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume ''[[Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle]]'', a sum equivalent to about £{{formatnum:{{inflation|UK|1000|1837|r=-3}}}} in {{#expr:{{CURRENTYEAR}}-2}}.{{inflation-fn|UK}} He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=367–369}}</ref> As the [[Victorian era]] began, Darwin pressed on with writing his ''Journal'', and in August 1837 began correcting [[Galley proof|printer's proofs]].<ref>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=21 xix]}}</ref><br />
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While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his Journal, he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, a sum equivalent to about £92,000 in 2018.[83] He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher.[84] As the Victorian era began, Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal, and in August 1837 began correcting printer's proofs.<br />
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在深入这项关于演变的研究中,达尔文被工作占据了所有。他仍在重写他的日记,负责编辑和发布其采集化石标本相关的专家报告,同时在汉斯洛的帮助下,他获得了£1,000的财政部拨款,以赞助这本多卷动物学著作《H.M.S.猎犬号》。这本书2018年的总价约为92,000英镑。他节省着这笔资金,来完成计划中的地质类书刊,并与出版商商定了不切实际的发行日期。后来随着维多利亚时代的开始,达尔文于1837年8月开始更正打印机的样张。<br />
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As Darwin worked under pressure, his health suffered. On 20 September he had "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at [[Maer Hall]], Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]], nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle [[Josiah Wedgwood II|Josiah]] pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under [[loam]] and suggested that this might have been the work of [[earthworm]]s, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in [[pedogenesis|soil formation]], which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 233–234}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-404.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Letter 404&nbsp;– Buckland, William to Geological Society of London, 9 Mar 1838|accessdate=23 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192234/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-404.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}}</ref><br />
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As Darwin worked under pressure, his health suffered. On 20 September he had "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall, Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in soil formation, which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837.<br />
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由于达尔文在强压下工作,他的健康因此受到了影响。9月20日,他的心脏感到“不舒服”,他的医生敦促他“放弃所有工作”,并在该国生活几周。在拜访了什鲁斯伯里之后,他回到了他在斯塔福德郡梅尔大厅的韦奇伍德亲戚家,但发现他们太渴望他的旅行故事,无法给他更多的休息。他有个迷人,聪明,有教养的表姐艾玛·韦奇伍德Emma Wedgwood,比达尔文大九个月,正在照顾他身残的姨妈。他的叔叔约西亚Josiah曾提到过在一块土壤下面消失的煤渣,并暗示这可能是蠕虫的行为,这启发他们思考一个“全新的重要理论”,关于蠕虫在土壤行程中的作用。达尔文于1837年11月1日在地质学会上发表相关论文。<br />
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[[文件:Emma Darwin.jpg|缩略图|左|达尔文选择与他表姐艾玛·韦奇伍德Emma Wedgwood结婚。]]<br />
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[[William Whewell]] pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 233–236}}.</ref> Despite the grind of writing and editing the ''Beagle'' reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in [[selective breeding]] such as farmers and [[pigeon keeping|pigeon fanciers]].<ref name=JvW /><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 241–244, 426}}</ref> Over time, his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=xii}}</ref> He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an [[orangutan]] in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 241–244}}</ref><br />
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William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.[87] Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in selective breeding such as farmers and pigeon fanciers.[13][88] Over time, his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.[89] He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an orangutan in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour.<br />
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著名的博学通才,科学家,哲学家威廉·惠威尔William Whewell敦促达尔文担任地质学会秘书。最初拒绝了这项工作后,达尔文于1838年3月接受了该职位。尽管在撰写和编辑《H.M.S.猎犬号》时非常不顺利,但达尔文在演变方面取得了显著进步,他抓住一切机会,向专家,博物学家,以及那些非常规地但是在选育方面有实践经验的人(如农民和鸽友)提出质疑。他的研究开始借鉴他的亲戚,孩子,管家,邻居,殖民者,甚至前船友收集的信息。而且从一开始,他就将人类包括在内。1838年3月28日,他在动物园里看到猩猩时,便注意到了它们的幼稚行为。<br />
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The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe [[boil]]s, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of [[Charles Darwin's illness|Darwin's illness]] remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 252, 476, 531}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=119 115]}}</ref><br />
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The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of Darwin's illness remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success.<br />
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过度劳累造成了他一身的疾病,直至6月,他因胃病,头痛和心脏病不得不连续数天休息。在他的余生中,他也屡次因病痛而丧失行动能力,包括胃痛,呕吐,疖疮,、心悸颤抖和其他症状,尤其是在紧张的时期,例如参加会议或社交访问的时候。达尔文病灶仍然未知,那些治疗尝试只能暂时缓解他的病痛。<br />
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On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited [[Glen Roy]] in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine [[raised beach]]es, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a [[proglacial lake]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p= 254}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=377–378}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=86 84]}}</ref><br />
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On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine raised beaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a proglacial lake.<br />
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6月23日,他正好在休假,就在苏格兰进行了“地理信息处理”。他在晴朗的天气里参观了格伦·罗伊Glen Roy,看到平行的“道路”从三个高度切入山坡。后来,他发表了自己的观点,认为这些是海上凸起的海滩,但随后不得不接受它们是冰川湖的海岸线。<br />
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Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage, career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed ''"Marry"'' and ''"Not Marry"''. Advantages under "Marry" included "constant companion and a friend in old age&nbsp;... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=238 232–233]}}</ref> Having decided in favour of marriage, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=256–259}}</ref><br />
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Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage, career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed "Marry" and "Not Marry". Advantages under "Marry" included "constant companion and a friend in old age&nbsp;... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time." Having decided in favour of marriage, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.<br />
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后来待他完全康复,于七月回到什鲁斯伯里。因为他过去有习惯记下有关动物育种的记录,因此我们看到了他在两张纸上也草草地写下了他对于婚姻,职业和前景的漫长思考,其中一栏的标题为“结婚”和“不结婚”。在“结婚”下面写下了其好处为:“长久不变的同伴和朋友……总之比狗好”,坏处是“没有足够的钱买书”和“可怕的时间浪费”。在决定结婚后,他与父亲讨论了结婚事宜,然后于7月29日去拜访表姐爱玛Emma。他没有抽空去准备该如何求婚,而是不顾父亲的劝告,提出了自己对于研究演变的想法计划。<br />
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=== Malthus and natural selection 马尔萨斯与自然选择 ===<br />
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Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of [[Malthus]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'', and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a [[geometric progression]] so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a [[Malthusian catastrophe]]. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to [[A. P. de Candolle|de Candolle]]'s "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones."<ref name=JvW /><ref name="134e">{{cite web | title = Darwin transmutation notebook D pp. 134e–135e | url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | accessdate = 4 June 2012 | url-status=live | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120718105154/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | archivedate = 18 July 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> This would result in the formation of new species.<ref name=JvW /><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 264–265}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp= 385–388}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=39 7]}}</ref> As he later wrote in his ''[[The Autobiography of Charles Darwin|Autobiography]]'':<br />
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Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population, and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a geometric progression so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a Malthusian catastrophe. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to de Candolle's "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones."[13][95] This would result in the formation of new species.[13][96] As he later wrote in his Autobiography:<br />
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后来达尔文继续在伦敦进行研究,他广泛阅读相关著作,包括马尔萨斯的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人口原理An Essay on the Principle of Population </font>'''》第六版。1838年9月28日,他指出“人类的人口在不受控制的情况下每25年就会增加一倍,或者以几何比例增加”,这种呈几何级数增长的速度,会造成所谓的马尔萨斯灾难,人口很快会超出了粮食供应的极限。达尔文已做好充分的准备,可以将其与坎多尔Candolle的“物种争斗”进行比较,以及野生动植物之间为生存而进行的斗争,这解释了一个物种的数量是如何大致保持稳定。由于物种的繁殖总是超出可用资源,那么有利的变异将使生物能更好地生存下来并将变异传给其后代,而不利的变异将逐渐消失。他写道,“所有楔入的最终原因,必须是找出适当的结构,并使之适应变化”,因此,“有人可能会说有十万个楔形力,试图将各种适应力推向自然经济的缝隙,或者更精确地说通过淘汰弱者来形成这种缝隙。”这最终将导致新物种的形成。正如他后来在自传中写道:<br />
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In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species. Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work...<ref name="autobio 120">{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=124 120]}}</ref><br />
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In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species. Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work...<br />
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在1838年10月,也就是我开始进行系统性调查的15个月后,我碰巧读了马尔萨斯的《人口原理》,通过长期不断地观察动植物的习性,做好了充分的准备去欣赏生物为生存而奋斗的过程。令我惊讶的是,我发现在这种情况下,生物倾向于保留有利的变化,而摈弃掉不利的变化。其结果将可能是形成一个新物种。然后基于这个假设,我终于产生了一个可以为之展开研究的理论...<br />
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By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in [[selective breeding]], and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=63 |title=Darwin transmutation notebook E p. 75 |accessdate=17 March 2009 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628082830/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=63 |archivedate=28 June 2009 }}</ref> thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=61|title=Darwin transmutation notebook E p. 71|accessdate=17 March 2009|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628080656/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=61|archivedate=28 June 2009}}</ref> He later called his theory [[natural selection]], an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding.<ref name=JvW /><br />
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By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected",[98] thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory".[99] He later called his theory natural selection, an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding.<br />
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到12月中旬,达尔文观察到农民在育种时往往会选择最佳种群,而马尔萨斯主张的从随机变体中进行选择,以使“新获得的结构的每个部分都完全实用且完善”具有与之相似的逻辑,达尔文认为这两者之间的比较是“他理论中最有力的证据”。后来他称其理论为自然选择,与他所谓的选择性育种的“人工选择”相类似。<br />
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On 11 November, he returned to [[Maer Hall|Maer]] and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences, also expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife.<ref name=Belief>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/130/125/|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Belief: historical essay|accessdate=25 November 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225124103/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/130/125/ |archivedate=25 February 2009 }}</ref> While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in [[Gower Street (London)|Gower Street]], then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin was [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1839|elected a Fellow of the Royal Society]] (FRS).<ref name=frs /><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 272–279}}</ref><br />
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On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences, also expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife.[100] While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS).<br />
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11月11日,他回到梅尔,向艾玛求婚,再次向她讲述了自己的想法。她接受了他,然后在交换情书中展示了她如何珍视他的坦诚,他们开始分享彼此的分歧观点,也表达了她强烈的一神论信仰,并担心他的坦诚和怀疑可能会导致在来世他们的分开。当他在伦敦寻找房子时,疾病不断发作,艾玛尽力说服让他休息一下,几乎预言到:“直到我能和你在一起照顾你之前,别再生病了。他在高尔街Gower Street找到了他们所谓的“金刚鹦鹉小屋”(由于其华丽的内饰),然后在圣诞节期间将他的“博物馆”搬进了他的家。1839年1月24日,达尔文被选为英国皇家学会FRS的研究员。<br />
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On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p= 279}}</ref><br />
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On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.<br />
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1月29日,达尔文和艾玛·韦奇伍德在梅尔的一神论者英国国教仪式中结婚,然后立即乘火车去了伦敦他们的新家。<br />
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=== Geology books, barnacles, evolutionary research 地质书籍,藤壶,进化研究 ===<br />
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{{details|Development of Darwin's theory}}<br />
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[[文件:Charles-Darwin-and-William-Darwin,-1842.png|缩略图|右|1842年,达尔文与长子威廉·伊拉斯谟·达尔文William Erasmus Darwin。]]<br />
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Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",<ref name="autobio 120" /> as his "prime hobby".<ref name=Letter419>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Letter 419&nbsp;– Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (15 June 1838)|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070904124133/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html|archivedate=4 September 2007}}</ref> His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.<ref name=JvW /> For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the ''Beagle'' collections, and in particular, the barnacles.<ref name=vw186>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=10 186–192]}}</ref><br />
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Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",[97] as his "prime hobby".[103] His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.[13] For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections, and in particular, the barnacles.<br />
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达尔文现在有了他的“主要爱好”,即建立他自然选择理论“工作依据”的框架。他的研究包括广泛的动植物选择性实验育种,寻找证据证明物种非永恒不变,并研究调查许多其他方法以完善和证实他的理论。十五年来,他始终从事地质相关工作,并发表有关小猎犬号收集工作(特别是藤壶)的专家报告。<br />
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When FitzRoy's ''Narrative'' was published in May 1839, Darwin's ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Journal and Remarks]]'' was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|loc=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=32 p. 32.]}}</ref> Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to [[Charles Lyell]], who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=292}}</ref><br />
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When FitzRoy's Narrative was published in May 1839, Darwin's Journal and Remarks was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own.[105] Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".<br />
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1839年5月,费兹罗伊的《叙事Narrative》出版,达尔文的第三卷《纪录与评论Darwin's Journal and Remarks》取得了巨大的成功,并于当年下半年独立发行。早在1842年,达尔文就向查尔斯·莱尔写下了他的想法,莱尔当时指出他的盟友“否认看到每种生物都有各自的原始祖先”。<br />
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Darwin's book ''[[The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs]]'' on his theory of [[atoll]] formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=292–293}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1556&pageseq=18 xvi–xvii]}}</ref> To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural [[Down House]] in September.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=118 114]}}</ref> On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder".<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=7 183–184]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Letter 729&nbsp;– Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (11 January 1844)|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307235150/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|archivedate=7 March 2008}}</ref> Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Letter 734&nbsp;– Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., 29 January 1844|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226141303/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|archivedate=26 February 2009}}</ref><br />
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Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection.[107] To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in September.[108] On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder".[109][110] Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."<br />
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经过三年多的工作,达尔文于1842年5月出版了关于环礁形成理论的《珊瑚礁的结构和分布》一书,然后他完成了自然选择理论的第一本“铅笔素描”。后来为了逃避伦敦的压力,一家人于9月搬到农村的Down House。1844年1月11日,达尔文向植物学家约瑟夫·道尔顿·胡克Joseph Dalton Hooker提到了他的理论,并幽默地写着“这就像承认谋杀一样”。胡克回答说:“我认为可能在不同地点确有发生,而且物种也在逐渐变化。我很高兴听到您如何看待这种变化,因为目前没有其他设想能说得通。”<br />
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[[文件:Darwins Thinking Path.jpg|缩略图|右|达尔文Down House的“沙丘”是他经常行走的“思考之道”。]]<br />
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By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|p= 188}}</ref> In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'' brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=461–465}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-814.html#back-mark-814.f5|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Letter 814&nbsp;– Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (7 Jan 1845)|accessdate=24 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084645/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-814.html#back-mark-814.f5|archivedate=5 December 2008}}</ref><br />
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By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely.[113] In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.<br />
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到七月,达尔文将他的“草图”扩大到了230页的“随笔”,如果他过早去世,他的研究成果将会被进一步扩展(这句话没看懂逻辑)。十一月,匿名出版的畅销书《自然创造史的遗迹Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation》引起了人们对演变的广泛兴趣。达尔文蔑视其业余地质学和动物学说,但他也仔细审查了自己的论点。后来争议爆发了,尽管科学家轻蔑地驳回了争议,但这本书仍然畅销。<br />
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Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in [[marine invertebrates]], dating back to his student days with [[Robert Edmond Grant|Grant]], by dissecting and classifying the [[barnacle]]s he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=190–191}}</ref> In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of [[creation myth|creation]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 320–323, 339–348}}</ref><br />
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Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures.[116] In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of creation.<br />
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后来,达尔文于1846年完成了他的第三本地质著作。因他在格兰特的学生时代对海洋无脊椎动物的专业知识,现在又重新着迷。他通过解剖和分类他在航行中收集的藤壶,观察其内部迷人的结构,开始思考和比较相关同类物种结构。1847年,胡克阅读了达尔文的随笔,并给达尔文表达了他对此的反馈,其观点相对冷静且带有批判性,但的确是达尔文当下需要的。胡可并没有承诺,和质疑达尔文对继续创造行为的反对。<br />
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In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. [[James Manby Gully|James Gully]]'s [[Great Malvern|Malvern]] spa and was surprised to find some benefit from [[hydrotherapy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-1236.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Letter 1236&nbsp;– Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., 28 Mar 1849|accessdate=24 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207005457/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-1236.html|archivedate=7 December 2008}}</ref> Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter [[Anne Darwin|Annie]] fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=498–501}}</ref><br />
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In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully's Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy.[118] Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died.<br />
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为了改善自己的慢性病,达尔文在1849年去了詹姆斯·古利James Gully医生的莫尔文水疗中心,并惊讶地发现水疗可以带来一些好处。然后,在1851年,他珍爱的女儿安妮Annie生病,重新唤醒了他对自己的病可能是遗传性疾病的恐惧,在经历了一系列病痛后,安妮去世了。<br />
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In eight years of work on [[barnacle]]s (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "[[homology (biology)|homologies]]" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some [[genus|genera]] he found minute males [[parasitism|parasitic]] on [[hermaphrodite]]s, showing an [[Androdioecy|intermediate stage]] in evolution of [[Gonochorism|distinct sexes]].<ref name=barlowbio117>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=121 117–118]}}</ref> In 1853, it earned him the [[Royal Society]]'s Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a [[biology|biologist]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 383–387}}</ref> In 1854 he became a Fellow of the [[Linnean Society of London]], gaining postal access to its library.<ref>{{harvnb|Freeman|2007|pp=107, 109}}</ref> He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 419–420}}</ref><br />
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In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "homologies" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes.[120] In 1853, it earned him the Royal Society's Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a biologist.[121] In 1854 he became a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, gaining postal access to its library.[122] He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".<br />
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在藤壶Cirripedia的八年研究中,达尔文的理论帮助他找到了“同源性Homologies”,即轻微地改变某些身体部位构造,以具有能适应新环境的不同功能,在某些生物属中,他发现雌雄同体上寄生有微小的雄性生物,这表明存在不同性别进化的中间阶段。1853年,该研究为他赢得了英国皇家学会的皇家勋章,并因此赢得了生物学家的声誉。1854年,他成为伦敦林奈学会Linnean Society的会员,并获得了其图书馆的邮政访问权。他开始重新评估他的物种理论,并在接下来的11月,意识到后代的性格差异可以通过他们适应“自然经济中的多元化环境”来解释。<br />
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=== Publication of the theory of natural selection 自然选择理论的公布 ===<br />
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{{details|Publication of Darwin's theory}}<br />
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[[文件:Charles Darwin by Maull and Polyblank, 1855-crop.png|缩略图|左|查尔斯·达尔文1855年现年46岁,当时他正致力于发表他的自然选择理论。他写信给约瑟夫·胡克,说:“如果我的表情真的像照片上那样糟糕,我怎么能有一个令人惊讶的朋友。”]]<br />
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By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and [[seed]]s could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled ''[[Natural Selection (manuscript)|Natural Selection]]'', which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|obtaining information]] and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in [[Borneo]]. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist [[Asa Gray]] a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of ''Natural Selection'', which omitted [[human evolution|human origins]] and [[sexual selection]]. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 412–441, 457–458, 462–463}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | pp=283–284, 290–292, 295}}</ref><br />
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By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace, "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled Natural Selection, which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist Asa Gray a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of Natural Selection, which omitted human origins and sexual selection. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."<br />
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到1856年初,达尔文一直在研究卵和种子能够成功地跨越海水将物种传播到另一个大陆。胡克也越来越对传统观点,即物种是恒定不变的,产生怀疑。但是他们的年轻朋友托马斯·亨利·赫黎Thomas Henry Huxley仍然坚决反对物种的演变说。莱文对达尔文的猜测很感兴趣,但却没有意识到其影响。当他阅读到阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace的论文《论规范新物种介绍的法则》时,他看到了与达尔文思想的相似之处,并敦促他发表文章以确立优先地位。尽管达尔文没有看到任何威胁,但他于1856年5月14日开始写一篇简短的论文。寻找能解决困难问题的答案使他反复受挫,他将计划扩展到一本名为《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然选择Natural Selection </font>'''》的“物种全科书”,其中包括他“关于人类的笔记”。他继续他的研究,从全球博物学家那里(包括在婆罗洲工作的华莱士)获得信息和标本。1857年,他添加了一个小节标题;“人类种族理论”,不过他并没有添加相关主题的文字。同年9月5日,达尔文向美国植物学家阿萨·格雷Asa Gray发送了他详细的想法概述,包括《自然选择》一书的摘要,其中省略了人类起源和性选择。12月,达尔文收到了华莱士的来信,询问这本书是否会研究人类起源。他回答说,他会避免那个“充满偏见”的话题,同时达尔文鼓励华莱士的理论,并补充说“我比你走得更远。”<br />
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Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace,<ref>Ball, P. (2011). Shipping timetables debunk Darwin plagiarism accusations: Evidence challenges claims that Charles Darwin stole ideas from Alfred Russel Wallace. Nature. [http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222191430/http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 |date=22 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01808.x|title=A new theory to explain the receipt of Wallace's Ternate Essay by Darwin in 1858|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=105|pages=249–252|year=2012|last1=Van Wyhe|first1=John|last2=Rookmaaker|first2=Kees|doi-access=free}}</ref> and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of [[scarlet fever]], and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the [[Linnean Society of London|Linnean Society]] on 1 July of ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 466–470}}</ref><br />
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Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace,[126][127] and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever, and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend.<br />
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1858年6月18日达尔文收到了华莱士的一篇关于自然选择的论文,当时他的论文才完成了部分。达尔文感到非常震惊,华莱士竟然领先了一步。不过达尔文当天应华莱士的要求将其发送给莱尔,尽管华莱士没有要求出版,但达尔文建议莱尔将其发送给华莱士选择的任何期刊。他的家人后来因村庄里的孩子死于猩红热而陷入危机,因此他把事情交到了朋友手中。经过一番讨论,莱尔和胡克找不到可靠的方法让华莱士参与进来,他们决定于7月1日在林内学会上联合发表《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 关于物种形成变种的趋势;以及通过自然选择方式使变种和物种永存On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection </font>'''》。6月28日晚上,达尔文的小儿子在经历了近一个星期的严重疾病后死于猩红热,此时达尔文心急如焚,无心参加发表会。<br />
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There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=40–42, 48–49}}</ref> Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor [[Samuel Haughton]] of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=126 122]}}</ref> Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 374–474}}</ref><br />
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There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries.[129] Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old".[130] Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray.<br />
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当时该理论的宣布并没有立即引起注意;林内学会的主席在1859年5月表示,这一年没有任何革命性的发现。只有一项评论足以使达尔文后来回想起来。当时都柏林的塞缪尔·霍顿教授声称“其中所有的新理论都是站不住脚的,而古老的思想才是真理”。达尔文苦苦挣扎了十三个月来完成他的“全科书”的摘要,他虽然身体不好,但受到了科学朋友的不断鼓励而一直持续创作。后来莱尔安排了由约翰·默里出版社出版。<br />
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''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p= 477}}</ref> In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=477 p. 459]}}</ref> In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of [[Homology (biology)|homologies]] between humans and other mammals.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2008}}{{Ref label|C|III|none}} Having outlined [[sexual selection]], he hinted that it could explain differences between [[Race (human categorization)|human races]].<ref name=SS_man>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=217&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 199]}}<br />{{harvnb | Darwin |Costa | 2009 | p=199}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | p=310}}</ref>{{Ref label|D|IV|1}} He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."<ref name="light on man">{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F373&pageseq=506 488]}}<br />{{harvnb | Darwin |Costa | 2009 | pp=199, 488}}<br />{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}</ref>{{Ref label|D|IV|2}} His theory is simply stated in the introduction:<br />
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On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.[132] In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections.[133] In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of homologies between humans and other mammals.[134][III] Having outlined sexual selection, he hinted that it could explain differences between human races.[135][IV] He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."[136][IV] His theory is simply stated in the introduction:<br />
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当时《物种起源》出人意料地受到欢迎,当它在1859年11月22日出售给书商时,其全部1,250册的库存都被超额认购。在书中,达尔文阐述了“一个长期论点”,表达了其详细的观察,推断和对预期异议的考虑。在为共同祖先这一概念辩护时,他提供了人类与其他哺乳动物之间同源性的证据。在概述了性选择之后,他暗示这可以解释人类之间的差异。他避免了对人类起源的明确讨论,但用句子暗示了他工作的重要性。“光将照耀着人类的起源及其历史。”引言中他简单地陈述了其理论:<br />
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As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be ''naturally selected''. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=20 p. 5]}}</ref><br />
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As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.<br />
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每个物种出生的个体比存活的个体多得多。因此,每个个体都在为生存而进行反复的斗争,随之而来的是,在复杂的,时而变化的环境下,任何个体只要以某种对自己有利的方式进行变化,这样即能获得更高的生存机会,因此自然而然地被选择了。根据强大的遗传原则,任何经过自然选择的物种都倾向于传播其全新经过改进的形态。<br />
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At the end of the book he concluded that:<br />
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At the end of the book he concluded that:<br />
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在这本书的结尾,他总结道:<br />
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There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=508 p. 492]}}</ref><br />
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There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.<br />
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这种生命观宏伟壮丽,它强而有力,起初以多种形式或一种形式来展现。当这颗“行星“围绕固定不变的万有引力定律旋转时,一切都开始的如此简单明了,随后便以无穷无尽的形式完成,并持续的发生进化演变(evolved),充满精彩和美妙。<br />
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The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "[[Evolutionism]]" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with [[Prenatal development (biology)|embryological development]], and Darwin first used the word [[evolution]] in ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]'' in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of ''The Origin of Species''.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|p=59}}, {{harvnb|Freeman|1977|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=80&itemID=A1&viewtype=text 79–80]}}</ref><br />
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The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with embryological development, and Darwin first used the word evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of Species.<br />
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在该书的前五个版本中,最后一个词“进化evolved”是唯一修改过的。当时的“进化论”与其他概念有关,最常见的是与胚胎学发展有关,达尔文于1871年在《人类的由来The Descent of Man》中首次使用了进化一词,随后于1872年将其加入《物种起源》的第六版。<br />
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=== Responses to publication 《物种起源》的反响===<br />
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[[文件:Charles Darwin by Julia Margaret Cameron 2.jpg|缩略图|1868年,达尔文一家在怀特岛小屋中度假,期间朱莉娅·玛格丽特·卡梅隆Julia Margaret Cameron拍摄了其肖像,显示达尔文在1862年至1866年间长出了浓密的胡须。]]<br />
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[[文件:Editorial cartoon depicting Charles Darwin as an ape (1871).jpg|缩略图|右|1871年的漫画,在《人类的由来》出版后,市面上出现了很多表现达尔文和猿猴合体的漫画,以突出他在主流文化中,作为进化论主要作者的特别。]]<br />
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{{details|Reaction to On the Origin of Species}}<br />
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The book aroused international interest, with less controversy than had greeted the popular and less scientific ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|p=48}}</ref> Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|corresponded on it]] with colleagues worldwide.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=103–104, 379}}</ref> The book did not explicitly discuss human origins,<ref name="light on man" />{{Ref label|D|IV|3}} but included a number of hints about the animal ancestry of humans from which the inference could be made.<ref>{{harvnb|Radick|2013|pp=174–175}}<br />{{harvnb|Huxley|Kettlewell|1965|p=88}}</ref> The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man–what may not a man become?" and said it should be left to theologians as it was too dangerous for ordinary readers.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|p=87}}<br />{{harvnb|Leifchild|1859}}</ref> Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at [[Richard Owen]], leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=477–491}}</ref> In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin,<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=110–112}}</ref> but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. [[Patrick Matthew]] drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=158, 186}}</ref><br />
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The book aroused international interest, with less controversy than had greeted the popular and less scientific Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation.[141] Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide.[142] The book did not explicitly discuss human origins,[136][IV] but included a number of hints about the animal ancestry of humans from which the inference could be made.[143] The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man–what may not a man become?" and said it should be left to theologians as it was too dangerous for ordinary readers.[144] Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow.[145] In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin,[146] but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. Patrick Matthew drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea.<br />
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这本书引起了国际上的关注,不过与人们广泛关注《自然创造史的遗迹》相比,争议较少,科学性也不及后者。尽管达尔文的疾病使他远离了公开辩论,但他热切地关注科学届的反应,反馈新闻报道,评论,文章,讽刺作品和漫画,并与世界各地的同事们进行沟通。该书没有明确讨论人类的起源,但是暗含了一些关于人类动物血统的线索,可以从中进行推断。第一篇书评问道:“如果猴子变成了人,那么人不会变成什么?”,他说应该交给神学家,因为这对普通读者来说太危险了。在早期的积极回应中,赫胥黎的评论抨击了理查德·欧文Richard Owen,后者是赫胥黎试图推翻的科学机构的领导人。4月,欧文的评论攻击了达尔文的朋友,并居高临下地摒弃了他的想法,这激怒了达尔文,但是欧文和其他人开始提倡超自然引导的进化思想。当时帕特里克·马修Patrick Matthew提请注意达尔文1831年的书,该书有一个简短的附录,提出了自然选择的概念,该概念导致了新物种的出现,不过当时他并未提出这个想法。<br />
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The [[Church of England]]'s response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors [[Adam Sedgwick|Sedgwick]] and [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] dismissed the ideas, but [[liberal Christianity|liberal clergymen]] interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric [[Charles Kingsley]] seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity".<ref name=Darwinanddesign>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/|title=Darwin and design: historical essay|year=2007|publisher=Darwin Correspondence Project|accessdate=17 September 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615191012/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/ |archivedate=15 June 2009}}</ref> In 1860, the publication of ''[[Essays and Reviews]]'' by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted [[clergy|clerical]] attention from Darwin, with its ideas including [[higher criticism]] attacked by church authorities as [[heresy]]. In it, [[Baden Powell (mathematician)|Baden Powell]] argued that [[miracle]]s broke God's laws, so belief in them was [[atheism|atheistic]], and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume &#91;supporting&#93; the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 487–488, 500}}</ref> [[Asa Gray]] discussed [[teleology]] with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on [[theistic evolution]], ''Natural Selection is not inconsistent with [[natural theology]]''.<ref name=Darwinanddesign /><ref name=miles>{{Harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref> The most famous confrontation was at the public [[1860 Oxford evolution debate]] during a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]], where the [[Bishop of Oxford]] [[Samuel Wilberforce]], though not opposed to [[transmutation of species]], argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion.<ref name=Darwinanddesign /><ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=185}}</ref><br />
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The Church of England's response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed the ideas, but liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity".[148] In 1860, the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention from Darwin, with its ideas including higher criticism attacked by church authorities as heresy. In it, Baden Powell argued that miracles broke God's laws, so belief in them was atheistic, and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".[149] Asa Gray discussed teleology with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with natural theology.[148][150] The most famous confrontation was at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, where the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce, though not opposed to transmutation of species, argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion.<br />
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对此英格兰教会的反应好坏参半。达尔文的老剑桥导师塞奇威克Sedgwick和汉斯洛Henslow拒绝接受这些想法,但自由派牧师却将自然选择解释为上帝设计的工具,例如牧师查尔斯·金斯利Charles Kingsley则将其视为“与神一样崇高”。1860年,七位自由派英国国教神学家发表了论文集和评论,转移了牧师对达尔文的关注,包括受到教会当局以异端邪说为由的极端批评。其中,巴登·鲍威尔Baden Powell辩称,是奇迹打破了上帝的律法,所以他们信仰无神论,并称赞“达尔文先生的著作非常透彻精妙,它为自然具有自我进化能力的基本原则提供了支持”。阿萨·格雷Asa Gray与达尔文讨论了'''<font color="#ff8000"> 目的论Teleology </font>''',达尔文引入并分发了格雷关于神导进化论的小册子。自然选择与自然神学并不矛盾。另外最著名的交锋是在英国科学促进协会内部的一次会议上,在公开的1860年牛津进化辩论中,牛津大学的主教塞缪尔·威尔伯福斯Samuel Wilberforce虽然不反对物种演变,但他仍然驳斥达尔文对人类是猿类后裔这一解释。而约瑟夫·胡克则强烈主张达尔文,还有托马斯·赫胥黎,他最著名的反驳是,他宁愿是猿猴的后代,也不愿是滥用礼物的人,该比喻象征着科学战胜了宗教。<br />
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Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education,<ref name=Darwinanddesign /> aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen's claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate [[order (biology)|biological order]] from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the "[[Great Hippocampus Question]]", and discredited Owen.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=156–159}}</ref><br />
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Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education,[148] aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen's claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate biological order from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the "Great Hippocampus Question", and discredited Owen.<br />
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尽管达尔文的密友格雷,胡克,赫胥黎和莱尔仍然表示了对他理论的各种保留,但也给予了大力支持,另外许多人,尤其是年轻的博物学家也表示了支持。格雷和莱尔在寻求其与信仰能和谐存在的方式,而赫胥黎则描绘了宗教与科学之间的两极分化。他带有挑衅地反对神职人员在教育方面的权威,旨在推翻欧文领导下的牧师和贵族倾向者的统治,转而采用新一代的专业科学家。赫胥黎在关于金斯利Kingsley提出的“海马体问题”的长期争议中证明了欧文的主张是错误的,并使欧文名誉扫地。当时欧文想通过大脑解剖来证明了人类是与猿完全独立的物种。<br />
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[[Darwinism]] became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's ''[[Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man]]'' popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's ''[[Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature]]'' showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then ''[[The Naturalist on the River Amazons]]'' by [[Henry Walter Bates]] provided empirical evidence of natural selection.<ref name=B217>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=217–226}}</ref> Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's [[Copley Medal]], awarded on 3 November 1864.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4652.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Letter 4652&nbsp;– Falconer, Hugh to Darwin, C. R., 3 Nov (1864)|accessdate=1 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084616/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4652.html|archivedate=5 December 2008}}</ref> That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential "[[X Club]]" devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas".<ref name=Letter4807>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4807.html#mark-4807.f8|title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Letter 4807&nbsp;– Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., (7–8 Apr 1865)|accessdate=1 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084621/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4807.html#mark-4807.f8|archivedate=5 December 2008}}</ref> By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=196}}</ref><br />
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Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection.[153] Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, awarded on 3 November 1864.[154] That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential "X Club" devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas".[155] By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection<br />
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其影响促使出现了达尔文主义,并成为涵盖广泛进化思想的运动。1863年,莱尔的《人类古代地质证据》普及了史前史,尽管他对进化论的谨慎使达尔文感到失望。几周后,赫胥黎的书《人类在自然界的位置》表明了证据,从解剖学上讲,人是猿,然后亨利·沃尔特·贝茨Henry Walter Bates的《亚马逊河上的博物学家》提供了自然选择的经验依据。游说运动后来为达尔文带来了英国最高等级的科学荣誉,即皇家学会的科普利勋章,于1864年11月3日颁发。那天,赫胥黎举行了第一次会议,这次会议成为了颇具影响力的“X俱乐部”,该俱乐部致力于宣扬“科学,纯净,自由,不受宗教教条约束”。到本世纪末,大多数科学家同意进化理论,但是只有少数人支持达尔文的观点,即主要机制是自然选择。<br />
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The ''Origin of Species'' was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=507–508}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=128–129, 138}}</ref> Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time{{Ref label|E|V|none}} and became a key fixture of popular culture.{{Ref label|F|VI|none}} Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an [[ape]] helped to identify all forms of [[evolutionism]] with Darwinism.<ref name=b373>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=373–379}}</ref><br />
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The Origin of Species was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures.[157] Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time[V] and became a key fixture of popular culture.[VI] Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an ape helped to identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism.<br />
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后来《物种起源》被翻译成了多种语言,成为一种非常重要的科学读物,引起了各行各业的关注,包括当时涌向赫胥黎演讲的“劳动者”。达尔文的理论在当时也引起了各种运动的共鸣,并成为流行文化的重要组成部分。漫画家们通过夸张地演绎古老的动物祖先,以展示人类也具有动物的特征。在英国,这些滑稽的图像以一种毫无威胁的方式推广了达尔文的理论。在1862年生病期间,达尔文开始留胡子。1866年当他重新露面时,他的猿猴漫画帮助了他将达尔文主义所有形式的进化论定义出来。<br />
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=== ''Descent of Man'', sexual selection, and botany 人类的由来,性选择和植物学 ===<br />
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[[文件:1878 Darwin photo by Leonard from Woodall 1884 - cropped grayed partially cleaned.jpg|缩略图|左|到1878年,达尔文名气越来越大,可是他也遭受了多年的疾病折磨。]]<br />
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[[文件:Darwin letter.jpg|缩略图|右|查尔斯·达尔文给生理学家约翰·伯顿·桑德森John Burdon-Sanderson的询问信]]<br />
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{{See also|Darwin from Orchids to Variation|Darwin from Descent of Man to Emotions|Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms|label 1=Orchids to Variation|label 2=Descent of Man to Emotions|label 3=Insectivorous Plants to Worms}}<br />
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Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin's work continued. Having published ''On the Origin of Species'' as an [[abstract (summary)|abstract]] of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "big book". He covered [[human evolution|human descent]] from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in [[wildlife]] and diversifying into innovative plant studies.<br />
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Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life, Darwin's work continued. Having published On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "big book". He covered human descent from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies.<br />
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尽管在他在生命的最后22年中反复发作疾病,但达尔文的工作一直在持续。在发表了《物种起源》作为其理论的摘要之后,他继续进行实验,研究和撰写了他的“全科书”。他介绍了人类起源于较早的动物,包括社会和智力的发展,以及解释野生动植物的装饰之美,并进行多样化的新型植物研究。<br />
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Enquiries about insect [[pollination]] led in 1861 to novel studies of wild [[orchid]]s, showing adaptation of their flowers to [[Pollination syndrome|attract specific moths]] to each species and ensure [[heterosis|cross fertilisation]]. In 1862 ''[[Fertilisation of Orchids]]'' gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of [[vine|climbing plants]].<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|pp=50–55}}</ref> Admiring visitors included [[Ernst Haeckel]], a zealous proponent of ''Darwinismus'' incorporating [[Lamarckism]] and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s idealism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters1866-survival-fittest |title=The correspondence of Charles Darwin, volume 14: 1866 |accessdate=6 March 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605110511/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/correspondence-volume-14 |archivedate=5 June 2010 }} Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 25 June 2012</ref> Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to [[Spiritualism (religious movement)|Spiritualism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1999}}.</ref><br />
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Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel studies of wild orchids, showing adaptation of their flowers to attract specific moths to each species and ensure cross fertilisation. In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants.[158] Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel, a zealous proponent of Darwinismus incorporating Lamarckism and Goethe's idealism.[159] Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism.<br />
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他对昆虫授粉的调查促使了1861年对野生兰花进行的全新研究,结果表明它们的花体具有适应性,以吸引特定的飞蛾进入每个物种并确保杂交。1862年,《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 兰花的传粉Fertilisation of Orchids </font>'''》首次详细展示了自然选择的力量,书中解释了复杂的生态关系,并提供可验证的预测。随着健康状况的下降,达尔文躺在房间里的病床上,房间里充满了许多创造性的实验,追踪攀援植物的运动轨迹。拜访者包括恩斯特·海克尔Ernst Haeckel,他是达尔文主义的热心拥护者,融合了拉马克主义和歌德的理想主义。华莱士也仍然支持他,尽管他越来越转向唯心论。<br />
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Darwin's book ''[[The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication]]'' (1868) was the first part of his planned "big book", and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of [[pangenesis]] attempting to explain [[heredity]]. It sold briskly at first, despite its size, and was translated into many languages. He wrote most of a second part, on natural selection, but it remained unpublished in his lifetime.<ref>{{Harvnb|Freeman|1977|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A1&pageseq=123 122]}}</ref><br />
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Darwin's book The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication (1868) was the first part of his planned "big book", and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of pangenesis attempting to explain heredity. It sold briskly at first, despite its size, and was translated into many languages. He wrote most of a second part, on natural selection, but it remained unpublished in his lifetime.<br />
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达尔文的著作《动物和植物在家养下的变异The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication》(1868年)是他计划中的“全科书”的第一部分,包括他试图解释遗传,但是未能成功解释的假说。尽管“全科书”这一部分规模很大,但它一开始就卖得很快,并被翻译成多种语言。之后他写的第二部分则大部分是关于自然选择的,但是在接下来的日子里最终未能出版。<br />
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[[文件:Man is But a Worm.jpg|缩略图|右|在达尔文去世前不久,英国著名的期刊Punch出版了《1882年年鉴》,描绘了他正从混沌下的一条虫演变为维多利亚时代的绅士,标题为《人不过是一条虫》。]]<br />
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[[Charles Lyell|Lyell]] had already popularised human prehistory, and [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]] had shown that anatomically humans are apes.<ref name=B217 /> With ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex'' published in 1871, Darwin set out evidence from numerous sources that humans are animals, showing continuity of physical and mental attributes, and presented [[sexual selection]] to explain impractical animal features such as the [[peacock]]'s plumage as well as human evolution of culture, differences between sexes, and physical and cultural [[Race (human categorization)|racial classification]], while emphasising that humans are all one species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.2&pageseq=402 385–405]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=339–343}}</ref> His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'', one of the first books to feature printed photographs, which discussed the [[evolutionary psychology|evolution of human psychology]] and its continuity with the [[ethology|behaviour of animals]]. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received, remarking that "everybody is talking about it without being shocked."<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=359–369}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.3&pageseq=145 133]}}</ref> His conclusion was "that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=422 405]}}</ref><br />
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Lyell had already popularised human prehistory, and Huxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes.[153] With The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex published in 1871, Darwin set out evidence from numerous sources that humans are animals, showing continuity of physical and mental attributes, and presented sexual selection to explain impractical animal features such as the peacock's plumage as well as human evolution of culture, differences between sexes, and physical and cultural racial classification, while emphasising that humans are all one species.[162] His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, one of the first books to feature printed photographs, which discussed the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received, remarking that "everybody is talking about it without being shocked."[163] His conclusion was "that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system—with all these exalted powers—Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."<br />
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莱尔普及了人类史,赫胥黎则从解剖学上证明了人类是猿。达尔文在1871年出版的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人类的由来及性选择The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex </font>'''》一书中,收集了大量证据来证明人类是动物,显示出无论是生理上和心理上进化的连续性。并提出可以用性选择来解释无法说通的动物特征区别,例如孔雀的羽毛以及人类的文化演变,性别差异以及生理和文化种族的分类,同时他还强调所有人类都源于一个物种。他的影像研究在1872年出版的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人与动物的情感表达The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals </font>'''》一书中得到了扩展,这是最早印有印刷照片的书籍之一,该书讨论了人类心理的演变及其与动物行为的连续性。这两本书都非常受欢迎,达尔文因此特别感动,因为他的观点得到普遍认可,特别是“每个人都在谈论它,并不会感到震惊”。他总结道“他具有所有的高尚品格,充满同情心(即使是对最低贱的生物),他的仁爱不仅适用于他人,也适用于最卑微的生灵,他的神性智慧已经渗透到行动中。太阳系的构成(包括所有这些崇高的力量),都使人类在肉体中烙印上他出身低微且不可磨灭的印记。”<br />
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His evolution-related experiments and investigations led to books on Orchids, ''[[Insectivorous Plants (book)|Insectivorous Plants]], [[The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom]]'', different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and ''[[The Power of Movement in Plants]]''. He continued to collect information and exchange views from scientific correspondents all over the world, including [[Mary Treat]], whom he encouraged to persevere in her scientific work.<ref>[https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/darwins-women Darwin's Women] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212213901/https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/darwins-women |date=12 February 2020 }} at [[Cambridge University]]</ref> His botanical work{{Ref label|I|IX|none}} was interpreted and popularised by various writers including [[Grant Allen]] and [[H. G. Wells]], and [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=10359900&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0007087416000352 helped transform plant science] in the late 19th century and early 20th century. In his last book he returned to ''[[The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms]]''.<br />
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His evolution-related experiments and investigations led to books on Orchids, Insectivorous Plants, The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom, different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and The Power of Movement in Plants. He continued to collect information and exchange views from scientific correspondents all over the world, including Mary Treat, whom he encouraged to persevere in her scientific work.[165] His botanical work[IX] was interpreted and popularised by various writers including Grant Allen and H. G. Wells, and helped transform plant science in the late 19th century and early 20th century. In his last book he returned to The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.<br />
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这些与进化有关的实验研究导致了达尔文还撰写出关于兰花的书籍,《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 食虫植物Insectivorous Plants </font>'''》,《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 异花授精与自体授精在植物界中的效果The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom </font>'''》,《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 同种植物的不同花型The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species </font>'''》,《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 植物运动的力量The Power of Movement in Plants </font>'''》。他继续从全世界的科学记者那里收集信息并交换看法,像是玛丽·特里特Mary Treat,达尔文曾鼓励她坚持不懈地从事科学工作。达尔文的植物学著作后来还得到了格兰特·艾伦Grant Allen和H·G·威尔斯H. G. Wells等众多作家的诠释和推广,并在19世纪后期和20世纪初推动了植物科学的发展。最后,他完成了《腐植土的产生与蚯蚓的作用》。<br />
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=== Death and funeral 去世及葬礼 ===<br />
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{{See also|Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms}}<br />
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[[文件:Herschel&darwin.jpg|缩略图|左|约翰·赫歇尔和查尔斯·达尔文的陵墓。 威斯敏斯特修道院]]<br />
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In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called "[[angina pectoris]]" which then meant [[coronary thrombosis]] and disease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians diagnosed "anginal attacks", and "heart-failure".<ref>{{cite book<br />
|title = Darwin's Illness<br />
|pages = 116–120<br />
|first = Ralph<br />
|last = Colp<br />
|df = dmy-all<br />
|doi = 10.5744/florida/9780813032313.003.0014<br />
|chapter = The Final {{sic|nolink=y|reason=error in source|Illnes}}<br />
|year = 2008<br />
|isbn = 978-0-8130-3231-3<br />
}}</ref> It has been speculated that Darwin may have suffered from chronic [[Chagas disease]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Clayton|first=Julie|date=24 June 2010|title=Chagas disease 101|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=465|issue=n7301_supp|pages=S4–S5|doi=10.1038/nature09220|pmid=20571553|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=2010Natur.465S...3C|s2cid=205221512}}</ref> This speculation is based on a journal entry written by Darwin, describing he was bitten by the "[[Triatominae|Kissing Bug]]" in Mendoza, Argentina, in 1835;<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://dna.kdna.ucla.edu/parasite_course-old/cruzi_files/subchapters/case_of_charles_darwin.htm|title=The Case of Charles Darwin|website=dna.kdna.ucla.edu|access-date=27 September 2017|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713034201/http://dna.kdna.ucla.edu/parasite_course-old/cruzi_files/subchapters/case_of_charles_darwin.htm|archivedate=13 July 2017}}</ref> and based on the constellation of clinical symptoms he exhibited, including cardiac disease which is a hallmark of chronic Chagas disease.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bernstein|first=R E|date=July 1984|title=Darwin's illness: Chagas' disease resurgens.|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|volume=77|issue=7|pages=608–609|issn=0141-0768|pmc=1439957|pmid=6431091|url-status=live|doi=10.1177/014107688407700715}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Exhuming Darwin's body is likely necessary to definitively determine his state of infection by detecting DNA of infecting parasite, ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi|T. cruzi]]'', that causes Chagas disease.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><br />
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In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called "angina pectoris" which then meant coronary thrombosis and disease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians diagnosed "anginal attacks", and "heart-failure".[166] It has been speculated that Darwin may have suffered from chronic Chagas disease.[167] This speculation is based on a journal entry written by Darwin, describing he was bitten by the "Kissing Bug" in Mendoza, Argentina, in 1835;[168] and based on the constellation of clinical symptoms he exhibited, including cardiac disease which is a hallmark of chronic Chagas disease.[169][167] Exhuming Darwin's body is likely necessary to definitively determine his state of infection by detecting DNA of infecting parasite, T. cruzi, that causes Chagas disease.<br />
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1882年,他被诊断出患有“心绞痛”,指的是冠状动脉血栓和心脏疾病。在他去世时,医生诊断为“心绞痛”和“心脏衰竭”。据推测,达尔文可能患有慢性锥虫病。这种猜测是基于达尔文写的日记,他曾描述过1835年在阿根廷门多萨被“猎蝽”咬伤;同时也可以根据他表现出的临床症状来推断,例如心脏病,因为这是慢性锥虫病的症状。当然如有必要可以挖掘出达尔文的尸体,通过检测克氏锥虫的DNA来确定其是否被感染,该寄生虫可以导致锥虫病。<br />
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He died at [[Down House]] on 19 April 1882. His last words were to his family, telling Emma "I am not the least afraid of death—Remember what a good wife you have been to me—Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me", then while she rested, he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis "It's almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR210.9&pageseq=16|title=[Reminiscences of Charles Darwin's last years.] CUL-DAR210.9|author=Darwin, Emma|authorlink=Emma Darwin|year=1882|accessdate=8 January 2009|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628080442/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR210.9&pageseq=16|archivedate=28 June 2009}}</ref> He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at [[Downe]], but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, after public and parliamentary petitioning, [[William Spottiswoode]] (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be honoured by [[Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey|burial in Westminster Abbey]], close to [[John Herschel]] and [[Isaac Newton]]. The funeral was held on Wednesday 26 April and was attended by thousands of people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophers and dignitaries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=664–677}}</ref><ref name="Westminster Abbey CD">{{cite web | title=Westminster Abbey » Charles Darwin | website=Westminster Abbey » Home | date=2 January 2016 | url=http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/charles-darwin | accessdate=2 January 2016 | url-status=live | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200905/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/charles-darwin | archivedate=4 March 2016 | df=dmy-all }}<br />{{Harvnb|Leff|2000|loc=[http://www.aboutdarwin.com/darwin/burial.html Darwin's Burial]}}</ref><br />
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He died at Down House on 19 April 1882. His last words were to his family, telling Emma "I am not the least afraid of death—Remember what a good wife you have been to me—Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me", then while she rested, he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis "It's almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you".[170] He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, after public and parliamentary petitioning, William Spottiswoode (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey, close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton. The funeral was held on Wednesday 26 April and was attended by thousands of people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophers and dignitaries.<br />
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最后,达尔文于1882年4月19日在Down House逝世。在他遗言中,他对艾玛说道:“我一点也不害怕死亡。记住对我来说你是个好妻子,告诉我所有的孩子,记住他们对我有多好”。在她休息的时候,他反复告诉亨利埃塔和弗朗西斯:“我的病由你来照顾是多么的值得”。他原本期待被埋葬在郡达温的圣玛丽墓地,但达尔文的同事请求,并通过公开的议会请愿,由威廉·斯波提斯伍德William Spottiswoode(皇家学会主席)安排了他在威斯敏斯特大教堂进行葬礼,靠近约翰·赫歇尔和艾萨克·牛顿。葬礼于4月26日星期三举行,成千上万的人参加了葬礼,包括家人,朋友,科学家,哲学家和政要。<br />
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== Legacy 遗产 ==<br />
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[[文件:Charles Robert Darwin by John Collier.jpg|缩略图|右|达尔文是一位杰出的学者,1881年,他仍在致力于他对进化思想的贡献,这对许多科学领域都产生了巨大影响。此肖像是约翰·科利尔John Collier为伦敦国家肖像画廊所作的副本。]]<br />
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By the time of his death, Darwin and his colleagues had convinced most scientists that [[evolution]] as descent with modification was correct, and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. In June 1909, though few at that time agreed with his view that "natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification", he was honoured by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in [[Cambridge]] to [[Darwin Day|commemorate his centenary]] and the fiftieth anniversary of ''On the Origin of Species''.<ref name=b222>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=222–225}}<br />{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1872|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F391&pageseq=449 421]}}</ref> Around the beginning of the 20th century, a period that has been called "[[the eclipse of Darwinism]]", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms, which eventually proved untenable. [[Ronald Fisher]], an English [[statistics|statistician]], finally united [[Mendelian genetics]] with natural selection, in the period between 1918 and his 1930 book ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]''.<ref>[http://www.genetics.org/content/154/4/1419.full The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection An introduction to the book by [[A. W. F. Edwards]] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924041631/http://www.genetics.org/content/154/4/1419.full |date=24 September 2015 }}</ref> He gave the theory a [[mathematical]] footing and brought broad scientific consensus that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution, thus founding the basis for [[population genetics]] and the [[modern synthesis (20th century)|modern evolutionary synthesis]], with [[J.B.S. Haldane]] and [[Sewall Wright]], which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory.<ref name=b3847 /><br />
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By the time of his death, Darwin and his colleagues had convinced most scientists that evolution as descent with modification was correct, and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas. In June 1909, though few at that time agreed with his view that "natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification", he was honoured by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in Cambridge to commemorate his centenary and the fiftieth anniversary of On the Origin of Species.[172] Around the beginning of the 20th century, a period that has been called "the eclipse of Darwinism", scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms, which eventually proved untenable. Ronald Fisher, an English statistician, finally united Mendelian genetics with natural selection, in the period between 1918 and his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection.[173] He gave the theory a mathematical footing and brought broad scientific consensus that natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution, thus founding the basis for population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis, with J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright, which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory.<br />
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直到他去世时,达尔文和他的同事已经说服了大多数科学家,进化作为'''<font color="#ff8000"> 后代渐变Descent with modification</font>'''这一概念是准确无误的。他也因此被认为是伟大的科学家,因为彻底颠覆了概念。1909年6月,尽管当时很少有人同意“自然选择是主要但非排他性的后代渐变手段”这一观点,但达尔文受到了世界各地400多名官员和科学家的嘉奖,他们甚至在剑桥举行纪念仪式,以怀念他的百年诞辰和《物种起源》五十周年。大约在20世纪初,即所谓的“达尔文主义消亡”时期,科学家们提出了各种能替代自然选择的进化机制,但最终均被证明站不住脚。英国统计学家罗纳德·费舍尔Ronald Fisher在1918年至1930年的著作《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然选择的遗传学理论The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection </font>'''》,终于将孟德尔遗传学与自然选择结合起来。他为该理论提供了数学基础,并引起广泛的科学共识,即自然选择是进化的基本机制,从而为人类遗传学和现代进化综合奠定了基础。霍尔丹Haldane和塞沃尔·赖特Sewall Wright为现代辩论和对该理论的完善设定了参考框架。<br />
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=== Commemoration 纪念活动 ===<br />
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{{Main|Commemoration of Charles Darwin}}<br />
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{{See also|List of things named after Charles Darwin|List of taxa described by Charles Darwin}}<br />
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[[文件:Darwinnhmstatue.jpg|缩略图|右|伦敦自然历史博物馆的达尔文雕像]]<br />
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During Darwin's lifetime, many geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the [[Beagle Channel]] was named ''[[Darwin Sound]]'' by [[Robert FitzRoy]] after Darwin's prompt action, along with two or three of the men, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing [[glacier]] caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats,<ref>{{Harvnb|FitzRoy|1839|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=267 216–218]}}</ref> and the nearby [[Mount Darwin (Andes)|Mount Darwin]] in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday.<ref>{{harvnb|Leff|2000|loc=[http://www.aboutdarwin.com/timeline/time_04.html Darwin's Timeline]}}</ref> When the ''[[HMS Beagle|Beagle]]'' was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend [[John Lort Stokes]] sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain [[John Clements Wickham|Wickham]] named ''[[Port Darwin]]'': a nearby settlement was renamed [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] in 1911, and it became the capital city of Australia's [[Northern Territory]].<ref name=NTDoPaI>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipe.nt.gov.au/whatwedo/landinformation/place/origins/palmdarwin.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060918153343/http://www.ipe.nt.gov.au/whatwedo/landinformation/place/origins/palmdarwin.html|archivedate=18 September 2006|title=Territory origins| accessdate=15 December 2006|publisher=Northern Territory Department of Planning and Infrastructure, Australia}}</ref><br />
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During Darwin's lifetime, many geographical features were given his name. An expanse of water adjoining the Beagle Channel was named Darwin Sound by Robert FitzRoy after Darwin's prompt action, along with two or three of the men, saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing glacier caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats,[174] and the nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin's 25th birthday.[175] When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839, Darwin's friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ship's captain Wickham named Port Darwin: a nearby settlement was renamed Darwin in 1911, and it became the capital city of Australia's Northern Territory.<br />
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达尔文在世时,许多地理特征都被赋予了他的名字。在比格海峡Beagle Channel旁的一片广阔水域,曾发生冰川坍塌,达尔文当即与一起同行的两三个人采取行动,使其免于因坍塌的冰川造成的海浪将他们的船冲走,而被困在附近的海岸。后来罗伯特·菲茨·罗伊Robert FitzRoy就将这片水域命名为达尔文海峡Darwin Sound。后来为了庆祝达尔文诞辰25周年,附近的安第斯山脉也被命名为达尔文山。当猎犬号在1839年对澳大利亚进行勘测时,达尔文的朋友约翰·洛特·斯托克斯John Lort Stokes看到了一个天然海港,船长威克汉姆Wickham将其命名为达尔文港:而附近的一个定居点于1911年更名为达尔文,后来它成为了澳大利亚北领地的首都。<br />
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[[文件:Darwin Statue.jpg|缩略图|左|1897年,原什鲁斯伯里学校大楼外达尔文雕像的揭幕仪式]]<br />
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Stephen Heard identified 389 [[species]] that have been named after Darwin,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Heard, Stephen B.|title=Charles Darwin's barnacle and David Bowie's spider : how scientific names celebrate adventurers, heroes, and even a few scoundrels|others=Damstra, Emily S.|date=17 March 2020|isbn=978-0-300-25269-9|location=New Haven|oclc=1143645266}}</ref> and there are at least 9 [[genus|genera]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinfacts.com/ |title=Charles Darwin 200 years&nbsp;– Things you didn't know about Charles Darwin |accessdate=23 May 2009 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528033253/http://darwinfacts.com/ |archivedate=28 May 2009 }}</ref> In one example, the group of [[tanager]]s related to those Darwin found in the [[Galápagos Islands]] became popularly known as "[[Darwin's finches]]" in 1947, fostering inaccurate legends about their significance to his work.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sulloway|1982|pp=45–47}}</ref><br />
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Stephen Heard identified 389 species that have been named after Darwin,[177] and there are at least 9 genera.[178] In one example, the group of tanagers related to those Darwin found in the Galápagos Islands became popularly known as "Darwin's finches" in 1947, fostering inaccurate legends about their significance to his work.<br />
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斯蒂芬·希德Stephen Heard确定了389个以达尔文命名的物种,至少有9个属。例如,在加拉帕戈斯群岛中发现的与达尔文有关的唐纳雀,在1947年被广泛称为“达尔文雀”。据不准确传闻,这是为了纪念这群雀类对达尔文研究工作的意义。<br />
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Darwin's work has continued to be celebrated by numerous publications and events. The [[Linnean Society of London]] has commemorated Darwin's achievements by the award of the [[Darwin–Wallace Medal]] since 1908. [[Darwin Day]] has become an annual celebration, and in 2009 worldwide events were arranged for the bicentenary of Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of ''On the Origin of Species''.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v32/n01/steven-shapin/the-darwin-show |title=The Darwin Show |pages=3–9 |first=Steven |last=Shapin |authorlink=Steven Shapin |date=7 January 2010 |newspaper=[[London Review of Books]] |quote= |accessdate=25 January 2010 |ref=harv |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229113315/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v32/n01/steven-shapin/the-darwin-show |archivedate=29 December 2009 }}</ref><br />
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Darwin's work has continued to be celebrated by numerous publications and events. The Linnean Society of London has commemorated Darwin's achievements by the award of the Darwin–Wallace Medal since 1908. Darwin Day has become an annual celebration, and in 2009 worldwide events were arranged for the bicentenary of Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species.<br />
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达尔文的工作持续受到出版物和活动的青睐。自1908年以来,伦敦林奈学会就通过颁发达尔文-华莱士奖章来纪念达尔文的成就。达尔文纪念日已成为一年一度的庆祝活动,2009年,在达尔文诞辰200周年和《物种起源》出版150周年之际,人们还安排了全球性活动。<br />
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Darwin has been commemorated in the UK, with his portrait printed on the reverse of £10 banknotes printed along with a [[hummingbird]] and [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']], issued by the [[Bank of England note issues|Bank of England]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/current/current_10.htm|title=Bank of England&nbsp;– Current Banknotes&nbsp;– £10&nbsp;– Design Features|publisher=[[Bank of England]]|accessdate=15 March 2011|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110310091103/http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/current/current_10.htm|archivedate=10 March 2011}}</ref><br />
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Darwin has been commemorated in the UK, with his portrait printed on the reverse of £10 banknotes printed along with a hummingbird and HMS Beagle, issued by the Bank of England.<br />
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在英国,为了纪念达尔文,他的肖像印在了10英镑钞票的反面,并印有英国银行发行的蜂鸟和猎犬号。<br />
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A life-size seated statue of Darwin can be seen in the main hall of the [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] in London.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/news/2008/may/darwins-statue-on-the-move13846.html|title=Darwin's statue on the move|date=23 May 2008|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205015506/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/news/2008/may/darwins-statue-on-the-move13846.html|archivedate=5 December <br />
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A life-size seated statue of Darwin can be seen in the main hall of the Natural History Museum in London.<br />
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2011|publisher=Natural History Museum|accessdate=7 February 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
在伦敦自然历史博物馆的正厅可以看到真人大小的达尔文坐像。<br />
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A seated statue of Darwin, unveiled 1897, stands in front of [[Shrewsbury Library]], the building that used to house [[Shrewsbury School]], which Darwin attended as a boy. Another statue of Darwin as a young man is situated in the grounds of [[Christ's College, Cambridge]].<br />
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A seated statue of Darwin, unveiled 1897, stands in front of Shrewsbury Library, the building that used to house Shrewsbury School, which Darwin attended as a boy. Another statue of Darwin as a young man is situated in the grounds of Christ's College, Cambridge.<br />
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在什鲁斯伯里图书馆的前面耸立着一座坐着的达尔文雕像,该雕像于1897年揭幕,什鲁斯伯里图书馆曾经是什鲁斯伯里学校的所在地,达尔文还是孩子的时候曾就读于此。达尔文年轻时的另一尊雕像则位于剑桥基督学院。<br />
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[[Darwin College, Cambridge|Darwin College]], a postgraduate college at [[Cambridge University]], is named after the Darwin family.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kent.ac.uk/maps/canterbury/canterbury-campus/building/darwin-college|title=Darwin College – Maps and directions – University of Kent|website=www.kent.ac.uk|access-date=30 October 2016|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024930/https://www.kent.ac.uk/maps/canterbury/canterbury-campus/building/darwin-college|archivedate=31 October 2016}}</ref><br />
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Darwin College, a postgraduate college at Cambridge University, is named after the Darwin family.<br />
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剑桥大学研究生院达尔文学院以达尔文家族的名字命名。<br />
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In 2008–09, the Swedish band [[The Knife]], in collaboration with Danish performance group Hotel Pro Forma and other musicians from Denmark, Sweden and the US, created an opera about the life of Darwin, and ''The Origin of Species'', entitled ''[[Tomorrow, in a Year]]''. The show toured European theatres in 2010.<br />
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In 2008–09, the Swedish band The Knife, in collaboration with Danish performance group Hotel Pro Forma and other musicians from Denmark, Sweden and the US, created an opera about the life of Darwin, and The Origin of Species, entitled Tomorrow, in a Year. The show toured European theatres in 2010.<br />
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在2008-09年,瑞典乐队The Knife,丹麦表演团体Hotel Pro Forma,还有其他来自丹麦,瑞典和美国的音乐家们合作,创作了一部关于达尔文的生活和《物种起源》的歌剧,叫《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 一年后的明天Tomorrow, in a Year </font>'''》<br />
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== Children 达尔文的孩子 ==<br />
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{{see also|Darwin–Wedgwood family}}<br />
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{|class=toccolours style=float:right;clear:right;font-size:85%;width:33%;margin-left:2em;<br />
|[[William Erasmus Darwin|William Erasmus]]||style=text-align:right;|27 December 1839 –||8 September 1914<br />
|-<br />
|[[Anne Darwin|Anne Elizabeth]]||style=text-align:right;|2 March 1841 –||23 April 1851<br />
|-<br />
|Mary Eleanor||style=text-align:right;|23 September 1842 –||16 October 1842<br />
|-<br />
|[[Henrietta Litchfield|Henrietta Emma]]||style=text-align:right;|25 September 1843 –||17 December 1927<br />
|-<br />
|[[George Darwin|George Howard]]||style=text-align:right;|9 July 1845 –||7 December 1912<br />
|-<br />
|Elizabeth||style=text-align:right;|8 July 1847 –||8 June 1926<br />
|-<br />
|[[Francis Darwin|Francis]]||style=text-align:right;|16 August 1848 –||19 September 1925<br />
|-<br />
|[[Leonard Darwin|Leonard]]||style=text-align:right;|15 January 1850 –||26 March 1943<br />
|-<br />
|[[Horace Darwin|Horace]]||style=text-align:right;|13 May 1851 –||29 September 1928<br />
|-<br />
|Charles<!-- Waring-->||style=text-align:right;|6 December 1856 –||28 June 1858<br />
|}<br />
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The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and [[Anne Darwin|Annie]]'s death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children.<ref name=whowas /> Whenever they fell ill, he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from [[inbreeding]] due to the close family ties he shared with his [[cousin marriage|wife and cousin]], Emma Wedgwood.<br />
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The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and Annie's death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children.[17] Whenever they fell ill, he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from inbreeding due to the close family ties he shared with his wife and cousin, Emma Wedgwood.<br />
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达尔文一家有十个孩子:两个婴儿死了,女儿安妮十岁的时候去世,这对他们夫妻两个造成了毁灭性的影响。查尔斯是位虔诚的父亲,对他的孩子们特别关心。每当他们生病时,达尔文都担心是由于自己,和同为表妹的妻子,爱玛·韦奇伍德的近亲关系,因为可能会造成下一代从近亲交配中继承弱点。<br />
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He examined inbreeding in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages of [[outcrossing]] in many species.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=447}} Despite his fears, most of the surviving children and many of their descendants went on to have distinguished careers.<br />
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He examined inbreeding in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages of outcrossing in many species.[184] Despite his fears, most of the surviving children and many of their descendants went on to have distinguished careers.<br />
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他在作品中研究了近亲交配,并将其与异种杂交的优势进行了对比。尽管他很担心,不过大多数幸存的孩子和他们的许多后代仍然非常优秀,事业有成。<br />
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Of his surviving children, [[George Darwin|George]], [[Francis Darwin|Francis]] and [[Horace Darwin|Horace]] became [[Fellow of the Royal Society|Fellows of the Royal Society]],<ref>{{cite web|title=List of Fellows of the Royal Society, 1660–2006, A–J|url=http://royalsociety.org/trackdoc.asp?id=4274&pId=1727|accessdate=16 September 2009|format=PDF|archivedate=3 February 2017|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203000229/https://royalsociety.org/trackdoc.asp?id=4274&pId=1727}}</ref> distinguished as astronomer,<ref>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Darwin}}</ref> botanist and civil engineer, respectively. All three were knighted.<ref>Berra, Tim M. ''Darwin and His Children: His Other Legacy,'' (Oxford: 2013, Oxford UP), 101, 129, 168. George became a knight commander of the Order of the Bath in 1905. Francis was knighted in 1912. Horace became a knight commander of the KBE in 1918.</ref> Another son, [[Leonard Darwin|Leonard]], went on to be a soldier, politician, economist, [[eugenics|eugenicist]] and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist [[Ronald Fisher]].<ref>Edwards, A. W. F. 2004. Darwin, Leonard (1850–1943). In: ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press.</ref><br />
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Of his surviving children, George, Francis and Horace became Fellows of the Royal Society,[185] distinguished as astronomer,[186] botanist and civil engineer, respectively. All three were knighted.[187] Another son, Leonard, went on to be a soldier, politician, economist, eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher.<br />
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乔治,弗朗西斯和霍拉斯在其尚存的孩子中,分别以天文学家,植物学家和土木工程师的身份成为皇家学会会员。三个人都被封为爵士。而另一个儿子伦纳德则前后担任了统计学家和进化生物学家罗纳德·费希尔的士兵,政治家,经济学家,优生主义者和导师。<br />
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== Views and opinions 观点和意见==<br />
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=== Religious views 宗教观 ===<br />
{{Details|Religious views of Charles Darwin}}<br />
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[[文件:Annie Darwin.jpg|缩略图|左|1851年,达尔文的女儿安妮逝世,这给他带来了沉重的打击。到那时,他对基督教的信仰越来越少,他已经停止去教堂了。]]<br />
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Darwin's family tradition was [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|nonconformist]] [[Unitarianism]], while his father and grandfather were [[freethought|freethinkers]], and his [[baptism]] and [[boarding school]] were [[Church of England]].<ref name=skool /> When going to Cambridge to become an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] clergyman, he did not doubt the [[Biblical inerrancy|literal truth]] of the Bible.<ref name=dar57 /> He learned [[John Herschel]]'s science which, like [[William Paley]]'s [[natural theology]], sought explanations in laws of nature rather than miracles and saw [[adaptation]] of species as [[teleological argument|evidence of design]].<ref name="syd5-7" /><ref name=db /> On board HMS ''Beagle'', Darwin was quite [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] and would quote the Bible as an authority on [[morality]].<ref name=biorelig>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=side&pageseq=87 85–96]}}</ref> He looked for "centres of creation" to explain distribution,<ref name=k356 /> and suggested that the very similar [[antlion]]s found in Australia and England were evidence of a divine hand.<ref name=Crows /><br />
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Darwin's family tradition was nonconformist Unitarianism, while his father and grandfather were freethinkers, and his baptism and boarding school were Church of England.[27] When going to Cambridge to become an Anglican clergyman, he did not doubt the literal truth of the Bible.[36] He learned John Herschel's science which, like William Paley's natural theology, sought explanations in laws of nature rather than miracles and saw adaptation of species as evidence of design.[38][39] On board HMS Beagle, Darwin was quite orthodox and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality.[190] He looked for "centres of creation" to explain distribution,[62] and suggested that the very similar antlions found in Australia and England were evidence of a divine hand.<br />
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达尔文的家庭传统不墨守成规,他们是一神论的拥护者,而且他的父亲和祖父是自由思想家,但是他的洗礼和寄宿学校却是英格兰教会。当他去剑桥成为英国国教牧师时,他毫不怀疑圣经的字面意思。他学习了约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel的科学,就像威廉·佩利William Paley的自然神学一样,他寻求自然规律而不仅仅解释为奇迹,并将物种的适应性视为设计的证据。在猎犬号上,达尔文颇为正统,他将圣经视为道德权威。他曾试图寻找“创造中心”来解释其物种的分布,并提议说在澳大利亚和英国发现的非常相似的蚁群其实是神手的证据。<br />
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By his return, he was [[Historical criticism|critical of the Bible as history]], and wondered why all religions should not be equally valid.<ref name=biorelig /> In the next few years, while intensively speculating on geology and the [[transmutation of species]], he gave much thought to religion and openly discussed this with his wife [[Emma Darwin|Emma]], whose beliefs also came from intensive study and questioning.<ref name=Belief /> The [[theodicy]] of Paley and [[Thomas Malthus]] vindicated evils such as starvation as a result of a benevolent creator's laws, which had an overall good effect. To Darwin, natural selection produced the good of adaptation but removed the need for design,<ref>{{harvnb|von Sydow|2005|pp=8–14}}</ref> and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering, such as the [[ichneumon wasp]] paralysing [[caterpillar]]s as live food for its eggs.<ref name=miles /> Though he thought of religion as a [[tribe|tribal]] survival strategy, Darwin was reluctant to give up the idea of [[deism|God as an ultimate lawgiver]]. He was increasingly troubled by the [[problem of evil]].<ref>{{harvnb|von Sydow|2005|pp=4–5, 12–14}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Moore|2006}}</ref><br />
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By his return, he was critical of the Bible as history, and wondered why all religions should not be equally valid.[190] In the next few years, while intensively speculating on geology and the transmutation of species, he gave much thought to religion and openly discussed this with his wife Emma, whose beliefs also came from intensive study and questioning.[100] The theodicy of Paley and Thomas Malthus vindicated evils such as starvation as a result of a benevolent creator's laws, which had an overall good effect. To Darwin, natural selection produced the good of adaptation but removed the need for design,[191] and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering, such as the ichneumon wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs.[150] Though he thought of religion as a tribal survival strategy, Darwin was reluctant to give up the idea of God as an ultimate lawgiver. He was increasingly troubled by the problem of evil.<br />
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回国后,他对将圣经作为历史进行了批判,并想知道为什么所有宗教都不应该有根有据。在接下来的几年中,在深入推测地质和物种演变的同时,他对宗教也进行了诸多思考。他与妻子艾玛公开讨论了这一点,艾玛的信仰也来自于深入的研究和质疑。佩利和托马斯·马尔萨斯的神学论证了诸如饥饿之类的邪恶存在,其实是由仁慈的创造者定律所带来的,该理论总体上产生了良好的效果。对达尔文而言,自然选择带来了适用能力的好处,但消除了设计这个概念的需要,他看不到无所不能的神在所有痛苦和苦难中工作,例如鱼龙黄蜂麻痹了毛毛虫,将其作为卵的活食。尽管达尔文认为宗教是作为部落生存的策略,但他并不愿意放弃将上帝视为终极立法者的想法。他越来越受到罪恶问题的困扰。<br />
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Darwin remained close friends with the [[Vicar (Anglicanism)|vicar]] of Downe, [[John Brodie Innes]], and continued to play a leading part in the parish work of the church,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/religion/darwin-and-church |title=Darwin Correspondence Project&nbsp;– Darwin and the church: historical essay |accessdate=26 November 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128133709/https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/religion/darwin-and-church |archivedate=28 November 2016 |date=5 June 2015 }}</ref> but from around 1849 would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended church.<ref name=jvw41 /> He considered it "absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist"<ref name=Fordyce>[http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-12041.html Letter 12041] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091107174817/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-12041.html |date=7 November 2009 }}&nbsp;– Darwin, C. R. to Fordyce, John, 7 May 1879</ref><ref name=spencer>[https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/sep/17/darwin-evolution-religion Darwin's Complex loss of Faith] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211082018/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/sep/17/darwin-evolution-religion |date=11 February 2017 }} [[The Guardian]] 17 September 2009</ref> and, though reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that "I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God.&nbsp;– I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind".<ref name=Belief /><ref name=Fordyce /><br />
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Darwin remained close friends with the vicar of Downe, John Brodie Innes, and continued to play a leading part in the parish work of the church,[194] but from around 1849 would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended church.[189] He considered it "absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist"[195][196] and, though reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that "I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind".<br />
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达尔文与郡达温牧师约翰·布罗迪·英内斯John Brodie Innes保持着密切的朋友关系,并继续在教堂的教区工作中发挥重要作用。但从1849年左右起,当他的家人在周日去教堂礼拜时,他更愿意选择散步。他认为“怀疑一个人即可能是一个热情的有神论者,同时也是进化论者是荒谬的”。尽管对宗教观点他一直保持沉默,但在1879年,他写道:“从否认上帝存在的意义上说,我从来不是无神论者。“从拒绝上帝存在的意义上说,我从来没有做过无神论者。–我认为……一般而言,不可知论者是对我心态最正确的描述”。<br />
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The "[[Elizabeth, Lady Hope|Lady Hope Story]]", published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were repudiated by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.<ref>{{harvnb|Moore|2005}}<br />{{Harvnb|Yates|2003}}</ref><br />
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The "Lady Hope Story", published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were repudiated by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.<br />
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1915年出版的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 霍普夫人的故事Lady Hope Story </font>'''》声称达尔文在病床上重回了基督教信仰。该声称后来被达尔文的孩子们否定,并被历史学家驳回为虚假信息。<br />
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=== Human society 人类社会 ===<br />
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Darwin's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position. He grew up in a family of [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] reformers who, like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood, supported [[Reform Act 1832|electoral reform]] and the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|emancipation of slaves]]. Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery, while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants. His taxidermy lessons in 1826 from the freed slave [[John Edmonstone]], whom he long recalled as "a very pleasant and intelligent man", reinforced his belief that black people shared the same feelings, and could be as intelligent as people of other races. He took the same attitude to native people he met on the ''Beagle'' voyage.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=196–198, 240}} These attitudes were not unusual in Britain in the 1820s, much as it shocked visiting Americans. British society started to envisage racial differences more vividly in mid-century,<ref name=eddy /> but Darwin remained strongly against slavery, against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species", and against ill-treatment of native people.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilkins|2008|pp=408–413}}</ref>{{Ref label|G|VII|none}} Darwins interaction with [[Yaghan people|Yaghan]]s (Fuegians) such as [[Jemmy Button]] during the [[second voyage of HMS Beagle]] had a profound impact on his view of primitive peoples. At his arrival to [[Tierra del Fuego]] he made a colourful description of "[[Fuegian]] savages".<ref name=Rozzi2018/> This view changed as he came to know Yaghan people more in detail. By studying the Yaghans, Darwin concluded that a number of basic emotions by different human groups were the same and that mental capabilities were roughly the same as for Europeans.<ref name=Rozzi2018>{{cite journal |last1=Rozzi |first1=Ricardo|author-link=Ricardo Rozzi |date=2018 |title=Transformaciones del pensamiento de Darwin en cabo de hornos: Un legado para la ciencia y la etica ambiental|trans-title=Transformations of Darwin’s thought in cape horn: A legacy for science and environmental ethics |language=Spanish |journal=[[Magallania]] |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages= 267–277|doi=10.4067/S0718-22442018000100267 |doi-access=free }}</ref> While interested in Yaghan culture Darwin failed to appreciate their deep ecological knowledge and elaborate cosmology until the 1850s when he inspected a dictionary of [[Yaghan language|Yaghan]] detailing 32-thousand words.<ref name=Rozzi2018/> He saw that European colonisation would often lead to the extinction of native civilisations, and "tr[ied] to integrate colonialism into an evolutionary history of civilization analogous to natural history."<ref name=barta>{{cite journal |first=Tony|last=Barta|title=Mr Darwin's shooters: on natural selection and the naturalizing of genocide|journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=39|issue=2|pages=116–137 |doi=10.1080/00313220500106170 |date=2 June 2005 |s2cid=159807728}}</ref><br />
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Darwin's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position. He grew up in a family of Whig reformers who, like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood, supported electoral reform and the emancipation of slaves. Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery, while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants. His taxidermy lessons in 1826 from the freed slave John Edmonstone, whom he long recalled as "a very pleasant and intelligent man", reinforced his belief that black people shared the same feelings, and could be as intelligent as people of other races. He took the same attitude to native people he met on the Beagle voyage.[198] These attitudes were not unusual in Britain in the 1820s, much as it shocked visiting Americans. British society started to envisage racial differences more vividly in mid-century,[28] but Darwin remained strongly against slavery, against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species", and against ill-treatment of native people.[199][VII] Darwin's interaction with Yaghans (Fuegians) such as Jemmy Button during the second voyage of HMS Beagle had a profound impact on his view of primitive peoples. At his arrival to Tierra del Fuego he made a colourful description of "Fuegian savages".[200] This view changed as he came to know Yaghan people more in detail. By studying the Yaghans, Darwin concluded that a number of basic emotions by different human groups were the same and that mental capabilities were roughly the same as for Europeans.[200] While interested in Yaghan culture Darwin failed to appreciate their deep ecological knowledge and elaborate cosmology until the 1850s when he inspected a dictionary of Yaghan detailing 32,000 words.[200] He saw that European colonisation would often lead to the extinction of native civilisations, and "tr[ied] to integrate colonialism into an evolutionary history of civilization analogous to natural history."<br />
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达尔文对社会和政治问题的看法也反映出了他的时代和社会地位。他在辉格党改革派家庭中长大,像他的叔叔乔西亚·韦奇伍德一样,他支持选举改革和奴隶的解放。达尔文满腔热情地反对奴隶制,但却认为英国工厂工人或仆人的工作条件不存在问题。他在1826年从被释放的奴隶约翰·埃德蒙斯通那里学到了如何剥制动物标本,他一直记得他是“一个非常讨人喜欢且聪明的人”,这进一步强化了他的信念,即黑人具有相同的感受,并且可能与其他种族的人一样聪明。他对猎犬号航行中遇到的土著人持同样的态度。这些态度在1820年代的英国并不罕见,但是这让来访的美国人感到震惊。英国社会在本世纪中叶开始更加着重强调种族差异,但达尔文仍然坚决反对奴隶制,反对“将所谓的人类种族列为不同的种族”,并反对虐待土著人民。在猎犬号第二次航行中,达尔文与亚格汉的人(火地岛人),例如杰米·巴顿进行互动,这个经历使他对原始民族的看法产生了深远的影响。到达火地岛时,他对“火地岛野蛮人”做了丰富多彩的描述。当他更加详细地了解亚格汉人时,这种看法发生了变化。通过研究亚格汉人,达尔文得出结论,不同人类群体的许多基本情感是相同的,并且心理能力与欧洲人大致相同。达尔文虽然对亚格汉文化产生了兴趣,但直到1850年代,他才查阅了亚格汉词典,其中详细列出了32,000个单词,直到那时,他才对它们深厚的生态知识和复杂的宇宙学感兴趣。<br />
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He thought men's eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection, a view disputed by [[Antoinette Brown Blackwell]] in her 1875 book ''[[The Sexes Throughout Nature]]''.<ref name=Vandermassen>{{cite journal |author=Vandermassen, Griet |title=Sexual Selection: A Tale of Male Bias and Feminist Denial |journal=European Journal of Women's Studies |year=2004 |volume=11 |issue=9 |doi=10.1177/1350506804039812 |pages=11–13 |ref=harv |citeseerx=10.1.1.550.3672 |s2cid=145221350 }}</ref><br />
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He thought men's eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection, a view disputed by Antoinette Brown Blackwell in her 1875 book The Sexes Throughout Nature.<br />
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他认为男人优于女人是性选择的结果,安托瓦内特·布朗·布莱克威尔Antoinette Brown Blackwell在1875年出版的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 大自然中的性别The Sexes Throughout Nature </font>'''》一书中对此观点提出了质疑。<br />
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Darwin was intrigued by his [[half-cousin]] [[Francis Galton]]'s argument, introduced in 1865, that [[Historiometry|statistical analysis]] of [[heredity]] showed that moral and mental human traits could be inherited, and principles of animal breeding could apply to humans. In ''The Descent of Man'', Darwin noted that aiding the weak to survive and have families could lose the benefits of natural selection, but cautioned that withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy, "the noblest part of our nature", and factors such as education could be more important. When Galton suggested that publishing research could encourage intermarriage within a "caste" of "those who are naturally gifted", Darwin foresaw practical difficulties, and thought it "the sole feasible, yet I fear [[utopian]], plan of procedure in improving the human race", preferring to simply publicise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to individuals.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=556–557, 572, 598}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.1&pageseq=180 167–173], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.2&pageseq=419 402–403]}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://www.galton.org/letters/darwin/correspondence.htm|title=Correspondence between Francis Galton and Charles Darwin|accessdate=8 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090102150434/http://galton.org/letters/darwin/correspondence.htm|archivedate=2 January 2009}}</ref> Francis Galton named this field of study "[[eugenics]]" in 1883.{{Ref label|H|VIII|1}} After Darwin's death, his theories were cited to promote eugenic policies.<ref name=barta/><br />
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Darwin was intrigued by his half-cousin Francis Galton's argument, introduced in 1865, that statistical analysis of heredity showed that moral and mental human traits could be inherited, and principles of animal breeding could apply to humans. In The Descent of Man, Darwin noted that aiding the weak to survive and have families could lose the benefits of natural selection, but cautioned that withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy, "the noblest part of our nature", and factors such as education could be more important. When Galton suggested that publishing research could encourage intermarriage within a "caste" of "those who are naturally gifted", Darwin foresaw practical difficulties, and thought it "the sole feasible, yet I fear utopian, plan of procedure in improving the human race", preferring to simply publicise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to individuals.[203] Francis Galton named this field of study "eugenics" in 1883.[VIII] After Darwin's death, his theories were cited to promote eugenic policies.<br />
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达尔文对表兄弟弗朗西斯·高尔顿Francis Galton在1865年提出的论点深感兴趣,弗朗西斯认为,通过遗传的统计分析,可以表明道德和精神上的人类特征可以被继承,并且动物繁殖的原理也可以适用于人类。达尔文在《人类的由来》中指出,帮助弱者生存并使之拥有家庭,可能会失去自然选择带来的好处,但他又警告说,拒绝提供援助将磨灭人类同情的本性,即“我们本性中最崇高的部分”,他认为诸如教育之类的因素可能更为重要。当高尔顿建议发表其研究成果以鼓励“有天赋的人”之间通婚时,达尔文预见了实际的困难,这是“唯一可行的方案,但我担心的是乌托邦式的,改善人类进程的计划会因此产生”。他宁愿简单地宣传继承的重要性,而将决定权留给个人。弗朗西斯·高尔顿在1883年将这一研究领域命名为“优生学”。达尔文去世后,他的理论被引用来促进优生政策。<br />
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== Evolutionary social movements 社会进化论运动 ==<br />
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[[文件:VanityFair-Darwin2.jpg|缩略图|右|1871年《名利场》上的达尔文漫画]]<br />
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{{Further|Darwinism|Eugenics|Social Darwinism}}<br />
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Darwin's fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements that, at times, had only an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went directly against his express comments.<br />
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Darwin's fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements that, at times, had only an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went directly against his express comments.<br />
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达尔文的名气和声望使他的名字经常与思想及运动联系在一起,这些思想及运动有时与他的著作仅具有间接关系,有时却与他的评论直接背道而驰。<br />
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Thomas Malthus had argued that [[Malthusian catastrophe|population growth beyond resources]] was ordained by God to get humans to [[Protestant work ethic|work productively]] and show restraint in getting families; this was used in the 1830s to justify [[workhouse]]s and [[laissez-faire economics]].<ref name=wm>{{harvnb|Wilkins|1997}}<br />{{Harvnb|Moore|2006}}</ref> Evolution was by then seen as having social implications, and [[Herbert Spencer]]'s 1851 book ''Social Statics'' based ideas of human freedom and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary theory.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sweet|2004}}</ref><br />
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Thomas Malthus had argued that population growth beyond resources was ordained by God to get humans to work productively and show restraint in getting families; this was used in the 1830s to justify workhouses and laissez-faire economics.[204] Evolution was by then seen as having social implications, and Herbert Spencer's 1851 book Social Statics based ideas of human freedom and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary theory.<br />
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托马斯·马尔萨斯认为,上帝命令人口增长超过资源供给,是为了使人类更有生产力地工作,并在束缚家庭方面表现出克制。这在1830年代用于证明工作场所和自由放任经济学的合理性。那时,进化论被认为具有社会意义,赫伯特·斯宾塞Herbert Spencer在1851年的著作《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 社会静力学Social Statics </font>'''》中以拉马克进化论为基础,阐述了人类自由和个人自由的思想。<br />
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Soon after the ''Origin'' was published in 1859, critics derided his description of a struggle for existence as a Malthusian justification for the English industrial capitalism of the time. The term ''Darwinism'' was used for the evolutionary ideas of others, including Spencer's "[[survival of the fittest]]" as free-market progress, and [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s [[polygenism|polygenistic]] ideas of [[Ernst Haeckel#Polygenism and racial theory|human development]]. Writers used natural selection to argue for various, often contradictory, ideologies such as laissez-faire dog-eat-dog capitalism, [[colonialism]] and [[New Imperialism|imperialism]]. However, Darwin's holistic view of nature included "dependence of one being on another"; thus [[pacifism|pacifists]], socialists, liberal social reformers and anarchists such as [[Peter Kropotkin]] stressed the value of co-operation over struggle within a species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Paul|2003|pp=223–225}}</ref> Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bannister|1989}}</ref><br />
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Soon after the Origin was published in 1859, critics derided his description of a struggle for existence as a Malthusian justification for the English industrial capitalism of the time. The term Darwinism was used for the evolutionary ideas of others, including Spencer's "survival of the fittest" as free-market progress, and Ernst Haeckel's polygenistic ideas of human development. Writers used natural selection to argue for various, often contradictory, ideologies such as laissez-faire dog-eat-dog capitalism, colonialism and imperialism. However, Darwin's holistic view of nature included "dependence of one being on another"; thus pacifists, socialists, liberal social reformers and anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin stressed the value of co-operation over struggle within a species.[206] Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature.<br />
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《物种起源》在1859年出版后不久,批评家们嘲笑他将生存斗争描述为当时英国工业资本主义的马尔萨斯主义辩护。后来达尔文主义一词开始用于进化思想,包括斯宾塞Spencer的“适者生存”作为自由市场的进步,以及恩斯特·海克尔Ernst Haeckel的人类发展多元论。作家利用自然选择来主张各种经常相互矛盾的意识形态,例如放任自由 “狗吃狗”的资本主义,殖民主义和帝国主义。然而,达尔文的整体自然观包括了“一个人对另一个人的依赖”。因此,和平主义者,社会主义者,自由社会改革者和无政府主义者(例如彼得·克罗波特金Peter Kropotkin)都强调了合作对于物种内部斗争的价值。达尔文本人坚称,社会政策不应仅仅以斗争和自然选择的观念为指导。<br />
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After the 1880s, a eugenics movement developed on ideas of biological inheritance, and for scientific justification of their ideas appealed to some concepts of Darwinism. In Britain, most shared Darwin's cautious views on voluntary improvement and sought to encourage those with good traits in "positive eugenics". During the "Eclipse of Darwinism", a scientific foundation for eugenics was provided by [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendelian]] [[genetics]]. Negative eugenics to remove the "feebleminded" were popular in America, Canada and Australia, and [[eugenics in the United States]] introduced [[compulsory sterilisation]] laws, followed by several other countries. Subsequently, [[Nazi eugenics]] brought the field into disrepute.{{Ref label|H|VIII|2}}<br />
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After the 1880s, a eugenics movement developed on ideas of biological inheritance, and for scientific justification of their ideas appealed to some concepts of Darwinism. In Britain, most shared Darwin's cautious views on voluntary improvement and sought to encourage those with good traits in "positive eugenics". During the "Eclipse of Darwinism", a scientific foundation for eugenics was provided by Mendelian genetics. Negative eugenics to remove the "feebleminded" were popular in America, Canada and Australia, and eugenics in the United States introduced compulsory sterilisation laws, followed by several other countries. Subsequently, Nazi eugenics brought the field into disrepute.<br />
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1880年代后期,优生运动发展了生物遗传学的思想,并为他们的思想提供了科学依据,从而吸引了达尔文主义的某些观念。在英国,大多数人赞同达尔文对自愿改善的谨慎态度,并试图鼓励那些具有“积极优生”特征的人。在“达尔文主义的消亡”期间,孟德尔遗传学为优生学提供了科学基础。在美国,加拿大和澳大利亚,反向优生学开始除去“笨拙”的一代,并使之变成主流。美国的优生拥护者甚至颁布了强制性绝育法,随后又引入了其他几个国家。不过随后,纳粹优生学使该领域声名狼藉。<br />
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The term "[[Social Darwinism]]" was used infrequently from around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s when used by [[Richard Hofstadter]] to attack the [[laissez-faire]] conservatism of those like [[William Graham Sumner]] who opposed reform and socialism. Since then, it has been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to what they think are the moral consequences of evolution.<ref>{{Harvnb|Paul|2003}}<br />{{Harvnb|Kotzin|2004}}</ref><ref name=wm /><br />
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The term "Social Darwinism" was used infrequently from around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s when used by Richard Hofstadter to attack the laissez-faire conservatism of those like William Graham Sumner who opposed reform and socialism. Since then, it has been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to what they think are the moral consequences of evolution.<br />
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“社会达尔文主义”一词在1890年代左右很少使用,但在1940年代作为贬义词而流行,由理查德·霍夫施塔特Richard Hofstadter用来抨击自由放任的保守主义派,像是威廉·格雷厄姆·萨姆纳William Graham Sumner一样反对改革和社会主义的人。从那时起,它就被那些反对者滥用,因为他们认为进化论会导致严重的道德后果。<br />
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== Works 著作 ==<br />
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{{details|Charles Darwin bibliography}}<br />
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Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]'', as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of [[coral atoll]]s, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on [[barnacle]]s. While ''On the Origin of Species'' dominates perceptions of his work, ''The Descent of Man'' and ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'' had considerable impact, and his books on plants including ''[[The Power of Movement in Plants]]'' were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on ''[[The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Balfour|1882}}<br />{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}<br />{{Harvnb|Anonymous|1882}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last = Brummitt|first = R. K.|author2=C. E. Powell|title = Authors of Plant Names |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |year = 1992 |isbn = 978-1-84246-085-6}}</ref><br />
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Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of The Voyage of the Beagle, as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of coral atolls, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on barnacles. While On the Origin of Species dominates perceptions of his work, The Descent of Man and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals had considerable impact, and his books on plants including The Power of Movement in Plants were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms.<br />
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达尔文是一位多产的作家。即使没有发表有关进化的著作,他仍然是《猎犬号》的作者,作为地质学家在南美洲发表并解决了珊瑚环礁形成难题的地质学家,以及一位发表有关藤壶权威著作的生物学家。虽然《物种起源》在他作品集中占了主导地位,但《人的由来》和《人类与动物的情感表达》同样产生了巨大的影响。另外关于植物的著作包括《植物运动的力量》,以及他的遗作《腐植土的产生与蚯蚓的作用》是业界非常重要的创新研究。<br />
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== See also 其他参考资料 ==<br />
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{{Portal|Biology}}<br />
<!-- Please avoid repeating links above --><br />
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}<br />
* [[Creation–evolution controversy]]<br />
* [[European and American voyages of scientific exploration]]<br />
* [[History of biology]]<br />
* [[History of evolutionary thought]]<br />
* [[List of coupled cousins]]<br />
* [[List of multiple discoveries#19th century|List of multiple discoveries]]<br />
* [[Multiple discovery]]<br />
* [[Portraits of Charles Darwin]]<br />
* [[Tinamou egg]]<br />
* [[Universal Darwinism]]<br />
* [[1991 Darwin]]<br />
* [[Creation (2009 film)|''Creation'']] (biographical drama film)<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
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{{Portal|Biology}}<br />
<!-- Please avoid repeating links above --><br />
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}<br />
* [[创造论与进化论之争Creation–evolution controversy]]<br />
* [[欧洲和美洲的科学探险航行European and American voyages of scientific exploration]]<br />
* [[生物学史History of biology]]<br />
* [[进化思想史History of evolutionary thought]]<br />
* [[表亲的名单List of coupled cousins]]<br />
* [[重复独立发现发明列表List of multiple discoveries]]<br />
* [[重复独立发现发明Multiple discovery]]<br />
* [[达尔文肖像列表Portraits of Charles Darwin]]<br />
* [[不知名鸟类的蛋Tinamou egg]]<br />
* [[普适的达尔文主义Universal Darwinism]]<br />
* [[小行星1991达尔文1991 Darwin]]<br />
* [[造物弄人 (2009) Creation]]<br />
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== Notes 笔记==<br />
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'''{{small|I}}.''' {{Note label|A|I|none}} Darwin was eminent as a [[naturalist]], geologist, [[biologist]], and author. After working as a physician's assistant and two years as a [[medical student]], he was educated as a clergyman; he was also trained in [[taxidermy]].<ref name=ODNB>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004}}</ref><br />
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Darwin was eminent as a naturalist, geologist, biologist, and author. After working as a physician's assistant and two years as a medical student, he was educated as a clergyman; he was also trained in taxidermy.<br />
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达尔文是一位博物学家,地质学家,生物学家和作家。在担任过医生的助理,和两年的医学生之后,他接受了牧师的教育。同时他还接受过动物标本制作方面的培训。<br />
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'''{{small|II}}.''' {{Note label|B|II|none}} [[Robert FitzRoy]] was to become known after the voyage for [[biblical literalism]], but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in [[Patagonia]] recorded his opinion that the plains were [[raised beach]]es, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.{{Harv|Browne|1995|pp=186, 414}}<br />
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Robert FitzRoy was to become known after the voyage for biblical literalism, but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in Patagonia recorded his opinion that the plains were raised beaches, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.(Browne 1995, pp. 186, 414)<br />
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罗伯特·菲茨罗伊在航行之后因圣经直译主义而闻名,但此时他对莱尔的思想颇有兴趣,他们在莱尔要求南美航行考察前相遇。菲茨罗伊在巴塔哥尼亚Patagonia圣克鲁斯河River Santa Cruz登高期间用日记的形式记录了他的观点,即平原其实是海滩高地。但在他返航后,他与一位虔诚的教徒女士结婚,随后便放弃了这些想法。(Browne 1995,第186、414页)<br />
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'''{{small|III}}.''' {{Note label|C|III|none}} In the section [[Morphology (biology)|"Morphology"]] of Chapter XIII of ''On the Origin of Species'', Darwin commented on [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writing: "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?"<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=452&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 434]}}</ref> and in the concluding chapter: "The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse … at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=497&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 479]}}</ref><br />
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In the section "Morphology" of Chapter XIII of On the Origin of Species, Darwin commented on homologous bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writing: "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?"[212] and in the concluding chapter: "The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse … at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications."<br />
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在《物种起源》第十三章的“形态学”部分中,达尔文评论了人类与其他哺乳动物之间的同源异体骨模式,并写道:“人类用来抓东西的手,鼹鼠用来挖掘的爪子,马匹用来跑步的腿,海豚用来游泳的鳍,以及蝙蝠用来飞的翅膀,他们是否都是按照相同的模式构造而成,其实是相同的骨骼长在相同的位置?想想没有什么能比这种猜测更有趣了”。在最后一章中,达尔文还提到“男人的手,蝙蝠的翅膀,海豚的鳍和马的腿,这些骨头构造都是相同的……这显然解释了血统论,或者说是共同祖先学说。这些骨头在缓慢且连续地修正变化以适用它们的新功能。”<br />
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'''{{small|IV}}.''' {{Note label|D|IV|1}}{{Note label|D|IV|2}}{{Note label|D|IV|3}}<br />
In ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' Darwin mentioned [[human evolution|human origins]] in his concluding remark that "In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."<ref name="light on man" /><br />
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In On the Origin of Species Darwin mentioned human origins in his concluding remark that "In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."<br />
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达尔文在《物种起源》中的结论中提到了人类起源,“在遥远的将来,我看到了更为重要的研究领域,它拥有广阔的前景。心理学将通过获取所需不同程度的智力和能力,以分阶段级配为基础来深入。人类的起源和历史终将被照亮。”<br />
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In "Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory" he referred to [[sexual selection]]: "I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous."<ref name=SS_man /><br />
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In "Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory" he referred to sexual selection: "I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous."<br />
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在“第六章:理论上的困难”中,他提到了性选择:“出于同一目的,我可能已经引证了足够多关于人类各种族之间的差异事实,这些差异是如此的明显。似乎这些差异的根源可以带给我们一些启示,主要通过特定类型的性选择。但是,如果不输入大量细节,我的推理就会显得很轻率。”<br />
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In ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]'' of 1871, Darwin discussed the first passage:<br />
"During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first edition of my 'Origin of Species,' that by this work 'light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;' and this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=14&itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text 1]}}</ref> In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: "it has been said by several critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was applicable to man."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1874|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=13&itemID=F944&viewtype=text vi]}}</ref><br />
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In The Descent of Man of 1871, Darwin discussed the first passage: "During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first edition of my 'Origin of Species,' that by this work 'light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;' and this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth."[214] In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: "it has been said by several critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was applicable to man."<br />
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在1871年出版的《人类的由来》中,达尔文在第一段讨论道:<br />
“多年来,我收集了很多关于人类的起源或由来的笔记,我无意对此主题进行发布,更确切地说是我决心不发表,因为我认为这是个人的主见,是我应该由此对自己的观点产生偏见,而非大众。在我的《物种起源》第一版中,足以表明通过这项工作,‘将对人类的起源及其历史产生新的领悟。’这意味着,在尊重人类在地球上所有的表现行为前提下,都必须将其与任何有机物包括在一起。”在1874年第二版的序言中,达尔文增加了对第二点的引用:“一些批评家说过,当我发现无法通过自然选择来解释人的许多结构细节时,我发明了性选择。但是,我在第一版的《物种起源》中就对这一原则给出了可以相当清晰的草图,我在那里指出过它适用于人类。”<br />
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'''{{small|V}}.''' {{Note label|E|V|none}} See, for example, WILLA volume 4, ''[http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/old-WILLA/fall95/DeSimone.html Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education]'' by Deborah M. De Simone: "Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of thinkers who matured during the period of "intellectual chaos" caused by Darwin's Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration."<br />
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See, for example, WILLA volume 4, Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education by Deborah M. De Simone: "Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of thinkers who matured during the period of "intellectual chaos" caused by Darwin's Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration."<br />
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例如,参见夏洛特·珀金斯·吉尔曼Charlotte Perkins Gilman的WILLA第4卷,和黛博拉·德·西蒙妮Deborah M. De Simone的《教育女性化Feminization of Education》:“在由达尔文的《物种起源》引起的“智力混乱”时期。吉尔曼与一代成熟的思想家均分享了许多基本的教育思想。在相信个人可以指导人类和社会发展的信念的前提下,许多进步主义者开始将教育视为促进社会发展和解决诸如城市化,贫困或移民等问题的灵丹妙药。”<br />
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'''{{small|VI}}.''' {{Note label|F|VI|none}} See, for example, the song "A lady fair of lineage high" from [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s ''[[Princess Ida]]'', which describes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.<br />
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See, for example, the song "A lady fair of lineage high" from Gilbert and Sullivan's Princess Ida, which describes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.<br />
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另一个例子,请参见吉尔伯特Gilbert和沙利文Sullivan的歌剧《公主艾达Princess Ida》所演唱的歌曲“血统高贵的淑女”,它描述了猿猴中男人(而不是女人!)的血统。<br />
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'''{{small|VII}}.''' {{Note label|G|VII|none}} Darwin's belief that black people had the same essential humanity as Europeans, and had many mental similarities, was reinforced by the lessons he had from [[John Edmonstone]] in 1826.<ref name=eddy /> Early in the ''Beagle'' voyage, Darwin nearly lost his position on the ship when he criticised FitzRoy's defence and praise of slavery. {{Harv|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=76 74]}} He wrote home about "how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it! I was told before leaving England that after living in slave countries all my opinions would be altered; the only alteration I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate of the negro character." {{harv|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=264 246]}} Regarding [[Fuegians]], he "could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilized man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement", but he knew and liked civilised Fuegians like [[Jemmy Button]]: "It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here."{{Harv|Darwin|1845|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=218 205, 207–208]}}<br />
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Darwin's belief that black people had the same essential humanity as Europeans, and had many mental similarities, was reinforced by the lessons he had from John Edmonstone in 1826.[28] Early in the Beagle voyage, Darwin nearly lost his position on the ship when he criticised FitzRoy's defence and praise of slavery. (Darwin 1958, p. 74) He wrote home about "how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it! I was told before leaving England that after living in slave countries all my opinions would be altered; the only alteration I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate of the negro character." (Darwin 1887, p. 246) Regarding Fuegians, he "could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilized man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement", but he knew and liked civilised Fuegians like Jemmy Button: "It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here."(Darwin 1845, pp. 205, 207–208)<br />
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1826年,约翰·埃德蒙斯顿(John Edmonstone)从达尔文那里汲取了教训,他进一步证实了达尔文关于黑人与欧洲人具有基本的人性并在精神上有许多相似之处的信念。在猎犬号航行的早期,达尔文因为批评费兹罗伊的辩护和对奴隶制的称赞时,几乎失去了在船上的位置。(达尔文1958年,第74页)他在书中写道:“选举中人们所表现出对奴隶制的看法都如此的理所当然。如果英国是第一个完全废除它的欧洲国家,那对英国来说是一件多么骄傲的事!离开英格兰之前,我被告知,在奴隶制国家生活之后,他们相信我所有的观点都会被改变;然而我知道,唯一的变化可能是对黑人特征总结出更高的评价。”(Darwin 1887,p。246)就说火地岛人,他“无法相信野蛮人和文明人之间的区别有多大:会是大于野生动物和驯养动物之间的距离,因为人类具有更大的改良能力”,但他认识并喜欢杰米·巴顿这样的火地岛人:“当我想起他的许多优良品质时,对我来说似乎很美妙,他应该属于我们同一种族,毫无疑问我们拥有同样的性格属性,而我们在这里初次见到他时却是悲惨而堕落的野蛮人。” (Darwin1845年,第205、207-208页)<br />
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In the ''Descent of Man'', he mentioned the similarity of Fuegians' and Edmonstone's minds to Europeans' when arguing against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.1&pageseq=227 214], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=245 232]}}</ref><br />
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In the Descent of Man, he mentioned the similarity of Fuegians' and Edmonstone's minds to Europeans' when arguing against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species".<br />
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在《人类的由来》中,达尔文在表达反对“将所谓的人类种族列为不同的物种”时,提到了火地岛人和埃德蒙斯顿的思想与欧洲人的思想非常相似。<br />
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He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of [[Patagonia]]n men, women, and children, "Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?"{{harv|Darwin|1845|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F14&pageseq=115 102]}}<br />
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He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of Patagonian men, women, and children, "Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?"(Darwin 1845, p. 102)<br />
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他拒绝虐待土著人民,例如写了巴塔哥尼亚男人,女人和儿童的屠杀,“这里的每个人都完全相信这是最公正的战争,因为它是针对野蛮人的。在这个时代,谁会相信这样的暴行竟然会在基督教文明国家发生?” (Darwin 1845, p. 102)<br />
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'''{{small|VIII}}.''' {{Note label|H|VIII|1}}{{Note label|H|VIII|2}} [[Genetics|Geneticists]] studied human heredity as [[Mendelian inheritance]], while [[eugenics]] movements sought to manage society, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this as impractical [[pseudoscience]]. A shift from voluntary arrangements to "negative" eugenics included [[compulsory sterilisation]] laws in the United States, copied by [[Nazi Germany]] as the basis for [[Nazi eugenics]] based on virulent racism and "[[racial hygiene]]".<br />({{Cite news | url =http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/5-supp/text/thurtle.html| title =the creation of genetic identity| last = Thurtle| first =Phillip| date =17 December 1996| issue =Supplement: Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism| volume = 5| ref = |periodical =SEHR| accessdate =11 November 2008}}{{Cite news| url =http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/154/4/1419#The_Eclipse_of_Darwinism| title =The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection<br />
| last = Edwards| first =A. W. F.| date = 1 April 2000 | issue =April 2000| volume = 154| pages = 1419–1426| pmc = 1461012| pmid = 10747041| ref = | periodical = Genetics| accessdate =11 November 2008}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |title=Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics |last=Wilkins |first=John |accessdate=11 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205154013/http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |archivedate=5 December 2008 |df= }})<br />
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Geneticists studied human heredity as Mendelian inheritance, while eugenics movements sought to manage society, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this as impractical pseudoscience. A shift from voluntary arrangements to "negative" eugenics included compulsory sterilisation laws in the United States, copied by Nazi Germany as the basis for Nazi eugenics based on virulent racism and "racial hygiene".<br />
(Thurtle, Phillip (17 December 1996). "the creation of genetic identity". SEHR. 5 (Supplement: Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism). Retrieved 11 November 2008.Edwards, A. W. F. (1 April 2000). "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection". Genetics. 154 (April 2000). pp. 1419–1426. PMC 1461012. PMID 10747041. Retrieved 11 November 2008.<br />
Wilkins, John. "Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics". Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2008.)<br />
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遗传学家将人类遗传学作为孟德尔遗传来研究,而优生学运动则试图管理社会,重点是英国的社会阶层,以及美国的残疾和种族划分,导致遗传学家将其视为不切实际的伪科学。后来就发生了人类自由交配到反向优生的转变,包括美国的强制性绝育法,以及后期被纳粹德国借用,围绕优劣种族主义和“种族卫生”的思想,将其作为纳粹优生学的基础。(Thurtle, Phillip (17 December 1996). "the creation of genetic identity". SEHR. 5 (Supplement: Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism). Retrieved 11 November 2008.Edwards, A. W. F. (1 April 2000). "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection". Genetics. 154 (April 2000). pp. 1419–1426. PMC 1461012. PMID 10747041. Retrieved 11 November 2008.<br />
Wilkins, John. "Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics". Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2008.)<br />
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'''{{small|IX}}.''' {{Note label|I|IX|none}} [[David Quammen]] writes of his "theory that [Darwin] turned to these arcane botanical studies – producing more than one book that was solidly empirical, discreetly evolutionary, yet a "horrid bore" – at least partly so that the clamorous controversialists, fighting about apes and angels and souls, would leave him... alone." [[David Quammen]], "The Brilliant Plodder" (review of Ken Thompson, ''Darwin's Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy'', [[University of Chicago Press]], 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, ''On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate of an Evolutionary Eden'', [[Yale University Press]], 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, ''Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834'', [[Edinburgh University Press]], 222 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVII, no. 7 (23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.<br />
{{refend}}<br />
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David Quammen writes of his "theory that [Darwin] turned to these arcane botanical studies – producing more than one book that was solidly empirical, discreetly evolutionary, yet a "horrid bore" – at least partly so that the clamorous controversialists, fighting about apes and angels and souls, would leave him... alone." David Quammen, "The Brilliant Plodder" (review of Ken Thompson, Darwin's Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy, University of Chicago Press, 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate of an Evolutionary Eden, Yale University Press, 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834, Edinburgh University Press, 222 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 7 (23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.<br />
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大卫·夸曼David Quammen写下了他的观点,“达尔文转向了这些神秘的植物学研究–出版了多本经过实证研究的,谨慎的进化论书,却“极其令人生厌”–但是至少在某种程度上,让那些为争夺猿猴,天使和灵魂而战的吵闹争论者不再继续打扰他。” David Quammen, "The Brilliant Plodder" (review of Ken Thompson, Darwin's Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy, University of Chicago Press, 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate of an Evolutionary Eden, Yale University Press, 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834, Edinburgh University Press, 222 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 7 (23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.<br />
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== Citations 引用 ==<br />
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}<br />
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== References 参考文献 ==<br />
{{refbegin|30em}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Anonymous<br />
|year = 1893<br />
|chapter = CHARLES ROBERT DARWIN (Obituary Notice, Friday, April 21, 1882)<br />
|title = Eminent Persons; Biographies reprinted from The Times<br />
|publisher = Macmillan and Co & The Times Office<br />
|place = London and New York<br />
|pages = 1–11<br />
|volume = III (1882–1886)<br />
|chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/eminentpersonsbi03timeiala/page/n11<br />
|accessdate = 12 February 2019<br />
|via = Internet Archive<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite news<br />
| last =Anonymous<br />
| year =1882<br />
| title =Obituary: Death Of Chas. Darwin<br />
| periodical =The New York Times<br />
| issue =21 April 1882<br />
| url =https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0212.html<br />
| accessdate =30 October 2008<br />
| ref =harv<br />
| archive-date =15 October 2009<br />
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20091015051211/http://nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0212.html<br />
| url-status =live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
| last = Balfour<br />
| first =J. H.<br />
| authorlink = John Hutton Balfour<br />
| date = 11 May 1882<br />
| title = Obituary Notice of Charles Robert Darwin<br />
| journal=[[Transactions & Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh]]<br />
| issue = 14<br />
| pages = 284–298|ref=harv| title-link =s:Transactions & Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh/Obituary Notice of Charles Robert Darwin<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Bannister<br />
| first =Robert C.<br />
| year = 1989<br />
| title = Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought.<br />
| location = Philadelphia<br />
| publisher=Temple University Press<br />
| isbn =978-0-87722-566-9|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Bowler<br />
| first = Peter J.<br />
| year = 2003<br />
| title = Evolution: The History of an Idea<br />
| edition = 3rd<br />
| publisher = University of California Press<br />
| isbn = 978-0-520-23693-6<br />
| ref = harv<br />
| url-access = registration<br />
| url = https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Browne<br />
| first = E. Janet<br />
| authorlink = Janet Browne<br />
| year = 1995<br />
| title = Charles Darwin: vol. 1 Voyaging<br />
| location = London<br />
| publisher=Jonathan Cape<br />
| isbn = 978-1-84413-314-7|ref=harv<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Browne<br />
| first = E. Janet<br />
| year = 2002<br />
| title = Charles Darwin: vol. 2 The Power of Place<br />
| location = London<br />
| publisher=Jonathan Cape<br />
| isbn = 978-0-7126-6837-8|ref=harv<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Darwin<br />
| first = Charles<br />
| year = 1835<br />
| title = Extracts from letters to Professor Henslow<br />
| location = Cambridge<br />
| publisher = [privately printed]<br />
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
| accessdate = 1 November 2008<br />
| ref = harv<br />
| archive-date = 31 August 2011<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110831205639/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
| url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Darwin<br />
|first = Charles<br />
|year = 1837<br />
|title = Notebook B: (Transmutation of species)<br />
|publisher = Darwin Online<br />
|id = CUL-DAR121<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&pageseq=1<br />
|accessdate = 20 December 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|archive-date = 8 February 2009<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090208160457/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&viewtype=side&pageseq=1<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last= Darwin<br />
| first= Charles<br />
| year= 1839<br />
| title= Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Journal and remarks. 1832–1836.<br />
| location= London<br />
| publisher= Henry Colburn<br />
| volume= III<br />
| url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.3&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
| accessdate= 24 October 2008<br />
| ref= <br />
| archive-date= 21 July 2012<br />
| archive-url= https://www.webcitation.org/69KaAyQaz?url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.3<br />
| url-status= live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Darwin<br />
| first = Charles<br />
| author-link = <br />
| year = 1842<br />
| publication-date = 1909<br />
| contribution = Pencil Sketch of 1842<br />
| contribution-url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1556&pageseq=33<br />
| editor-last = Darwin<br />
| editor-first = Francis<br />
| editor-link = Francis Darwin<br />
| title = The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844.<br />
| publisher = Cambridge University Press<br />
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
| isbn = 978-0-548-79998-7<br />
| ref = harv<br />
| access-date = 13 December 2006<br />
| archive-date = 29 September 2011<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110929181520/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
| url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last= Darwin<br />
| first= Charles<br />
| author-link= <br />
| year= 1845<br />
| title= Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world, under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N. 2d edition<br />
| location= London<br />
| publisher= John Murray<br />
| url= http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F20&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
| accessdate= 24 October 2008<br />
| ref= harv<br />
| archive-date= 17 September 2011<br />
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110917084240/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F20&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
| url-status= live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
| last1 = Darwin<br />
| first1 = Charles<br />
| last2 = Wallace<br />
| first2 = Alfred Russel<br />
| author2-link = Alfred Russel Wallace<br />
| year = 1858<br />
| title =On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection<br />
| edition =<br />
| series = Zoology 3<br />
| journal=Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London<br />
| pages = 46–50<br />
| doi = 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x|ref=<br />
| volume = 3<br />
| issue = 9| title-link = On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection<br />
| doi-access = free<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Darwin<br />
|first = Charles<br />
|year = 1859<br />
|title = On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life<br />
|edition = 1st<br />
|location = London<br />
|publisher = John Murray<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
|accessdate = 24 October 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|isbn = 978-1-4353-9386-8<br />
|archive-date = 5 October 2008<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081005185317/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Darwin<br />
| first = Charles<br />
| author-link = <br />
| year = 1868<br />
| title = The variation of animals and plants under domestication<br />
| location = London<br />
| publisher = John Murray<br />
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F880.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
| accessdate = 1 November 2008<br />
| ref = <br />
| isbn = 978-1-4191-8660-8<br />
| archive-date = 30 January 2011<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110130072803/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F880.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
| url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Darwin<br />
|first = Charles<br />
|year = 1871<br />
|title = The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex<br />
|edition = 1st<br />
|location = London<br />
|publisher = John Murray<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_TheDescentofMan.html<br />
|accessdate = 24 October 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|isbn = 978-0-8014-2085-6<br />
|archive-date = 12 July 2011<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110712194932/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_TheDescentofMan.html<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Darwin<br />
|first = Charles<br />
|year = 1872<br />
|title = The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life<br />
|edition = 6th<br />
|location = London<br />
|publisher = John Murray<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F391&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
|accessdate = 1 November 2009<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|isbn = 978-1-4353-9386-8<br />
|archive-date = 7 January 2010<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100107064907/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F391&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Darwin<br />
|first = Charles<br />
|year = 1874<br />
|title = The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex<br />
|edition = 2nd<br />
|location = London<br />
|publisher = John Murray<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_TheDescentofMan.html<br />
|accessdate = 16 January 2016<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|isbn = 978-0-8014-2085-6<br />
|archive-date = 12 July 2011<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110712194932/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_TheDescentofMan.html<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Darwin<br />
|first = Charles<br />
|year = 1887<br />
|editor-last = Darwin<br />
|editor-first = Francis<br />
|editor-link = Francis Darwin<br />
|title = The life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter<br />
|location = London<br />
|publisher = John Murray<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_LifeandLettersandAutobiography.html<br />
|accessdate = 4 November 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|isbn = 978-0-404-08417-2<br />
|archive-date = 5 March 2011<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110305110738/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_LifeandLettersandAutobiography.html<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Darwin<br />
|first = Charles<br />
|year = 1958<br />
|editor-last = Barlow<br />
|editor-first = Nora<br />
|editor-link = Nora Barlow<br />
|title = The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his granddaughter Nora Barlow<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=1&itemID=F1497&viewtype=text<br />
|location = London<br />
|publisher = Collins<br />
|accessdate = 28 September 2013<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|archive-date = 16 August 2013<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130816093152/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{Cite book<br />
|last = Darwin<br />
|first = Charles<br />
|year = 2006<br />
|contribution = Journal<br />
|contribution-url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1-76&pageseq=1<br />
|editor-last = van Wyhe<br />
|editor-first = John<br />
|title = Darwin's personal 'Journal' (1809–1881)<br />
|publisher = Darwin Online<br />
|id = CUL-DAR158.1–76<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_JournalDAR158.html<br />
|accessdate = 20 December 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|archive-date = 24 December 2008<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081224083758/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_JournalDAR158.html<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last1 = Darwin<br />
|first1 = Charles<br />
|last2 = Costa<br />
|first2 = James T.<br />
|year = 2009<br />
|title = The Annotated Origin: A Facsimile of the First Edition of On the Origin of Species Annotated by James T. Costa<br />
|isbn = 978-0-674-03281-1<br />
|location = Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England<br />
|publisher = Belknap Press of Harvard University Press<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|url = https://archive.org/details/annotatedoriginf00darw<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last1 = Desmond<br />
| first1 = Adrian<br />
| authorlink = Adrian Desmond<br />
| last2 = Moore<br />
| first2 = James<br />
| author2-link = James Moore (biographer)<br />
| year = 1991<br />
| title = Darwin<br />
| location = London<br />
| publisher=Michael Joseph, Penguin Group<br />
| isbn = 978-0-7181-3430-3|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite ODNB<br />
| last = Desmond<br />
| first = Adrian<br />
| author-link =<br />
| last2 = Moore<br />
| first2 = James<br />
| author2-link = James Moore (biographer)<br />
| last3=Browne<br />
| first3=Janet<br />
| year = 2004<br />
| title = Darwin, Charles Robert<br />
| dictionary = <br />
| location = Oxford, England<br />
| doi = 10.1093/ref:odnb/7176|ref=harv<br />
| isbn = 978-0-19-861411-1<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last1 = Desmond<br />
|first1 = Adrian<br />
|last2 = Moore<br />
|first2 = James<br />
|title = Darwin's sacred cause : race, slavery and the quest for human origins<br />
|publisher = Allen Lane<br />
|location = London<br />
|year = 2009<br />
|isbn = 978-1-84614-035-8<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|url-access = registration<br />
|url = https://archive.org/details/darwinssacredcau0000desm<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
| last = Dobzhansky<br />
| first = Theodosius<br />
| author-link = Theodosius Dobzhansky<br />
| date = March 1973<br />
| title = Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution<br />
| journal = The American Biology Teacher<br />
| volume = 35<br />
| pages = 125–129<br />
| ref = harv<br />
| doi = 10.2307/4444260<br />
| issue = 3<br />
| jstor = 4444260<br />
| citeseerx = 10.1.1.525.3586<br />
| s2cid = 207358177<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
| last = Eldredge<br />
| first = Niles<br />
| author-link = Niles Eldredge<br />
| year = 2006<br />
| title = Confessions of a Darwinist<br />
| periodical = The Virginia Quarterly Review<br />
| issue = Spring 2006<br />
| pages = 32–53<br />
| url = http://www.vqronline.org/articles/2006/spring/eldredge-confessions-darwinist/<br />
| accessdate = 4 November 2008<br />
| ref = harv<br />
| archive-date = 24 December 2013<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131224110620/http://www.vqronline.org/articles/2006/spring/eldredge-confessions-darwinist/<br />
| url-status = dead<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = FitzRoy<br />
| first = Robert<br />
| author-link = Robert Fitzroy<br />
| year = 1839<br />
| title = Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, Volume II<br />
| location = London<br />
| publisher = Henry Colburn<br />
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
| accessdate = 4 November 2008<br />
| ref = harv<br />
| archive-date = 5 May 2011<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110505173517/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
| url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Freeman<br />
|first = R. B.<br />
|author-link = R. B. Freeman<br />
|year = 1977<br />
|title = The Works of Charles Darwin: An Annotated Bibliographical Handlist<br />
|location = Folkestone<br />
|publisher = Wm Dawson & Sons Ltd<br />
|url = https://archive.org/details/worksofcharlesda0000free<br />
|accessdate = 4 November 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|isbn = 978-0-208-01658-4<br />
|url-access = registration<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Freeman<br />
| first = R. B.<br />
| title = Charles Darwin: A companion<br />
| publisher = [[The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online]]<br />
| year = 2007<br />
| edition = 2nd online<br />
| url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A27b&viewtype=text&pageseq=114<br />
| pages = 107, 109<br />
| accessdate = 25 December 2014<br />
| ref = harv<br />
| archive-date = 25 December 2014<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141225163344/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A27b&viewtype=text&pageseq=114<br />
| url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
|last = Herbert<br />
|first = Sandra<br />
|year = 1980<br />
|title = The red notebook of Charles Darwin<br />
|journal = Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Historical Series<br />
|issue = 7 (24 April)<br />
|pages = 1–164<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1583e&pageseq=1<br />
|accessdate = 11 January 2009<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|archive-date = 11 July 2007<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070711050113/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1583e&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
|last = Herbert<br />
|first = Sandra<br />
|year = 1991<br />
|title = Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author<br />
|journal = British Journal for the History of Science<br />
|issue = 2<br />
|pages = 159–192<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=1<br />
|accessdate = 24 October 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|doi = 10.1017/S0007087400027060<br />
|volume = 24<br />
|archive-date = 29 March 2017<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170329133528/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=1<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last1 = Huxley<br />
| first1 = Julian<br />
| authorlink = Julian Huxley<br />
| last2 = Kettlewell<br />
| first2 = H.B.D.<br />
| authorlink2 = Bernard Kettlewell<br />
| title = Charles Darwin and His World<br />
| url = https://archive.org/details/charlesdarwinhis0000huxl_y9d3<br />
| url-access = registration<br />
| publisher = the Viking Press<br />
| location = New York<br />
| year = 1965<br />
| ref = harv<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Keynes<br />
|first = Richard<br />
|author-link = Richard Keynes<br />
|year = 2000<br />
|title = Charles Darwin's zoology notes & specimen lists from H.M.S. Beagle<br />
|publisher = Cambridge University Press<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1840&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
|accessdate = 22 November 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|isbn = 978-0-521-46569-4<br />
|archive-date = 5 December 2008<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081205002654/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1840&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Keynes<br />
|first = Richard<br />
|year = 2001<br />
|title = Charles Darwin's Beagle Diary<br />
|publisher = Cambridge University Press<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1925&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
|accessdate = 24 October 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|isbn = 978-0-521-23503-7<br />
|archive-date = 4 June 2012<br />
|archive-url = https://archive.today/20120604052049/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1925&viewtype=text&pageseq=1<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
|last=Kotzin<br />
|first=Daniel<br />
|year=2004<br />
|title=Point-Counterpoint: Social Darwinism<br />
|publisher=Columbia American History Online<br />
|url=http://caho-test.cc.columbia.edu/pcp/14008.html<br />
|accessdate=22 November 2008<br />
|ref=harv<br />
|url-status=dead<br />
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719072856/http://caho-test.cc.columbia.edu/pcp/14008.html<br />
|archivedate=19 July 2011<br />
|df=<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book|last=Larson|first=Edward J.|authorlink=Edward Larson|title=Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory|publisher=Modern Library|year=2004|isbn=978-0-679-64288-6|ref=harv|url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionremarka00lars}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
| last = Leff<br />
| first = David<br />
| year = 2000<br />
| title = AboutDarwin.com<br />
| url = http://www.aboutdarwin.com/index.html<br />
| edition = 2000–2008<br />
| accessdate = 30 December 2008<br />
| ref = harv<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130828111301/http://www.aboutdarwin.com/index.html<br />
| archive-date = 28 August 2013<br />
| url-status = dead<br />
| df = dmy-all<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
|last = Leifchild<br />
|date = 19 November 1859<br />
|title = Review of 'Origin'<br />
|periodical = [[Athenaeum (British magazine)|Athenaeum]]<br />
|issue = 1673<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=image&itemID=CUL-DAR226.1.8&pageseq=1<br />
|accessdate = 22 November 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|archive-date = 5 December 2008<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081205002714/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=image&itemID=CUL-DAR226.1.8&pageseq=1<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
|last = Miles<br />
|first = Sara Joan<br />
|year = 2001<br />
|title = Charles Darwin and Asa Gray Discuss Teleology and Design<br />
|journal = [[Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith]]<br />
|volume = 53<br />
|pages = 196–201<br />
|url = http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/2001/PSCF9-01Miles.html<br />
|accessdate = 22 November 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|archive-date = 5 April 2020<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200405172817/http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/2001/PSCF9-01Miles.html<br />
|url-status = dead<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite news<br />
|last=Moore<br />
|first=James<br />
|author-link=James Moore (biographer)<br />
|year=2005<br />
|title=Darwin&nbsp;– A 'Devil's Chaplain'?<br />
|publisher=American Public Media<br />
|url=http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/moore-devilschaplain.pdf<br />
|accessdate=22 November 2008<br />
|ref=harv<br />
|url-status=dead<br />
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227014518/http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/moore-devilschaplain.pdf<br />
|archivedate=27 February 2008<br />
|df=<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite news<br />
|last=Moore<br />
|first=James<br />
|year=2006<br />
|title=Evolution and Wonder&nbsp;– Understanding Charles Darwin<br />
|series=Speaking of Faith (Radio Program)<br />
|publisher=American Public Media<br />
|url=http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml<br />
|accessdate=22 November 2008<br />
|ref=harv<br />
|url-status=dead<br />
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222020720/http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml<br />
|archivedate=22 December 2008<br />
|df=<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Owen<br />
| first = Richard<br />
| author-link = Richard Owen<br />
| year = 1840<br />
| editor-last = Darwin<br />
| editor-first = C. R.<br />
| title = Fossil Mammalia Part 1<br />
| series =The zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle<br />
| location = London<br />
| publisher=Smith Elder and Co|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = Paul<br />
|first = Diane B.<br />
|year = 2003<br />
|contribution = Darwin, social Darwinism and eugenics<br />
|editor-last = Hodge<br />
|editor-first = Jonathan<br />
|editor2-last = Radick<br />
|editor2-first = Gregory<br />
|title = The Cambridge Companion to Darwin<br />
|url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00hodg_248<br />
|url-access = limited<br />
|publisher = Cambridge University Press<br />
|pages = [https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00hodg_248/page/n229 214]–239<br />
|isbn = 978-0-521-77730-8<br />
|ref = harv<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Radick<br />
| first = Gregory<br />
| chapter = Darwin and Humans<br />
| editor-last = Ruse<br />
| editor-first = Michael<br />
| title = The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Darwin and Evolutionary Thought<br />
| publisher = Cambridge University Press<br />
| year = 2013<br />
| pages = 173–181 |ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
| last = Smith<br />
| first = Charles H.<br />
| title = Alfred Russel Wallace on Spiritualism, Man, and Evolution: An Analytical Essay<br />
| year = 1999<br />
| url = http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/essays/ARWPAMPH.htm<br />
| accessdate = 7 December 2008<br />
| ref = harv<br />
| archive-date = 5 December 2008<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081205020823/http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/essays/ARWPAMPH.htm<br />
| url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
|last = Sulloway<br />
|first = Frank J.<br />
|author-link = Frank Sulloway<br />
|year = 1982<br />
|title = Darwin and His Finches: The Evolution of a Legend<br />
|journal = Journal of the History of Biology<br />
|volume = 15<br />
|issue = 1<br />
|pages = 1–53<br />
|url = http://www.sulloway.org/Finches.pdf<br />
|accessdate = 9 December 2008<br />
|doi = 10.1007/BF00132004<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|citeseerx = 10.1.1.458.3975<br />
|s2cid = 17161535<br />
|archive-date = 16 December 2008<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081216211931/http://www.sulloway.org/Finches.pdf<br />
|url-status = dead<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
| last = Sweet<br />
| first = William<br />
| title = Herbert Spencer<br />
| publisher = Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy<br />
| year = 2004<br />
| url = http://www.iep.utm.edu/spencer/<br />
| accessdate = 16 December 2008<br />
| ref = harv<br />
| archive-date = 28 May 2010<br />
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100528161329/http://www.iep.utm.edu/spencer/<br />
| url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
|last = Wilkins<br />
|first = John S.<br />
|year = 1997<br />
|title = Evolution and Philosophy: Does evolution make might right?<br />
|publisher = [[TalkOrigins Archive]]<br />
|url = http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/evolphil/social.html<br />
|accessdate = 22 November 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|archive-date = 14 May 2011<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110514095809/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/evolphil/social.html<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Wilkins<br />
| first = John S.<br />
| year = 2008<br />
| contribution =Darwin<br />
| editor-last = Tucker<br />
| editor-first = Aviezer<br />
| title =A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography<br />
| series =Blackwell Companions to Philosophy<br />
| pages =405–415<br />
| location =Chichester<br />
| publisher=Wiley-Blackwell<br />
| isbn =978-1-4051-4908-2|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
|last = van Wyhe<br />
|first = John<br />
|title = Mind the gap: Did Darwin avoid publishing his theory for many years?<br />
|journal = Notes and Records of the Royal Society<br />
|volume = 61<br />
|issue = 2<br />
|pages = 177–205<br />
|date = 27 March 2007<br />
|doi = 10.1098/rsnr.2006.0171<br />
|s2cid = 202574857<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=1<br />
|accessdate = 7 February 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|archive-date = 11 January 2011<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110111012141/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=1<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
|last = van Wyhe<br />
|first = John<br />
|year = 2008<br />
|title = Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch<br />
|publisher = Darwin Online<br />
|url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html<br />
|accessdate = 17 November 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|archive-date = 13 January 2020<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200113061826/http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last =van Wyhe<br />
| first =John<br />
| publication-date =1 September 2008<br />
| year =2008b<br />
| title =Darwin: The Story of the Man and His Theories of Evolution<br />
| location =London<br />
| publisher=Andre Deutsch Ltd<br />
| isbn =978-0-233-00251-4|ref=harv}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
|last = von Sydow<br />
|first = Momme<br />
|year = 2005<br />
|contribution = Darwin&nbsp;– A Christian Undermining Christianity? On Self-Undermining Dynamics of Ideas Between Belief and Science<br />
|contribution-url = http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf<br />
|editor-last = Knight<br />
|editor-first = David M.<br />
|editor2-last = Eddy<br />
|editor2-first = Matthew D.<br />
|title = Science and Beliefs: From Natural Philosophy to Natural Science, 1700–1900<br />
|location = Burlington<br />
|publisher = Ashgate<br />
|pages = 141–156<br />
|isbn = 978-0-7546-3996-1<br />
|accessdate = 16 December 2008<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090326070105/http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf<br />
|archive-date = 26 March 2009<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
|last = Yates<br />
|first = Simon<br />
|year = 2003<br />
|title = The Lady Hope Story: A Widespread Falsehood<br />
|publisher = [[TalkOrigins Archive]]<br />
|url = http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/hope.html<br />
|accessdate = 15 December 2006<br />
|ref = harv<br />
|archive-date = 12 October 2009<br />
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091012194435/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/hope.html<br />
|url-status = live<br />
}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
<br />
== External links 相关链接 ==<br />
<br />
* The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online – Darwin Online; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews<br />
* 查尔斯·达尔文在线全集–达尔文在线;达尔文的出版物,私人论文和书目,包括传记,讣告和评论的补充作品。<br />
<br />
* •Darwin Correspondence Project Full text and notes for complete correspondence to 1867, with summaries of all the rest, and pages of commentary<br />
* 达尔文相关作品全文和注释,以完整反映1867年的情况,并附带所有其他内容的摘要和注释页。<br />
<br />
* Works by Charles Darwin at Project Gutenberg<br />
* 查尔斯·达尔文在古腾堡计划中的作品<br />
<br />
* Works by or about Charles Robert Darwin at Internet Archive<br />
* 互联网档案馆收集的关于查尔斯·达尔文或与之相关的作品<br />
<br />
* Works by Charles Darwin at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) <br />
* Charles Darwin在LibriVox上的作品(公共领域有声读物)<br />
<br />
* Darwin Manuscript Project<br />
* 达尔文手稿项目<br />
<br />
* "Archival material relating to Charles Darwin". UK National Archives. <br />
* “与查尔斯·达尔文有关的档案材料”,来自于英国国家档案馆。<br />
<br />
* Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Darwin, Charles Robert" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.<br />
* 《达尔文,查尔斯·罗伯特》(1911),休斯·奇索姆Chisholm编辑。不列颠百科全书(第11版),来自于剑桥大学出版社。<br />
<br />
* View books owned and annotated by Charles Darwin at the online Biodiversity Heritage Library.<br />
* 查尔斯·达尔文拥有和注释的书籍,来自于在线生物多样性遗产图书馆。<br />
<br />
* Digitised Darwin Manuscripts in Cambridge Digital Library<br />
* 数字化达尔文手稿,来自于剑桥数字图书馆<br />
<br />
* Portraits of Charles Darwin at the National Portrait Gallery, London <br />
* 查尔斯·达尔文肖像,伦敦国家肖像画廊<br />
<br />
* Newspaper clippings about Charles Darwin in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW<br />
* 查尔斯·达尔文的剪报,来自于德国国家经济图书馆ZBW 20世纪新闻档案<br />
<br />
{{sisterlinks|s=Author:Charles Robert Darwin|wikt=Darwinian|species_author=Charles Robert Darwin|m=no|mw=no|voy=no|b=General Biology/Gallery of Biologists/Charles Darwin|v=no}}<br />
{{Library resources box<br />
|onlinebooks=yes<br />
|by=yes<br />
|viaf= 27063124<br />
|label=Charles Darwin<br />
}}<br />
* [[The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online]]&nbsp;– [http://darwin-online.org.uk/ Darwin Online]; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews<br />
* [http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/ Darwin Correspondence Project] Full text and notes for complete correspondence to 1867, with summaries of all the rest, and pages of commentary<br />
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Darwin,+Charles | name=Charles Darwin}}<br />
* {{Internet Archive author |name=Charles Robert Darwin}}<br />
* {{Librivox author |id=166}}<br />
* [http://darwin.amnh.org/ Darwin Manuscript Project]<br />
* {{UK National Archives ID}}<br />
* {{Cite EB1911| wstitle=Darwin, Charles Robert}}<br />
* View books owned and annotated by [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/collection/darwinlibrary Charles Darwin] at the online Biodiversity Heritage Library.<br />
* [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/darwin_mss Digitised Darwin Manuscripts] in [[Cambridge Digital Library]]<br />
*{{NPG name}}<br />
* {{PM20|FID=pe/003703}}<br />
<br />
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{{Darwin}}<br />
{{Evolution}}<br />
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<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Darwin, Charles}}<br />
[[Category:Charles Darwin| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)]]<br />
[[Category:Royal Medal winners]]<br />
[[Category:Utilitarians]]<br />
[[Category:Wollaston Medal winners]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E4%BC%A0%E9%80%92%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB&diff=20893传递关系2021-01-14T04:10:40Z<p>小趣木木:/* 闭包性 */</p>
<hr />
<div>本词条由K先生翻译。<br />
此词条暂由彩云小译翻译。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])英文译文缺失 需要补充<br />
{{more citations needed|date=October 2013}}<br />
<br />
In [[mathematics]], a [[homogeneous relation]] {{math|''R''}} over a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] {{math|''X''}} is '''transitive''' if for all elements {{math|''a''}}, {{math|''b''}}, {{math|''c''}} in {{math|''X''}}, whenever {{math|''R''}} relates {{math|''a''}} to {{math|''b''}} and {{math|''b''}} to {{math|''c''}}, then {{math|''R''}} also relates {{math|''a''}} to {{math|''c''}}. Each [[partial order]] as well as each [[equivalence relation]] needs to be transitive.<br />
<br />
In mathematics, a homogeneous relation R over a set X is transitive if for all elements a, b, c in X, whenever R relates a to b and b to c, then R also relates a to c. Each partial order as well as each equivalence relation needs to be transitive.<br />
<br />
在数学上,若对于某个集合X中的所有元素a,b,c而言,每当齐次关系R将a与b,b与c建立联系时,R也将a与c联系起来,称集合X中的R是可传递的,每个偏序和每个等价关系都需要是可传递的。<br />
<br />
<br />
== Definition ==<br><br />
==定义==<br />
<br />
{{stack|{{Binary relations}}}}<br />
<br />
A homogeneous relation {{mvar|R}} on the set {{mvar|X}} is a ''transitive relation'' if,<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Eggen|St. Andre|2006|loc=p. 145}}</ref><br />
<br />
A homogeneous relation R on the set X is a transitive relation if,<br />
<br />
一个集合X中的齐次关系R,其传递关系是不确定的,<br />
<br />
:for all {{math|''a'', ''b'', ''c'' ∈ ''X''}}, if {{math|''a R b''}} and {{math|''b R c''}}, then {{math|''a R c''}}.<br />
<br />
for all a, b, c ∈ X, if a R b and b R c, then a R c.<br />
<br />
对所有元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''来说,如果存在''a R b''和''b R c'',那么就有''a R c''。<br />
<br />
Or in terms of [[first-order logic]]:<br />
<br />
Or in terms of first-order logic:<br />
<br />
或者按照一阶逻辑:<br />
<br />
:<math>\forall a,b,c \in X: (aRb \wedge bRc) \Rightarrow aRc,</math><br />
<br />
<math>\forall a,b,c \in X: (aRb \wedge bRc) \Rightarrow aRc,</math><br />
<br />
where {{math|''a R b''}} is the [[infix notation]] for {{math|(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R''}}.<br />
<br />
where a R b is the infix notation for (a, b) ∈ R.<br />
<br />
其中,对于(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R'',''a R b''是其中缀表示法。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br><br />
==例子==<br />
<br />
As a nonmathematical example, the relation "is an ancestor of" is transitive. For example, if Amy is an ancestor of Becky, and Becky is an ancestor of Carrie, then Amy, too, is an ancestor of Carrie.<br />
<br />
As a nonmathematical example, the relation "is an ancestor of" is transitive. For example, if Amy is an ancestor of Becky, and Becky is an ancestor of Carrie, then Amy, too, is an ancestor of Carrie.<br />
<br />
一个非数学的例子,关系“谁是谁的祖先”就是一种传递关系。例如,如果Amy是Becky的祖先,而Becky是Carrie的祖先,那么Amy也是Carrie的祖先。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
On the other hand, "is the birth parent of" is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the birth parent of Brenda, and Brenda is the birth parent of Claire, then Alice is not the birth parent of Claire. What is more, it is [[antitransitive]]: Alice can ''never'' be the birth parent of Claire.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, "is the birth parent of" is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the birth parent of Brenda, and Brenda is the birth parent of Claire, then Alice is not the birth parent of Claire. What is more, it is antitransitive: Alice can never be the birth parent of Claire.<br />
<br />
另一方面,“谁是谁的亲生父母” 不是一个传递关系,因为如果 Alice 是 Brenda 的亲身父母,而 Brenda 是 Claire 的亲身父母,那么 Alice 不会是 Claire 的亲身父母。更重要的是,它是一种反传递关系: Alice 永远不可能是 Claire 的亲身父母。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])亲身父母 亲生父母<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
"Is greater than", "is at least as great as", and "is equal to" ([[equality (mathematics)|equality]]) are transitive relations on various sets, for instance, the set of real numbers or the set of natural numbers:<br />
<br />
"Is greater than", "is at least as great as", and "is equal to" (equality) are transitive relations on various sets, for instance, the set of real numbers or the set of natural numbers:<br />
<br />
“ 大于”、“大于等于”和“ 等于”(相等关系)是各种集合上的传递关系,例如实数集合或自然数集合:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
: whenever ''x'' &gt; ''y'' and ''y'' &gt; ''z'', then also ''x'' &gt; ''z''<br />
<br />
whenever x &gt; y and y &gt; z, then also x &gt; z<br />
<br />
只要 x > y 且 y > z,那么 x > z<br />
<br />
: whenever ''x'' &ge; ''y'' and ''y'' &ge; ''z'', then also ''x'' &ge; ''z''<br />
<br />
whenever x &ge; y and y &ge; z, then also x &ge; z<br />
<br />
只要 x ≥y 且 y ≥ z,那么 x ≥ z<br />
<br />
: whenever ''x'' = ''y'' and ''y'' = ''z'', then also ''x'' = ''z''.<br />
<br />
whenever x = y and y = z, then also x = z.<br />
<br />
只要 x = y,y = z,那么 x = z。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
More examples of transitive relations:<br />
<br />
More examples of transitive relations:<br />
<br />
更多传递关系的例子:<br />
<br />
* "is a [[subset]] of" (set inclusion, a relation on sets)<br />
"is a subset of" (set inclusion, a relation on sets)<br />
“XX是XX的子集”(集合里的包含关系,属于一种集合上的关系)<br />
<br />
* "divides" ([[divisor|divisibility]], a relation on natural numbers)<br />
"divides" (divisibility, a relation on natural numbers)<br />
“除以”(可除性,一种自然数里的关系)<br />
<br />
* "implies" ([[material conditional|implication]], symbolized by "⇒", a relation on [[proposition]]s)<br />
"implies" (implication, symbolized by "⇒", a relation on propositions)<br />
“必然包含”(涵盖,推出,用“⇒”表示,一种命题里的关系)<br />
<br />
Examples of non-transitive relations:<br />
<br />
Examples of non-transitive relations:<br />
<br />
不是传递关系的例子:<br />
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* "is the [[successor function|successor]] of" (a relation on natural numbers)<br />
"is the successor of" (a relation on natural numbers)<br />
“XX是XX的后继数”(一种自然数里的关系)<br />
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* "is a member of the set" (symbolized as "∈")<ref>However, the class of [[von Neumann ordinal]]s is constructed in a way such that ∈ ''is'' transitive when restricted to that class.</ref><br />
"is a member of the set" (symbolized as "∈")<br />
“XX是集合里的元素”(用“∈”表示)<br />
* "is [[perpendicular]] to" (a relation on lines in [[Euclidean geometry]])<br />
"is perpendicular to" (a relation on lines in Euclidean geometry)<br />
“垂直于”(一种欧几里得几何中的线关系)<br />
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The [[empty relation]] on any set <math>X</math> is transitive<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Eggen|St. Andre|2006|loc=p. 146}}</ref><ref>https://courses.engr.illinois.edu/cs173/sp2011/Lectures/relations.pdf</ref> because there are no elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> such that <math>aRb</math> and <math>bRc</math>, and hence the transitivity condition is [[vacuous truth|vacuously true]]. A relation {{math|''R''}} containing only one [[ordered pair]] is also transitive: if the ordered pair is of the form <math>(x, x)</math> for some <math>x \in X</math> the only such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> are <math>a=b=c=x</math>, and indeed in this case <math>aRc</math>, while if the ordered pair is not of the form <math>(x, x)</math> then there are no such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> and hence <math>R</math> is vacuously transitive.<br />
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The empty relation on any set <math>X</math> is transitive because there are no elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> such that <math>aRb</math> and <math>bRc</math>, and hence the transitivity condition is vacuously true. A relation containing only one ordered pair is also transitive: if the ordered pair is of the form <math>(x, x)</math> for some <math>x \in X</math> the only such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> are <math>a=b=c=x</math>, and indeed in this case <math>aRc</math>, while if the ordered pair is not of the form <math>(x, x)</math> then there are no such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> and hence <math>R</math> is vacuously transitive.<br />
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任何集合上的空关系是可传递的,因为没有元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''使得满足''a R b''和''b R c''的条件,因此空关系的可传递性为真。仅包含一个有序对的关系也是可传递的:若对于''x∈X'',有序对的形式是(''x'',''x''),只有这样的元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''满足''a=b=c=x''时,在这种情况下确实有''a R c'',但是当有序对的形式不是(''x'',''x''),那么存在这样的元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X'',因此''R''是空传递的。<br />
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== Properties ==<br><br />
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==性质==<br />
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=== Closure properties ===<br><br />
===闭包性===<br />
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* The [[inverse relation|inverse]] (converse) of a transitive relation is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "is a [[subset]] of" is transitive and "is a [[superset]] of" is its inverse, one can conclude that the latter is transitive as well.<br />
The inverse (converse) of a transitive relation is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "is a subset of" is transitive and "is a superset of" is its inverse, one can conclude that the latter is transitive as well.<br />
传递关系的逆命题总是可传递的。例如,我们知道“XX是XX的一个子集”是可传递的,其逆命题是“XX是XX的一个超集”,则可得到该命题也是可传递的。<br />
* The intersection of two transitive relations is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "was born before" and "has the same first name as" are transitive, one can conclude that "was born before and also has the same first name as" is also transitive.<br />
两个传递关系的交集总是可传递的。例如,我们知道“出生于...之前”的关系和“与...同名”的关系是可传递的,则可得到“既出生于...之前又与...同名”的关系也是可传递的。<br />
* The union of two transitive relations need not be transitive. For instance, "was born before or has the same first name as" is not a transitive relation, since e.g. [[Herbert Hoover]] is related to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], which is in turn related to [[Franklin Pierce]], while Hoover is not related to Franklin Pierce.<br />
The union of two transitive relations need not be transitive. For instance, "was born before or has the same first name as" is not a transitive relation, since e.g. Herbert Hoover is related to Franklin D. Roosevelt, which is in turn related to Franklin Pierce, while Hoover is not related to Franklin Pierce.<br />
两个传递关系的并集不一定是可传递的。例如,“出生于...之前或与...同名”的关系就不是可传递的,因为如,Herbert Hoover与Franklin D. Roosevelt有亲属关系,而Franklin D. Roosevelt与 Franklin Pierce有亲属关系,但是Herbert Hoover与Franklin Pierce没有亲属关系。<br />
* The complement of a transitive relation need not be transitive. For instance, while "equal to" is transitive, "not equal to" is only transitive on sets with at most one element.<br />
传递关系的补集不一定是可传递的。例如,尽管“等于”关系是可传递的,但是“不等于”关系仅在最多只有一个元素的集合中是可传递的。<br />
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=== Other properties ===<br><br />
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==其他性质==<br />
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A transitive relation is [[asymmetric relation|asymmetric]] if and only if it is [[irreflexive relation|irreflexive]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Flaška|first1=V.|last2=Ježek|first2=J.|last3=Kepka|first3=T.|last4=Kortelainen|first4=J.|title=Transitive Closures of Binary Relations I|year=2007|publisher=School of Mathematics - Physics Charles University|location=Prague|page=1|url=http://www.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~jezek/120/transitive1.pdf|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102214049/http://www.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~jezek/120/transitive1.pdf|archivedate=2013-11-02}} Lemma 1.1 (iv). Note that this source refers to asymmetric relations as "strictly antisymmetric".</ref><br />
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A transitive relation is asymmetric if and only if it is irreflexive.<br />
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当且仅当传递关系具有反自反性时,它具有反对称性。<br />
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A transitive relation need not be [[Reflexive relation|reflexive]]. When it is, it is called a [[preorder]]. For example, on set ''X'' = {1,2,3}:<br />
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A transitive relation need not be reflexive. When it is, it is called a preorder. For example, on set X = {1,2,3}:<br />
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传递关系不一定具有自反性。当传递关系具有自反性时,它被称为一个预序。例如,集合 X= {1,2,3}:<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3), (3,2){{Hair space}}} is reflexive, but not transitive, as the pair (1,2) is absent,<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,3),(3,2)}具有自反性,但不是可传递的,因为缺失(1,2),<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3){{Hair space}}} is reflexive as well as transitive, so it is a preorder,<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,3)}同时具有自反性和传递性,所以它是一个预序,<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3){{Hair space}}} is reflexive as well as transitive, another preorder.<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}也具有自反性和传递性,所以它是另一个预序。<br />
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==Transitive extensions and transitive closure==<br><br />
==传递扩展和传递闭包==<br />
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{{main|Transitive closure}}<br><br />
{{主要文章|传递闭包}}<br />
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Let {{mvar|R}} be a binary relation on set {{mvar|X}}. The ''transitive extension'' of {{mvar|R}}, denoted {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}}, is the smallest binary relation on {{mvar|X}} such that {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}} contains {{mvar|R}}, and if {{math|(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R''}} and {{math|(''b'', ''c'') ∈ ''R''}} then {{math|(''a'', ''c'') ∈ ''R''<sub>1</sub>}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|loc=p. 111}}</ref> For example, suppose {{mvar|X}} is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let {{mvar|R}} be the relation on towns where {{math|(''A'', ''B'') ∈ ''R''}} if there is a road directly linking town {{mvar|A}} and town {{mvar|B}}. This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by {{math|(''A'', ''C'') ∈ ''R''<sub>1</sub>}} if you can travel between towns {{mvar|A}} and {{mvar|C}} by using at most two roads.<br />
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Let R be a binary relation on set X. The transitive extension of R, denoted R1, is the smallest binary relation on X such that R1 contains R, and if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R then (a, c) ∈ R1.[6] For example, suppose X is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let R be the relation on towns where (A, B) ∈ R if there is a road directly linking town A and town B. This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by (A, C) ∈ R1 if you can travel between towns A and C by using at most two roads.<br />
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Let be a binary relation on set . The transitive extension of , denoted , is the smallest binary relation on such that contains , and if and then . For example, suppose is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let be the relation on towns where if there is a road directly linking town and town . This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by if you can travel between towns and by using at most two roads.<br />
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设''R''是集合''X''上的一个二元关系。''R,''的传递扩展,用 ''R1''表示,是在''X''上最小的二元关系以至于''R1''包含''R,'',并且如果(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R'',(''b'', ''c'') ∈ ''R'',那么(''a'', ''c'') ∈ ''R1''。例如,假设''X''是一组城镇,其中一些城镇通过公路相连。设R表示城镇上的关系,存在(A,B)∈R,若有一条公路直接连接城镇A和城镇B,则该关系不一定是可传递的。若最多仅有两条公路连接城镇A和城镇C,这种关系的传递扩展可以用(A,C)∈R1来定义。<br />
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If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if {{mvar|R}} is a transitive relation then {{math|1=''R''<sub>1</sub> = ''R''}}.<br />
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If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if is a transitive relation then .<br />
If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if R is a transitive relation then R1 = R.<br />
如果一个关系是可传递的,那么它的传递扩展是它本身,即若R是一个传递关系,那么有 R1 = R.<br />
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The transitive extension of {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}} would be denoted by {{math|''R''<sub>2</sub>}}, and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of {{math|''R''<sub>''i''</sub>}} would be {{math|''R''<sub>''i'' + 1</sub>}}. The ''transitive closure'' of {{mvar|R}}, denoted by {{math|''R''*}} or {{math|''R''<sup>∞</sup>}} is the set union of {{mvar|R}}, {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}}, {{math|''R''<sub>2</sub>}}, ... .<ref name=Liu112>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|loc=p. 112}}</ref><br />
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The transitive extension of would be denoted by , and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of would be . The transitive closure of , denoted by or is the set union of , , , ... .<br />
The transitive extension of R1 would be denoted by R2, and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of Ri would be Ri + 1. The transitive closure of R, denoted by R* or R∞ is the set union of R, R1, R2, ... .<br />
R1的传递扩展可以用R2来表示,并以这种方式继续下去,一般来说,Ri的传递扩展是Ri+1。R的传递闭包用 R* 或R∞来表示,它是 R, R1, R2, ...的集合。<br />
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The transitive closure of a relation is a transitive relation.<ref name=Liu112 /><br />
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The transitive closure of a relation is a transitive relation. However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, equivalence relations – , those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.<br />
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关系的传递闭包是传递关系。然而,有一个公式可以计算同时具有自反性、对称性和传递性的关系的数量——换句话说,即等价关系——具有对称性和传递性的关系,具有对称性、传递性和反对称性的关系,具有完全性、传递性和反对称性的关系。Pfeiffer 已经在这个方向上取得了一些进展,通过结合这些性质表示相互之间的关系,但是仍然很难计算。请参见。<br />
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The relation "is the birth parent of" on a set of people is not a transitive relation. However, in biology the need often arises to consider birth parenthood over an arbitrary number of generations: the relation "is a birth ancestor of" ''is'' a transitive relation and it is the transitive closure of the relation "is the birth parent of".<br />
在一群人中的关系“XX是XX的亲生父母”不是一个传递关系。但是,生物学上,经常需要考虑任意多代人的亲生关系:关系“XX是XX的鼻祖”是一个传递关系,并且它是关系“XX是XX的亲生父母”的传递闭包。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])鼻祖 祖先 可以统一一下<br />
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For the example of towns and roads above, {{math|(''A'', ''C'') ∈ ''R''*}} provided you can travel between towns {{mvar|A}} and {{mvar|C}} using any number of roads.<br />
以上述城镇和公路为例,(A,C)∈R*的前提假设是你可以在城镇A和C之间的任意数量的公路上行驶。<br />
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The [[Rock–paper–scissors game is based on an intransitive and antitransitive relation "x beats y".]]<br><br />
[[游戏石头-剪刀-布是基于一个非传递和反传递的关系“ x 胜过 y”。]]<br />
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== Relation properties that require transitivity ==<br><br />
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==依赖传递性的关系性质==<br />
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A relation R is called intransitive if it is not transitive, that is, if xRy and yRz, but not xRz, for some x, y, z.<br />
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如果关系 R 不是可传递的,则称之为非传递性,即对于某个 x,y,z而言,若存在 xRy 和 yRz ,而没有xRz,则称之为非传递性。<br />
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* [[Preorder]] – a [[reflexive relation|reflexive]] transitive relation<br />
* [[预序]] -一个具有自反性和传递性的关系<br />
In contrast, a relation R is called antitransitive if xRy and yRz always implies that xRz does not hold.<br />
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相反,如果 xRy 和 yRz 总是表明 xRz 不成立,则关系R被称为具有反传递性。<br />
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* [[Partially ordered set|Partial order]] – an [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] preorder<br />
偏序-一个具有反对称性的预序<br />
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For example, the relation defined by xRy if xy is an even number is intransitive, but not antitransitive. The relation defined by xRy if x is even and y is odd is both transitive and antitransitive. <br />
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例如,如果 xy 是偶数,由 xRy 定义的关系具有非传递性,而不是反传递性。如果 x 是偶数,y 是奇数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有传递性又具有反传递性。<br />
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* [[Total preorder]] – a [[total relation|total]] preorder<br />
总预序-一个总预序<br />
The relation defined by xRy if x is the successor number of y is both intransitive and antitransitive. Unexpected examples of intransitivity arise in situations such as political questions or group preferences.<br />
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如果 x 是 y 的后继数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有非传递性,又具有反传递性。非传递性的例外出现在政治问题或群体偏好等情况中。<br />
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* [[Equivalence relation]] – a [[symmetric relation|symmetric]] preorder<br />
等价关系-一个对称的预序<br />
* [[Strict weak ordering]] – a strict partial order in which incomparability is an equivalence relation<br />
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严格弱序–一种严格的偏序,其中不可比性是一种等价关系<br />
Generalized to stochastic versions (stochastic transitivity), the study of transitivity finds applications of in decision theory, psychometrics and utility models.<br />
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将传递性的研究推广到随机版本(随机传递性),在决策理论、心理测量学和效用模型中都有应用。<br />
* [[Total ordering]] – a [[total relation|total]], [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] transitive relation<br />
总序-一个具有完全性、反对称性和传递性的关系<br />
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A quasitransitive relation is another generalization; it is required to be transitive only on its non-symmetric part. Such relations are used in social choice theory or microeconomics.<br />
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(传递性研究的)另一种推广是拟传递关系,它只要求在它的非对称部分是可传递的。这种关系被用于社会选择理论或微观经济学当中。<br />
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==Counting transitive relations==<br><br />
==计算传递关系==<br />
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No general formula that counts the number of transitive relations on a finite set {{OEIS|id=A006905}} is known.<ref>Steven R. Finch, [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~sfinch/csolve/posets.pdf "Transitive relations, topologies and partial orders"], 2003.</ref> However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, [[equivalence relation]]s – {{OEIS|id=A000110}}, those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer<ref>Götz Pfeiffer, "[http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL7/Pfeiffer/pfeiffer6.html Counting Transitive Relations]", ''Journal of Integer Sequences'', Vol. 7 (2004), Article 04.3.2.</ref> has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.<ref>Gunnar Brinkmann and Brendan D. McKay,"[http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/papers/topologies.pdf Counting unlabelled topologies and transitive relations]"</ref><br />
{{Number of relations}}<br />
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No general formula that counts the number of transitive relations on a finite set (sequence A006905 in the OEIS) is known.[8] However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, equivalence relations – (sequence A000110 in the OEIS), those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer[9] has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.[10]<br />
目前还没有计算有限集上传递关系数量的通用公式(OEIS中的序列A006905)。[8]但是,有一个公式可以用来计算同时具有自反性、对称性和传递性的关系数量——换句话说,即等价关系(OEIS中的序列A000110),具有对称性和传递性的关系,具有对称性、传递性和反对称性的关系,具有完全性、传递性和反对称性的关系。Pfeiffer 已经在这个方向上取得了一些进展,通过结合这些性质表示相互之间的关系,但是仍然很难计算。请参见[10]。<br />
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== Related properties ==<br><br />
==相关性质==<br />
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[[File:Rock-paper-scissors.svg|alt=Cycle diagram|thumb|The [[Rock–paper–scissors]] game is based on an intransitive and antitransitive relation "''x'' beats ''y''".]]<br />
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A relation ''R'' is called ''[[intransitivity|intransitive]]'' if it is not transitive, that is, if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'', but not ''xRz'', for some ''x'', ''y'', ''z''.<br />
A relation R is called intransitive if it is not transitive, that is, if xRy and yRz, but not xRz, for some x, y, z.<br><br />
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如果关系 R 不是可传递的,则称之为非传递性,即对于某个 x,y,z而言,若存在 xRy 和 yRz ,而没有xRz,则称之为非传递性。<br />
In contrast, a relation ''R'' is called ''[[antitransitive]]'' if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' always implies that ''xRz'' does not hold.<br><br />
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相反,如果 xRy 和 yRz 总是表明 xRz 不成立,则关系R被称为具有反传递性。<br />
For example, the relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''xy'' is an [[even number]] is intransitive,<ref>since e.g. 3''R''4 and 4''R''5, but not 3''R''5</ref> but not antitransitive.<ref>since e.g. 2''R''3 and 3''R''4 and 2''R''4</ref> The relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''x'' is even and ''y'' is [[odd number|odd]] is both transitive and antitransitive.<ref>since ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' can never happen</ref> <br><br />
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例如,如果 xy 是偶数,由 xRy 定义的关系具有非传递性,而不是反传递性。如果 x 是偶数,y 是奇数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有传递性又具有反传递性。<br />
The relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''x'' is the [[successor function|successor]] number of ''y'' is both intransitive<ref>since e.g. 3''R''2 and 2''R''1, but not 3''R''1</ref> and antitransitive.<ref>since, more generally, ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' implies ''x''=''y''+1=''z''+2≠''z''+1, i.e. not ''xRz'', for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z''</ref> Unexpected examples of intransitivity arise in situations such as political questions or group preferences.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2018/11/preferences-are-not-transitive/|title=Preferences are not transitive|last=Drum|first=Kevin|date=November 2018|work=Mother Jones|access-date=2018-11-29}}</ref><br><br />
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如果 x 是 y 的后继数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有非传递性,又具有反传递性。非传递性的例外出现在政治问题或群体偏好等情况中。<br />
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Generalized to stochastic versions (''[[stochastic transitivity]]''), the study of transitivity finds applications of in [[decision theory]], [[psychometrics]] and [[Utilitarianism|utility models]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oliveira|first=I.F.D.|last2=Zehavi|first2=S.|last3=Davidov|first3=O.|date=August 2018|title=Stochastic transitivity: Axioms and models|journal=Journal of Mathematical Psychology|volume=85|pages=25–35|doi=10.1016/j.jmp.2018.06.002|issn=0022-2496}}</ref><br><br />
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将传递性的研究推广到随机版本(随机传递性),在决策理论、心理测量学和效用模型中都有应用。<br />
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A ''[[quasitransitive relation]]'' is another generalization; it is required to be transitive only on its non-symmetric part. Such relations are used in [[social choice theory]] or [[microeconomics]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Sen | first=A. | authorlink=Amartya Sen | title=Quasi-transitivity, rational choice and collective decisions | zbl=0181.47302 | journal=Rev. Econ. Stud. | volume=36 | issue=3 | pages=381–393 | year=1969 | doi=10.2307/2296434 | ref=harv | jstor=2296434 }}</ref><br><br />
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(传递性研究的)另一种推广是拟传递关系,它只要求在它的非对称部分是可传递的。这种关系被用于社会选择理论或微观经济学当中。<br />
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==See also==<br><br />
==参见==<br />
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* [[Transitive reduction]]<br />
* [[传递归约]]<br />
* [[Nontransitive dice]]<br />
* [[非传递骰子]]<br />
* [[Rational choice theory#Formal statement|Rational choice theory]]<br />
* [[理性选择理论]]<br />
* [[Hypothetical syllogism]] &mdash; transitivity of the material conditional<br />
* [[假言推理-物质条件的传递三元组]]<br />
Category:Elementary algebra<br />
类别: 初等代数<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Transitive relation]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[传递关系/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E4%BC%A0%E9%80%92%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB&diff=20892传递关系2021-01-14T04:00:29Z<p>小趣木木:/* 闭包性 */</p>
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<div>本词条由K先生翻译。<br />
此词条暂由彩云小译翻译。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])英文译文缺失 需要补充<br />
{{more citations needed|date=October 2013}}<br />
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In [[mathematics]], a [[homogeneous relation]] {{math|''R''}} over a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] {{math|''X''}} is '''transitive''' if for all elements {{math|''a''}}, {{math|''b''}}, {{math|''c''}} in {{math|''X''}}, whenever {{math|''R''}} relates {{math|''a''}} to {{math|''b''}} and {{math|''b''}} to {{math|''c''}}, then {{math|''R''}} also relates {{math|''a''}} to {{math|''c''}}. Each [[partial order]] as well as each [[equivalence relation]] needs to be transitive.<br />
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In mathematics, a homogeneous relation R over a set X is transitive if for all elements a, b, c in X, whenever R relates a to b and b to c, then R also relates a to c. Each partial order as well as each equivalence relation needs to be transitive.<br />
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在数学上,若对于某个集合X中的所有元素a,b,c而言,每当齐次关系R将a与b,b与c建立联系时,R也将a与c联系起来,称集合X中的R是可传递的,每个偏序和每个等价关系都需要是可传递的。<br />
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== Definition ==<br><br />
==定义==<br />
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{{stack|{{Binary relations}}}}<br />
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A homogeneous relation {{mvar|R}} on the set {{mvar|X}} is a ''transitive relation'' if,<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Eggen|St. Andre|2006|loc=p. 145}}</ref><br />
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A homogeneous relation R on the set X is a transitive relation if,<br />
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一个集合X中的齐次关系R,其传递关系是不确定的,<br />
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:for all {{math|''a'', ''b'', ''c'' ∈ ''X''}}, if {{math|''a R b''}} and {{math|''b R c''}}, then {{math|''a R c''}}.<br />
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for all a, b, c ∈ X, if a R b and b R c, then a R c.<br />
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对所有元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''来说,如果存在''a R b''和''b R c'',那么就有''a R c''。<br />
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Or in terms of [[first-order logic]]:<br />
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Or in terms of first-order logic:<br />
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或者按照一阶逻辑:<br />
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:<math>\forall a,b,c \in X: (aRb \wedge bRc) \Rightarrow aRc,</math><br />
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<math>\forall a,b,c \in X: (aRb \wedge bRc) \Rightarrow aRc,</math><br />
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where {{math|''a R b''}} is the [[infix notation]] for {{math|(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R''}}.<br />
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where a R b is the infix notation for (a, b) ∈ R.<br />
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其中,对于(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R'',''a R b''是其中缀表示法。<br />
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==Examples==<br><br />
==例子==<br />
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As a nonmathematical example, the relation "is an ancestor of" is transitive. For example, if Amy is an ancestor of Becky, and Becky is an ancestor of Carrie, then Amy, too, is an ancestor of Carrie.<br />
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As a nonmathematical example, the relation "is an ancestor of" is transitive. For example, if Amy is an ancestor of Becky, and Becky is an ancestor of Carrie, then Amy, too, is an ancestor of Carrie.<br />
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一个非数学的例子,关系“谁是谁的祖先”就是一种传递关系。例如,如果Amy是Becky的祖先,而Becky是Carrie的祖先,那么Amy也是Carrie的祖先。<br />
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On the other hand, "is the birth parent of" is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the birth parent of Brenda, and Brenda is the birth parent of Claire, then Alice is not the birth parent of Claire. What is more, it is [[antitransitive]]: Alice can ''never'' be the birth parent of Claire.<br />
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On the other hand, "is the birth parent of" is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the birth parent of Brenda, and Brenda is the birth parent of Claire, then Alice is not the birth parent of Claire. What is more, it is antitransitive: Alice can never be the birth parent of Claire.<br />
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另一方面,“谁是谁的亲生父母” 不是一个传递关系,因为如果 Alice 是 Brenda 的亲身父母,而 Brenda 是 Claire 的亲身父母,那么 Alice 不会是 Claire 的亲身父母。更重要的是,它是一种反传递关系: Alice 永远不可能是 Claire 的亲身父母。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])亲身父母 亲生父母<br />
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"Is greater than", "is at least as great as", and "is equal to" ([[equality (mathematics)|equality]]) are transitive relations on various sets, for instance, the set of real numbers or the set of natural numbers:<br />
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"Is greater than", "is at least as great as", and "is equal to" (equality) are transitive relations on various sets, for instance, the set of real numbers or the set of natural numbers:<br />
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“ 大于”、“大于等于”和“ 等于”(相等关系)是各种集合上的传递关系,例如实数集合或自然数集合:<br />
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: whenever ''x'' &gt; ''y'' and ''y'' &gt; ''z'', then also ''x'' &gt; ''z''<br />
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whenever x &gt; y and y &gt; z, then also x &gt; z<br />
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只要 x > y 且 y > z,那么 x > z<br />
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: whenever ''x'' &ge; ''y'' and ''y'' &ge; ''z'', then also ''x'' &ge; ''z''<br />
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whenever x &ge; y and y &ge; z, then also x &ge; z<br />
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只要 x ≥y 且 y ≥ z,那么 x ≥ z<br />
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: whenever ''x'' = ''y'' and ''y'' = ''z'', then also ''x'' = ''z''.<br />
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whenever x = y and y = z, then also x = z.<br />
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只要 x = y,y = z,那么 x = z。<br />
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More examples of transitive relations:<br />
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More examples of transitive relations:<br />
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更多传递关系的例子:<br />
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* "is a [[subset]] of" (set inclusion, a relation on sets)<br />
"is a subset of" (set inclusion, a relation on sets)<br />
“XX是XX的子集”(集合里的包含关系,属于一种集合上的关系)<br />
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* "divides" ([[divisor|divisibility]], a relation on natural numbers)<br />
"divides" (divisibility, a relation on natural numbers)<br />
“除以”(可除性,一种自然数里的关系)<br />
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* "implies" ([[material conditional|implication]], symbolized by "⇒", a relation on [[proposition]]s)<br />
"implies" (implication, symbolized by "⇒", a relation on propositions)<br />
“必然包含”(涵盖,推出,用“⇒”表示,一种命题里的关系)<br />
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Examples of non-transitive relations:<br />
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Examples of non-transitive relations:<br />
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不是传递关系的例子:<br />
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* "is the [[successor function|successor]] of" (a relation on natural numbers)<br />
"is the successor of" (a relation on natural numbers)<br />
“XX是XX的后继数”(一种自然数里的关系)<br />
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* "is a member of the set" (symbolized as "∈")<ref>However, the class of [[von Neumann ordinal]]s is constructed in a way such that ∈ ''is'' transitive when restricted to that class.</ref><br />
"is a member of the set" (symbolized as "∈")<br />
“XX是集合里的元素”(用“∈”表示)<br />
* "is [[perpendicular]] to" (a relation on lines in [[Euclidean geometry]])<br />
"is perpendicular to" (a relation on lines in Euclidean geometry)<br />
“垂直于”(一种欧几里得几何中的线关系)<br />
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The [[empty relation]] on any set <math>X</math> is transitive<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Eggen|St. Andre|2006|loc=p. 146}}</ref><ref>https://courses.engr.illinois.edu/cs173/sp2011/Lectures/relations.pdf</ref> because there are no elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> such that <math>aRb</math> and <math>bRc</math>, and hence the transitivity condition is [[vacuous truth|vacuously true]]. A relation {{math|''R''}} containing only one [[ordered pair]] is also transitive: if the ordered pair is of the form <math>(x, x)</math> for some <math>x \in X</math> the only such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> are <math>a=b=c=x</math>, and indeed in this case <math>aRc</math>, while if the ordered pair is not of the form <math>(x, x)</math> then there are no such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> and hence <math>R</math> is vacuously transitive.<br />
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The empty relation on any set <math>X</math> is transitive because there are no elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> such that <math>aRb</math> and <math>bRc</math>, and hence the transitivity condition is vacuously true. A relation containing only one ordered pair is also transitive: if the ordered pair is of the form <math>(x, x)</math> for some <math>x \in X</math> the only such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> are <math>a=b=c=x</math>, and indeed in this case <math>aRc</math>, while if the ordered pair is not of the form <math>(x, x)</math> then there are no such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> and hence <math>R</math> is vacuously transitive.<br />
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任何集合上的空关系是可传递的,因为没有元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''使得满足''a R b''和''b R c''的条件,因此空关系的可传递性为真。仅包含一个有序对的关系也是可传递的:若对于''x∈X'',有序对的形式是(''x'',''x''),只有这样的元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''满足''a=b=c=x''时,在这种情况下确实有''a R c'',但是当有序对的形式不是(''x'',''x''),那么存在这样的元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X'',因此''R''是空传递的。<br />
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== Properties ==<br><br />
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==性质==<br />
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=== Closure properties ===<br><br />
===闭包性===<br />
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* The [[inverse relation|inverse]] (converse) of a transitive relation is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "is a [[subset]] of" is transitive and "is a [[superset]] of" is its inverse, one can conclude that the latter is transitive as well.<br />
The inverse (converse) of a transitive relation is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "is a subset of" is transitive and "is a superset of" is its inverse, one can conclude that the latter is transitive as well.<br />
传递关系的逆命题总是可传递的。例如,我们知道“XX是XX的一个子集”是可传递的,其逆命题是“XX是XX的一个超集”,则可得到该命题也是可传递的。<br />
* The intersection of two transitive relations is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "was born before" and "has the same first name as" are transitive, one can conclude that "was born before and also has the same first name as" is also transitive.<br />
两个传递关系的交集总是可传递的。例如,我们知道“出生于...之前”的关系和“与...同名”的关系是可传递的,则可得到“既出生于...之前又与...同名”的关系也是可传递的。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])例如,“孔子早于孟子,孟子早于苟子,所以,孔子早于苟子。”传递关系推理是一种有效推理。如果其前提为真,那么其结论也必然真;这里的“出生于...之前”的关系和“与...同名”的关系 或许可以根据这个理解重新组织一下语言<br />
* The union of two transitive relations need not be transitive. For instance, "was born before or has the same first name as" is not a transitive relation, since e.g. [[Herbert Hoover]] is related to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], which is in turn related to [[Franklin Pierce]], while Hoover is not related to Franklin Pierce.<br />
The union of two transitive relations need not be transitive. For instance, "was born before or has the same first name as" is not a transitive relation, since e.g. Herbert Hoover is related to Franklin D. Roosevelt, which is in turn related to Franklin Pierce, while Hoover is not related to Franklin Pierce.<br />
两个传递关系的并集不一定是可传递的。例如,“出生于...之前或与...同名”的关系就不是可传递的,因为如,Herbert Hoover与Franklin D. Roosevelt有亲属关系,而Franklin D. Roosevelt与 Franklin Pierce有亲属关系,但是Herbert Hoover与Franklin Pierce没有亲属关系。<br />
* The complement of a transitive relation need not be transitive. For instance, while "equal to" is transitive, "not equal to" is only transitive on sets with at most one element.<br />
传递关系的补集不一定是可传递的。例如,尽管“等于”关系是可传递的,但是“不等于”关系仅在最多只有一个元素的集合中是可传递的。<br />
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=== Other properties ===<br><br />
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==其他性质==<br />
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A transitive relation is [[asymmetric relation|asymmetric]] if and only if it is [[irreflexive relation|irreflexive]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Flaška|first1=V.|last2=Ježek|first2=J.|last3=Kepka|first3=T.|last4=Kortelainen|first4=J.|title=Transitive Closures of Binary Relations I|year=2007|publisher=School of Mathematics - Physics Charles University|location=Prague|page=1|url=http://www.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~jezek/120/transitive1.pdf|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102214049/http://www.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~jezek/120/transitive1.pdf|archivedate=2013-11-02}} Lemma 1.1 (iv). Note that this source refers to asymmetric relations as "strictly antisymmetric".</ref><br />
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A transitive relation is asymmetric if and only if it is irreflexive.<br />
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当且仅当传递关系具有反自反性时,它具有反对称性。<br />
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A transitive relation need not be [[Reflexive relation|reflexive]]. When it is, it is called a [[preorder]]. For example, on set ''X'' = {1,2,3}:<br />
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A transitive relation need not be reflexive. When it is, it is called a preorder. For example, on set X = {1,2,3}:<br />
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传递关系不一定具有自反性。当传递关系具有自反性时,它被称为一个预序。例如,集合 X= {1,2,3}:<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3), (3,2){{Hair space}}} is reflexive, but not transitive, as the pair (1,2) is absent,<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,3),(3,2)}具有自反性,但不是可传递的,因为缺失(1,2),<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3){{Hair space}}} is reflexive as well as transitive, so it is a preorder,<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,3)}同时具有自反性和传递性,所以它是一个预序,<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3){{Hair space}}} is reflexive as well as transitive, another preorder.<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}也具有自反性和传递性,所以它是另一个预序。<br />
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==Transitive extensions and transitive closure==<br><br />
==传递扩展和传递闭包==<br />
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{{main|Transitive closure}}<br><br />
{{主要文章|传递闭包}}<br />
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Let {{mvar|R}} be a binary relation on set {{mvar|X}}. The ''transitive extension'' of {{mvar|R}}, denoted {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}}, is the smallest binary relation on {{mvar|X}} such that {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}} contains {{mvar|R}}, and if {{math|(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R''}} and {{math|(''b'', ''c'') ∈ ''R''}} then {{math|(''a'', ''c'') ∈ ''R''<sub>1</sub>}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|loc=p. 111}}</ref> For example, suppose {{mvar|X}} is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let {{mvar|R}} be the relation on towns where {{math|(''A'', ''B'') ∈ ''R''}} if there is a road directly linking town {{mvar|A}} and town {{mvar|B}}. This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by {{math|(''A'', ''C'') ∈ ''R''<sub>1</sub>}} if you can travel between towns {{mvar|A}} and {{mvar|C}} by using at most two roads.<br />
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Let R be a binary relation on set X. The transitive extension of R, denoted R1, is the smallest binary relation on X such that R1 contains R, and if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R then (a, c) ∈ R1.[6] For example, suppose X is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let R be the relation on towns where (A, B) ∈ R if there is a road directly linking town A and town B. This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by (A, C) ∈ R1 if you can travel between towns A and C by using at most two roads.<br />
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Let be a binary relation on set . The transitive extension of , denoted , is the smallest binary relation on such that contains , and if and then . For example, suppose is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let be the relation on towns where if there is a road directly linking town and town . This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by if you can travel between towns and by using at most two roads.<br />
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设''R''是集合''X''上的一个二元关系。''R,''的传递扩展,用 ''R1''表示,是在''X''上最小的二元关系以至于''R1''包含''R,'',并且如果(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R'',(''b'', ''c'') ∈ ''R'',那么(''a'', ''c'') ∈ ''R1''。例如,假设''X''是一组城镇,其中一些城镇通过公路相连。设R表示城镇上的关系,存在(A,B)∈R,若有一条公路直接连接城镇A和城镇B,则该关系不一定是可传递的。若最多仅有两条公路连接城镇A和城镇C,这种关系的传递扩展可以用(A,C)∈R1来定义。<br />
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If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if {{mvar|R}} is a transitive relation then {{math|1=''R''<sub>1</sub> = ''R''}}.<br />
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If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if is a transitive relation then .<br />
If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if R is a transitive relation then R1 = R.<br />
如果一个关系是可传递的,那么它的传递扩展是它本身,即若R是一个传递关系,那么有 R1 = R.<br />
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The transitive extension of {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}} would be denoted by {{math|''R''<sub>2</sub>}}, and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of {{math|''R''<sub>''i''</sub>}} would be {{math|''R''<sub>''i'' + 1</sub>}}. The ''transitive closure'' of {{mvar|R}}, denoted by {{math|''R''*}} or {{math|''R''<sup>∞</sup>}} is the set union of {{mvar|R}}, {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}}, {{math|''R''<sub>2</sub>}}, ... .<ref name=Liu112>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|loc=p. 112}}</ref><br />
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The transitive extension of would be denoted by , and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of would be . The transitive closure of , denoted by or is the set union of , , , ... .<br />
The transitive extension of R1 would be denoted by R2, and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of Ri would be Ri + 1. The transitive closure of R, denoted by R* or R∞ is the set union of R, R1, R2, ... .<br />
R1的传递扩展可以用R2来表示,并以这种方式继续下去,一般来说,Ri的传递扩展是Ri+1。R的传递闭包用 R* 或R∞来表示,它是 R, R1, R2, ...的集合。<br />
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The transitive closure of a relation is a transitive relation.<ref name=Liu112 /><br />
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The transitive closure of a relation is a transitive relation. However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, equivalence relations – , those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.<br />
<br />
关系的传递闭包是传递关系。然而,有一个公式可以计算同时具有自反性、对称性和传递性的关系的数量——换句话说,即等价关系——具有对称性和传递性的关系,具有对称性、传递性和反对称性的关系,具有完全性、传递性和反对称性的关系。Pfeiffer 已经在这个方向上取得了一些进展,通过结合这些性质表示相互之间的关系,但是仍然很难计算。请参见。<br />
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The relation "is the birth parent of" on a set of people is not a transitive relation. However, in biology the need often arises to consider birth parenthood over an arbitrary number of generations: the relation "is a birth ancestor of" ''is'' a transitive relation and it is the transitive closure of the relation "is the birth parent of".<br />
在一群人中的关系“XX是XX的亲生父母”不是一个传递关系。但是,生物学上,经常需要考虑任意多代人的亲生关系:关系“XX是XX的鼻祖”是一个传递关系,并且它是关系“XX是XX的亲生父母”的传递闭包。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])鼻祖 祖先 可以统一一下<br />
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For the example of towns and roads above, {{math|(''A'', ''C'') ∈ ''R''*}} provided you can travel between towns {{mvar|A}} and {{mvar|C}} using any number of roads.<br />
以上述城镇和公路为例,(A,C)∈R*的前提假设是你可以在城镇A和C之间的任意数量的公路上行驶。<br />
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The [[Rock–paper–scissors game is based on an intransitive and antitransitive relation "x beats y".]]<br><br />
[[游戏石头-剪刀-布是基于一个非传递和反传递的关系“ x 胜过 y”。]]<br />
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== Relation properties that require transitivity ==<br><br />
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==依赖传递性的关系性质==<br />
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A relation R is called intransitive if it is not transitive, that is, if xRy and yRz, but not xRz, for some x, y, z.<br />
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如果关系 R 不是可传递的,则称之为非传递性,即对于某个 x,y,z而言,若存在 xRy 和 yRz ,而没有xRz,则称之为非传递性。<br />
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* [[Preorder]] – a [[reflexive relation|reflexive]] transitive relation<br />
* [[预序]] -一个具有自反性和传递性的关系<br />
In contrast, a relation R is called antitransitive if xRy and yRz always implies that xRz does not hold.<br />
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相反,如果 xRy 和 yRz 总是表明 xRz 不成立,则关系R被称为具有反传递性。<br />
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* [[Partially ordered set|Partial order]] – an [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] preorder<br />
偏序-一个具有反对称性的预序<br />
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For example, the relation defined by xRy if xy is an even number is intransitive, but not antitransitive. The relation defined by xRy if x is even and y is odd is both transitive and antitransitive. <br />
<br />
例如,如果 xy 是偶数,由 xRy 定义的关系具有非传递性,而不是反传递性。如果 x 是偶数,y 是奇数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有传递性又具有反传递性。<br />
<br />
* [[Total preorder]] – a [[total relation|total]] preorder<br />
总预序-一个总预序<br />
The relation defined by xRy if x is the successor number of y is both intransitive and antitransitive. Unexpected examples of intransitivity arise in situations such as political questions or group preferences.<br />
<br />
如果 x 是 y 的后继数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有非传递性,又具有反传递性。非传递性的例外出现在政治问题或群体偏好等情况中。<br />
<br />
* [[Equivalence relation]] – a [[symmetric relation|symmetric]] preorder<br />
等价关系-一个对称的预序<br />
* [[Strict weak ordering]] – a strict partial order in which incomparability is an equivalence relation<br />
<br />
严格弱序–一种严格的偏序,其中不可比性是一种等价关系<br />
Generalized to stochastic versions (stochastic transitivity), the study of transitivity finds applications of in decision theory, psychometrics and utility models.<br />
<br />
将传递性的研究推广到随机版本(随机传递性),在决策理论、心理测量学和效用模型中都有应用。<br />
* [[Total ordering]] – a [[total relation|total]], [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] transitive relation<br />
总序-一个具有完全性、反对称性和传递性的关系<br />
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A quasitransitive relation is another generalization; it is required to be transitive only on its non-symmetric part. Such relations are used in social choice theory or microeconomics.<br />
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(传递性研究的)另一种推广是拟传递关系,它只要求在它的非对称部分是可传递的。这种关系被用于社会选择理论或微观经济学当中。<br />
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==Counting transitive relations==<br><br />
==计算传递关系==<br />
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No general formula that counts the number of transitive relations on a finite set {{OEIS|id=A006905}} is known.<ref>Steven R. Finch, [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~sfinch/csolve/posets.pdf "Transitive relations, topologies and partial orders"], 2003.</ref> However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, [[equivalence relation]]s – {{OEIS|id=A000110}}, those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer<ref>Götz Pfeiffer, "[http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL7/Pfeiffer/pfeiffer6.html Counting Transitive Relations]", ''Journal of Integer Sequences'', Vol. 7 (2004), Article 04.3.2.</ref> has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.<ref>Gunnar Brinkmann and Brendan D. McKay,"[http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/papers/topologies.pdf Counting unlabelled topologies and transitive relations]"</ref><br />
{{Number of relations}}<br />
<br />
No general formula that counts the number of transitive relations on a finite set (sequence A006905 in the OEIS) is known.[8] However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, equivalence relations – (sequence A000110 in the OEIS), those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer[9] has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.[10]<br />
目前还没有计算有限集上传递关系数量的通用公式(OEIS中的序列A006905)。[8]但是,有一个公式可以用来计算同时具有自反性、对称性和传递性的关系数量——换句话说,即等价关系(OEIS中的序列A000110),具有对称性和传递性的关系,具有对称性、传递性和反对称性的关系,具有完全性、传递性和反对称性的关系。Pfeiffer 已经在这个方向上取得了一些进展,通过结合这些性质表示相互之间的关系,但是仍然很难计算。请参见[10]。<br />
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== Related properties ==<br><br />
==相关性质==<br />
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[[File:Rock-paper-scissors.svg|alt=Cycle diagram|thumb|The [[Rock–paper–scissors]] game is based on an intransitive and antitransitive relation "''x'' beats ''y''".]]<br />
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A relation ''R'' is called ''[[intransitivity|intransitive]]'' if it is not transitive, that is, if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'', but not ''xRz'', for some ''x'', ''y'', ''z''.<br />
A relation R is called intransitive if it is not transitive, that is, if xRy and yRz, but not xRz, for some x, y, z.<br><br />
<br />
如果关系 R 不是可传递的,则称之为非传递性,即对于某个 x,y,z而言,若存在 xRy 和 yRz ,而没有xRz,则称之为非传递性。<br />
In contrast, a relation ''R'' is called ''[[antitransitive]]'' if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' always implies that ''xRz'' does not hold.<br><br />
<br />
相反,如果 xRy 和 yRz 总是表明 xRz 不成立,则关系R被称为具有反传递性。<br />
For example, the relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''xy'' is an [[even number]] is intransitive,<ref>since e.g. 3''R''4 and 4''R''5, but not 3''R''5</ref> but not antitransitive.<ref>since e.g. 2''R''3 and 3''R''4 and 2''R''4</ref> The relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''x'' is even and ''y'' is [[odd number|odd]] is both transitive and antitransitive.<ref>since ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' can never happen</ref> <br><br />
<br />
例如,如果 xy 是偶数,由 xRy 定义的关系具有非传递性,而不是反传递性。如果 x 是偶数,y 是奇数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有传递性又具有反传递性。<br />
The relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''x'' is the [[successor function|successor]] number of ''y'' is both intransitive<ref>since e.g. 3''R''2 and 2''R''1, but not 3''R''1</ref> and antitransitive.<ref>since, more generally, ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' implies ''x''=''y''+1=''z''+2≠''z''+1, i.e. not ''xRz'', for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z''</ref> Unexpected examples of intransitivity arise in situations such as political questions or group preferences.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2018/11/preferences-are-not-transitive/|title=Preferences are not transitive|last=Drum|first=Kevin|date=November 2018|work=Mother Jones|access-date=2018-11-29}}</ref><br><br />
<br />
如果 x 是 y 的后继数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有非传递性,又具有反传递性。非传递性的例外出现在政治问题或群体偏好等情况中。<br />
<br />
<br />
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Generalized to stochastic versions (''[[stochastic transitivity]]''), the study of transitivity finds applications of in [[decision theory]], [[psychometrics]] and [[Utilitarianism|utility models]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oliveira|first=I.F.D.|last2=Zehavi|first2=S.|last3=Davidov|first3=O.|date=August 2018|title=Stochastic transitivity: Axioms and models|journal=Journal of Mathematical Psychology|volume=85|pages=25–35|doi=10.1016/j.jmp.2018.06.002|issn=0022-2496}}</ref><br><br />
<br />
将传递性的研究推广到随机版本(随机传递性),在决策理论、心理测量学和效用模型中都有应用。<br />
<br />
<br />
A ''[[quasitransitive relation]]'' is another generalization; it is required to be transitive only on its non-symmetric part. Such relations are used in [[social choice theory]] or [[microeconomics]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Sen | first=A. | authorlink=Amartya Sen | title=Quasi-transitivity, rational choice and collective decisions | zbl=0181.47302 | journal=Rev. Econ. Stud. | volume=36 | issue=3 | pages=381–393 | year=1969 | doi=10.2307/2296434 | ref=harv | jstor=2296434 }}</ref><br><br />
<br />
<br />
(传递性研究的)另一种推广是拟传递关系,它只要求在它的非对称部分是可传递的。这种关系被用于社会选择理论或微观经济学当中。<br />
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==See also==<br><br />
==参见==<br />
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* [[Transitive reduction]]<br />
* [[传递归约]]<br />
* [[Nontransitive dice]]<br />
* [[非传递骰子]]<br />
* [[Rational choice theory#Formal statement|Rational choice theory]]<br />
* [[理性选择理论]]<br />
* [[Hypothetical syllogism]] &mdash; transitivity of the material conditional<br />
* [[假言推理-物质条件的传递三元组]]<br />
Category:Elementary algebra<br />
类别: 初等代数<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Transitive relation]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[传递关系/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E4%BC%A0%E9%80%92%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB&diff=20891传递关系2021-01-14T03:54:40Z<p>小趣木木:/* 传递扩展和传递闭包 */</p>
<hr />
<div>本词条由K先生翻译。<br />
此词条暂由彩云小译翻译。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])英文译文缺失 需要补充<br />
{{more citations needed|date=October 2013}}<br />
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In [[mathematics]], a [[homogeneous relation]] {{math|''R''}} over a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] {{math|''X''}} is '''transitive''' if for all elements {{math|''a''}}, {{math|''b''}}, {{math|''c''}} in {{math|''X''}}, whenever {{math|''R''}} relates {{math|''a''}} to {{math|''b''}} and {{math|''b''}} to {{math|''c''}}, then {{math|''R''}} also relates {{math|''a''}} to {{math|''c''}}. Each [[partial order]] as well as each [[equivalence relation]] needs to be transitive.<br />
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In mathematics, a homogeneous relation R over a set X is transitive if for all elements a, b, c in X, whenever R relates a to b and b to c, then R also relates a to c. Each partial order as well as each equivalence relation needs to be transitive.<br />
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在数学上,若对于某个集合X中的所有元素a,b,c而言,每当齐次关系R将a与b,b与c建立联系时,R也将a与c联系起来,称集合X中的R是可传递的,每个偏序和每个等价关系都需要是可传递的。<br />
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== Definition ==<br><br />
==定义==<br />
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{{stack|{{Binary relations}}}}<br />
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A homogeneous relation {{mvar|R}} on the set {{mvar|X}} is a ''transitive relation'' if,<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Eggen|St. Andre|2006|loc=p. 145}}</ref><br />
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A homogeneous relation R on the set X is a transitive relation if,<br />
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一个集合X中的齐次关系R,其传递关系是不确定的,<br />
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:for all {{math|''a'', ''b'', ''c'' ∈ ''X''}}, if {{math|''a R b''}} and {{math|''b R c''}}, then {{math|''a R c''}}.<br />
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for all a, b, c ∈ X, if a R b and b R c, then a R c.<br />
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对所有元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''来说,如果存在''a R b''和''b R c'',那么就有''a R c''。<br />
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Or in terms of [[first-order logic]]:<br />
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Or in terms of first-order logic:<br />
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或者按照一阶逻辑:<br />
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:<math>\forall a,b,c \in X: (aRb \wedge bRc) \Rightarrow aRc,</math><br />
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<math>\forall a,b,c \in X: (aRb \wedge bRc) \Rightarrow aRc,</math><br />
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where {{math|''a R b''}} is the [[infix notation]] for {{math|(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R''}}.<br />
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where a R b is the infix notation for (a, b) ∈ R.<br />
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其中,对于(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R'',''a R b''是其中缀表示法。<br />
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==Examples==<br><br />
==例子==<br />
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As a nonmathematical example, the relation "is an ancestor of" is transitive. For example, if Amy is an ancestor of Becky, and Becky is an ancestor of Carrie, then Amy, too, is an ancestor of Carrie.<br />
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As a nonmathematical example, the relation "is an ancestor of" is transitive. For example, if Amy is an ancestor of Becky, and Becky is an ancestor of Carrie, then Amy, too, is an ancestor of Carrie.<br />
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一个非数学的例子,关系“谁是谁的祖先”就是一种传递关系。例如,如果Amy是Becky的祖先,而Becky是Carrie的祖先,那么Amy也是Carrie的祖先。<br />
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On the other hand, "is the birth parent of" is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the birth parent of Brenda, and Brenda is the birth parent of Claire, then Alice is not the birth parent of Claire. What is more, it is [[antitransitive]]: Alice can ''never'' be the birth parent of Claire.<br />
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On the other hand, "is the birth parent of" is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the birth parent of Brenda, and Brenda is the birth parent of Claire, then Alice is not the birth parent of Claire. What is more, it is antitransitive: Alice can never be the birth parent of Claire.<br />
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另一方面,“谁是谁的亲生父母” 不是一个传递关系,因为如果 Alice 是 Brenda 的亲身父母,而 Brenda 是 Claire 的亲身父母,那么 Alice 不会是 Claire 的亲身父母。更重要的是,它是一种反传递关系: Alice 永远不可能是 Claire 的亲身父母。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])亲身父母 亲生父母<br />
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"Is greater than", "is at least as great as", and "is equal to" ([[equality (mathematics)|equality]]) are transitive relations on various sets, for instance, the set of real numbers or the set of natural numbers:<br />
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"Is greater than", "is at least as great as", and "is equal to" (equality) are transitive relations on various sets, for instance, the set of real numbers or the set of natural numbers:<br />
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“ 大于”、“大于等于”和“ 等于”(相等关系)是各种集合上的传递关系,例如实数集合或自然数集合:<br />
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: whenever ''x'' &gt; ''y'' and ''y'' &gt; ''z'', then also ''x'' &gt; ''z''<br />
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whenever x &gt; y and y &gt; z, then also x &gt; z<br />
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只要 x > y 且 y > z,那么 x > z<br />
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: whenever ''x'' &ge; ''y'' and ''y'' &ge; ''z'', then also ''x'' &ge; ''z''<br />
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whenever x &ge; y and y &ge; z, then also x &ge; z<br />
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只要 x ≥y 且 y ≥ z,那么 x ≥ z<br />
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: whenever ''x'' = ''y'' and ''y'' = ''z'', then also ''x'' = ''z''.<br />
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whenever x = y and y = z, then also x = z.<br />
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只要 x = y,y = z,那么 x = z。<br />
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More examples of transitive relations:<br />
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More examples of transitive relations:<br />
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更多传递关系的例子:<br />
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* "is a [[subset]] of" (set inclusion, a relation on sets)<br />
"is a subset of" (set inclusion, a relation on sets)<br />
“XX是XX的子集”(集合里的包含关系,属于一种集合上的关系)<br />
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* "divides" ([[divisor|divisibility]], a relation on natural numbers)<br />
"divides" (divisibility, a relation on natural numbers)<br />
“除以”(可除性,一种自然数里的关系)<br />
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* "implies" ([[material conditional|implication]], symbolized by "⇒", a relation on [[proposition]]s)<br />
"implies" (implication, symbolized by "⇒", a relation on propositions)<br />
“必然包含”(涵盖,推出,用“⇒”表示,一种命题里的关系)<br />
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Examples of non-transitive relations:<br />
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Examples of non-transitive relations:<br />
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不是传递关系的例子:<br />
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* "is the [[successor function|successor]] of" (a relation on natural numbers)<br />
"is the successor of" (a relation on natural numbers)<br />
“XX是XX的后继数”(一种自然数里的关系)<br />
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* "is a member of the set" (symbolized as "∈")<ref>However, the class of [[von Neumann ordinal]]s is constructed in a way such that ∈ ''is'' transitive when restricted to that class.</ref><br />
"is a member of the set" (symbolized as "∈")<br />
“XX是集合里的元素”(用“∈”表示)<br />
* "is [[perpendicular]] to" (a relation on lines in [[Euclidean geometry]])<br />
"is perpendicular to" (a relation on lines in Euclidean geometry)<br />
“垂直于”(一种欧几里得几何中的线关系)<br />
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The [[empty relation]] on any set <math>X</math> is transitive<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Eggen|St. Andre|2006|loc=p. 146}}</ref><ref>https://courses.engr.illinois.edu/cs173/sp2011/Lectures/relations.pdf</ref> because there are no elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> such that <math>aRb</math> and <math>bRc</math>, and hence the transitivity condition is [[vacuous truth|vacuously true]]. A relation {{math|''R''}} containing only one [[ordered pair]] is also transitive: if the ordered pair is of the form <math>(x, x)</math> for some <math>x \in X</math> the only such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> are <math>a=b=c=x</math>, and indeed in this case <math>aRc</math>, while if the ordered pair is not of the form <math>(x, x)</math> then there are no such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> and hence <math>R</math> is vacuously transitive.<br />
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The empty relation on any set <math>X</math> is transitive because there are no elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> such that <math>aRb</math> and <math>bRc</math>, and hence the transitivity condition is vacuously true. A relation containing only one ordered pair is also transitive: if the ordered pair is of the form <math>(x, x)</math> for some <math>x \in X</math> the only such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> are <math>a=b=c=x</math>, and indeed in this case <math>aRc</math>, while if the ordered pair is not of the form <math>(x, x)</math> then there are no such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> and hence <math>R</math> is vacuously transitive.<br />
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任何集合上的空关系是可传递的,因为没有元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''使得满足''a R b''和''b R c''的条件,因此空关系的可传递性为真。仅包含一个有序对的关系也是可传递的:若对于''x∈X'',有序对的形式是(''x'',''x''),只有这样的元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''满足''a=b=c=x''时,在这种情况下确实有''a R c'',但是当有序对的形式不是(''x'',''x''),那么存在这样的元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X'',因此''R''是空传递的。<br />
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== Properties ==<br><br />
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==性质==<br />
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=== Closure properties ===<br><br />
===闭包性===<br />
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* The [[inverse relation|inverse]] (converse) of a transitive relation is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "is a [[subset]] of" is transitive and "is a [[superset]] of" is its inverse, one can conclude that the latter is transitive as well.<br />
The inverse (converse) of a transitive relation is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "is a subset of" is transitive and "is a superset of" is its inverse, one can conclude that the latter is transitive as well.<br />
传递关系的逆命题总是可传递的。例如,我们知道“XX是XX的一个子集”是可传递的,其逆命题是“XX是XX的一个超集”,则可得到该命题也是可传递的。<br />
* The intersection of two transitive relations is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "was born before" and "has the same first name as" are transitive, one can conclude that "was born before and also has the same first name as" is also transitive.<br />
两个传递关系的交集总是可传递的。例如,我们知道“出生于...之前”的关系和“与...同名”的关系是可传递的,则可得到“既出生于...之前又与...同名”的关系也是可传递的。<br />
* The union of two transitive relations need not be transitive. For instance, "was born before or has the same first name as" is not a transitive relation, since e.g. [[Herbert Hoover]] is related to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], which is in turn related to [[Franklin Pierce]], while Hoover is not related to Franklin Pierce.<br />
The union of two transitive relations need not be transitive. For instance, "was born before or has the same first name as" is not a transitive relation, since e.g. Herbert Hoover is related to Franklin D. Roosevelt, which is in turn related to Franklin Pierce, while Hoover is not related to Franklin Pierce.<br />
两个传递关系的并集不一定是可传递的。例如,“出生于...之前或与...同名”的关系就不是可传递的,因为如,Herbert Hoover与Franklin D. Roosevelt有亲属关系,而Franklin D. Roosevelt与 Franklin Pierce有亲属关系,但是Herbert Hoover与Franklin Pierce没有亲属关系。<br />
* The complement of a transitive relation need not be transitive. For instance, while "equal to" is transitive, "not equal to" is only transitive on sets with at most one element.<br />
传递关系的补集不一定是可传递的。例如,尽管“等于”关系是可传递的,但是“不等于”关系仅在最多只有一个元素的集合中是可传递的。<br />
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=== Other properties ===<br><br />
==其他性质==<br />
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A transitive relation is [[asymmetric relation|asymmetric]] if and only if it is [[irreflexive relation|irreflexive]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Flaška|first1=V.|last2=Ježek|first2=J.|last3=Kepka|first3=T.|last4=Kortelainen|first4=J.|title=Transitive Closures of Binary Relations I|year=2007|publisher=School of Mathematics - Physics Charles University|location=Prague|page=1|url=http://www.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~jezek/120/transitive1.pdf|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102214049/http://www.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~jezek/120/transitive1.pdf|archivedate=2013-11-02}} Lemma 1.1 (iv). Note that this source refers to asymmetric relations as "strictly antisymmetric".</ref><br />
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A transitive relation is asymmetric if and only if it is irreflexive.<br />
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当且仅当传递关系具有反自反性时,它具有反对称性。<br />
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A transitive relation need not be [[Reflexive relation|reflexive]]. When it is, it is called a [[preorder]]. For example, on set ''X'' = {1,2,3}:<br />
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A transitive relation need not be reflexive. When it is, it is called a preorder. For example, on set X = {1,2,3}:<br />
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传递关系不一定具有自反性。当传递关系具有自反性时,它被称为一个预序。例如,集合 X= {1,2,3}:<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3), (3,2){{Hair space}}} is reflexive, but not transitive, as the pair (1,2) is absent,<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,3),(3,2)}具有自反性,但不是可传递的,因为缺失(1,2),<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3){{Hair space}}} is reflexive as well as transitive, so it is a preorder,<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,3)}同时具有自反性和传递性,所以它是一个预序,<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3){{Hair space}}} is reflexive as well as transitive, another preorder.<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}也具有自反性和传递性,所以它是另一个预序。<br />
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==Transitive extensions and transitive closure==<br><br />
==传递扩展和传递闭包==<br />
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{{main|Transitive closure}}<br><br />
{{主要文章|传递闭包}}<br />
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Let {{mvar|R}} be a binary relation on set {{mvar|X}}. The ''transitive extension'' of {{mvar|R}}, denoted {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}}, is the smallest binary relation on {{mvar|X}} such that {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}} contains {{mvar|R}}, and if {{math|(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R''}} and {{math|(''b'', ''c'') ∈ ''R''}} then {{math|(''a'', ''c'') ∈ ''R''<sub>1</sub>}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|loc=p. 111}}</ref> For example, suppose {{mvar|X}} is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let {{mvar|R}} be the relation on towns where {{math|(''A'', ''B'') ∈ ''R''}} if there is a road directly linking town {{mvar|A}} and town {{mvar|B}}. This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by {{math|(''A'', ''C'') ∈ ''R''<sub>1</sub>}} if you can travel between towns {{mvar|A}} and {{mvar|C}} by using at most two roads.<br />
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Let R be a binary relation on set X. The transitive extension of R, denoted R1, is the smallest binary relation on X such that R1 contains R, and if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R then (a, c) ∈ R1.[6] For example, suppose X is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let R be the relation on towns where (A, B) ∈ R if there is a road directly linking town A and town B. This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by (A, C) ∈ R1 if you can travel between towns A and C by using at most two roads.<br />
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Let be a binary relation on set . The transitive extension of , denoted , is the smallest binary relation on such that contains , and if and then . For example, suppose is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let be the relation on towns where if there is a road directly linking town and town . This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by if you can travel between towns and by using at most two roads.<br />
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设''R''是集合''X''上的一个二元关系。''R,''的传递扩展,用 ''R1''表示,是在''X''上最小的二元关系以至于''R1''包含''R,'',并且如果(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R'',(''b'', ''c'') ∈ ''R'',那么(''a'', ''c'') ∈ ''R1''。例如,假设''X''是一组城镇,其中一些城镇通过公路相连。设R表示城镇上的关系,存在(A,B)∈R,若有一条公路直接连接城镇A和城镇B,则该关系不一定是可传递的。若最多仅有两条公路连接城镇A和城镇C,这种关系的传递扩展可以用(A,C)∈R1来定义。<br />
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If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if {{mvar|R}} is a transitive relation then {{math|1=''R''<sub>1</sub> = ''R''}}.<br />
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If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if is a transitive relation then .<br />
If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if R is a transitive relation then R1 = R.<br />
如果一个关系是可传递的,那么它的传递扩展是它本身,即若R是一个传递关系,那么有 R1 = R.<br />
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The transitive extension of {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}} would be denoted by {{math|''R''<sub>2</sub>}}, and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of {{math|''R''<sub>''i''</sub>}} would be {{math|''R''<sub>''i'' + 1</sub>}}. The ''transitive closure'' of {{mvar|R}}, denoted by {{math|''R''*}} or {{math|''R''<sup>∞</sup>}} is the set union of {{mvar|R}}, {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}}, {{math|''R''<sub>2</sub>}}, ... .<ref name=Liu112>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|loc=p. 112}}</ref><br />
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The transitive extension of would be denoted by , and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of would be . The transitive closure of , denoted by or is the set union of , , , ... .<br />
The transitive extension of R1 would be denoted by R2, and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of Ri would be Ri + 1. The transitive closure of R, denoted by R* or R∞ is the set union of R, R1, R2, ... .<br />
R1的传递扩展可以用R2来表示,并以这种方式继续下去,一般来说,Ri的传递扩展是Ri+1。R的传递闭包用 R* 或R∞来表示,它是 R, R1, R2, ...的集合。<br />
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The transitive closure of a relation is a transitive relation.<ref name=Liu112 /><br />
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The transitive closure of a relation is a transitive relation. However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, equivalence relations – , those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.<br />
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关系的传递闭包是传递关系。然而,有一个公式可以计算同时具有自反性、对称性和传递性的关系的数量——换句话说,即等价关系——具有对称性和传递性的关系,具有对称性、传递性和反对称性的关系,具有完全性、传递性和反对称性的关系。Pfeiffer 已经在这个方向上取得了一些进展,通过结合这些性质表示相互之间的关系,但是仍然很难计算。请参见。<br />
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The relation "is the birth parent of" on a set of people is not a transitive relation. However, in biology the need often arises to consider birth parenthood over an arbitrary number of generations: the relation "is a birth ancestor of" ''is'' a transitive relation and it is the transitive closure of the relation "is the birth parent of".<br />
在一群人中的关系“XX是XX的亲生父母”不是一个传递关系。但是,生物学上,经常需要考虑任意多代人的亲生关系:关系“XX是XX的鼻祖”是一个传递关系,并且它是关系“XX是XX的亲生父母”的传递闭包。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])鼻祖 祖先 可以统一一下<br />
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For the example of towns and roads above, {{math|(''A'', ''C'') ∈ ''R''*}} provided you can travel between towns {{mvar|A}} and {{mvar|C}} using any number of roads.<br />
以上述城镇和公路为例,(A,C)∈R*的前提假设是你可以在城镇A和C之间的任意数量的公路上行驶。<br />
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The [[Rock–paper–scissors game is based on an intransitive and antitransitive relation "x beats y".]]<br><br />
[[游戏石头-剪刀-布是基于一个非传递和反传递的关系“ x 胜过 y”。]]<br />
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== Relation properties that require transitivity ==<br><br />
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==依赖传递性的关系性质==<br />
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A relation R is called intransitive if it is not transitive, that is, if xRy and yRz, but not xRz, for some x, y, z.<br />
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如果关系 R 不是可传递的,则称之为非传递性,即对于某个 x,y,z而言,若存在 xRy 和 yRz ,而没有xRz,则称之为非传递性。<br />
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* [[Preorder]] – a [[reflexive relation|reflexive]] transitive relation<br />
* [[预序]] -一个具有自反性和传递性的关系<br />
In contrast, a relation R is called antitransitive if xRy and yRz always implies that xRz does not hold.<br />
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相反,如果 xRy 和 yRz 总是表明 xRz 不成立,则关系R被称为具有反传递性。<br />
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* [[Partially ordered set|Partial order]] – an [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] preorder<br />
偏序-一个具有反对称性的预序<br />
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For example, the relation defined by xRy if xy is an even number is intransitive, but not antitransitive. The relation defined by xRy if x is even and y is odd is both transitive and antitransitive. <br />
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例如,如果 xy 是偶数,由 xRy 定义的关系具有非传递性,而不是反传递性。如果 x 是偶数,y 是奇数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有传递性又具有反传递性。<br />
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* [[Total preorder]] – a [[total relation|total]] preorder<br />
总预序-一个总预序<br />
The relation defined by xRy if x is the successor number of y is both intransitive and antitransitive. Unexpected examples of intransitivity arise in situations such as political questions or group preferences.<br />
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如果 x 是 y 的后继数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有非传递性,又具有反传递性。非传递性的例外出现在政治问题或群体偏好等情况中。<br />
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* [[Equivalence relation]] – a [[symmetric relation|symmetric]] preorder<br />
等价关系-一个对称的预序<br />
* [[Strict weak ordering]] – a strict partial order in which incomparability is an equivalence relation<br />
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严格弱序–一种严格的偏序,其中不可比性是一种等价关系<br />
Generalized to stochastic versions (stochastic transitivity), the study of transitivity finds applications of in decision theory, psychometrics and utility models.<br />
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将传递性的研究推广到随机版本(随机传递性),在决策理论、心理测量学和效用模型中都有应用。<br />
* [[Total ordering]] – a [[total relation|total]], [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] transitive relation<br />
总序-一个具有完全性、反对称性和传递性的关系<br />
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A quasitransitive relation is another generalization; it is required to be transitive only on its non-symmetric part. Such relations are used in social choice theory or microeconomics.<br />
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(传递性研究的)另一种推广是拟传递关系,它只要求在它的非对称部分是可传递的。这种关系被用于社会选择理论或微观经济学当中。<br />
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==Counting transitive relations==<br><br />
==计算传递关系==<br />
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No general formula that counts the number of transitive relations on a finite set {{OEIS|id=A006905}} is known.<ref>Steven R. Finch, [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~sfinch/csolve/posets.pdf "Transitive relations, topologies and partial orders"], 2003.</ref> However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, [[equivalence relation]]s – {{OEIS|id=A000110}}, those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer<ref>Götz Pfeiffer, "[http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL7/Pfeiffer/pfeiffer6.html Counting Transitive Relations]", ''Journal of Integer Sequences'', Vol. 7 (2004), Article 04.3.2.</ref> has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.<ref>Gunnar Brinkmann and Brendan D. McKay,"[http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/papers/topologies.pdf Counting unlabelled topologies and transitive relations]"</ref><br />
{{Number of relations}}<br />
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No general formula that counts the number of transitive relations on a finite set (sequence A006905 in the OEIS) is known.[8] However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, equivalence relations – (sequence A000110 in the OEIS), those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer[9] has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.[10]<br />
目前还没有计算有限集上传递关系数量的通用公式(OEIS中的序列A006905)。[8]但是,有一个公式可以用来计算同时具有自反性、对称性和传递性的关系数量——换句话说,即等价关系(OEIS中的序列A000110),具有对称性和传递性的关系,具有对称性、传递性和反对称性的关系,具有完全性、传递性和反对称性的关系。Pfeiffer 已经在这个方向上取得了一些进展,通过结合这些性质表示相互之间的关系,但是仍然很难计算。请参见[10]。<br />
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== Related properties ==<br><br />
==相关性质==<br />
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[[File:Rock-paper-scissors.svg|alt=Cycle diagram|thumb|The [[Rock–paper–scissors]] game is based on an intransitive and antitransitive relation "''x'' beats ''y''".]]<br />
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A relation ''R'' is called ''[[intransitivity|intransitive]]'' if it is not transitive, that is, if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'', but not ''xRz'', for some ''x'', ''y'', ''z''.<br />
A relation R is called intransitive if it is not transitive, that is, if xRy and yRz, but not xRz, for some x, y, z.<br><br />
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如果关系 R 不是可传递的,则称之为非传递性,即对于某个 x,y,z而言,若存在 xRy 和 yRz ,而没有xRz,则称之为非传递性。<br />
In contrast, a relation ''R'' is called ''[[antitransitive]]'' if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' always implies that ''xRz'' does not hold.<br><br />
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相反,如果 xRy 和 yRz 总是表明 xRz 不成立,则关系R被称为具有反传递性。<br />
For example, the relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''xy'' is an [[even number]] is intransitive,<ref>since e.g. 3''R''4 and 4''R''5, but not 3''R''5</ref> but not antitransitive.<ref>since e.g. 2''R''3 and 3''R''4 and 2''R''4</ref> The relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''x'' is even and ''y'' is [[odd number|odd]] is both transitive and antitransitive.<ref>since ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' can never happen</ref> <br><br />
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例如,如果 xy 是偶数,由 xRy 定义的关系具有非传递性,而不是反传递性。如果 x 是偶数,y 是奇数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有传递性又具有反传递性。<br />
The relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''x'' is the [[successor function|successor]] number of ''y'' is both intransitive<ref>since e.g. 3''R''2 and 2''R''1, but not 3''R''1</ref> and antitransitive.<ref>since, more generally, ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' implies ''x''=''y''+1=''z''+2≠''z''+1, i.e. not ''xRz'', for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z''</ref> Unexpected examples of intransitivity arise in situations such as political questions or group preferences.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2018/11/preferences-are-not-transitive/|title=Preferences are not transitive|last=Drum|first=Kevin|date=November 2018|work=Mother Jones|access-date=2018-11-29}}</ref><br><br />
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如果 x 是 y 的后继数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有非传递性,又具有反传递性。非传递性的例外出现在政治问题或群体偏好等情况中。<br />
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Generalized to stochastic versions (''[[stochastic transitivity]]''), the study of transitivity finds applications of in [[decision theory]], [[psychometrics]] and [[Utilitarianism|utility models]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oliveira|first=I.F.D.|last2=Zehavi|first2=S.|last3=Davidov|first3=O.|date=August 2018|title=Stochastic transitivity: Axioms and models|journal=Journal of Mathematical Psychology|volume=85|pages=25–35|doi=10.1016/j.jmp.2018.06.002|issn=0022-2496}}</ref><br><br />
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将传递性的研究推广到随机版本(随机传递性),在决策理论、心理测量学和效用模型中都有应用。<br />
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A ''[[quasitransitive relation]]'' is another generalization; it is required to be transitive only on its non-symmetric part. Such relations are used in [[social choice theory]] or [[microeconomics]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Sen | first=A. | authorlink=Amartya Sen | title=Quasi-transitivity, rational choice and collective decisions | zbl=0181.47302 | journal=Rev. Econ. Stud. | volume=36 | issue=3 | pages=381–393 | year=1969 | doi=10.2307/2296434 | ref=harv | jstor=2296434 }}</ref><br><br />
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(传递性研究的)另一种推广是拟传递关系,它只要求在它的非对称部分是可传递的。这种关系被用于社会选择理论或微观经济学当中。<br />
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==See also==<br><br />
==参见==<br />
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* [[Transitive reduction]]<br />
* [[传递归约]]<br />
* [[Nontransitive dice]]<br />
* [[非传递骰子]]<br />
* [[Rational choice theory#Formal statement|Rational choice theory]]<br />
* [[理性选择理论]]<br />
* [[Hypothetical syllogism]] &mdash; transitivity of the material conditional<br />
* [[假言推理-物质条件的传递三元组]]<br />
Category:Elementary algebra<br />
类别: 初等代数<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Transitive relation]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[传递关系/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E4%BC%A0%E9%80%92%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB&diff=20890传递关系2021-01-14T03:51:38Z<p>小趣木木:/* 例子 */</p>
<hr />
<div>本词条由K先生翻译。<br />
此词条暂由彩云小译翻译。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])英文译文缺失 需要补充<br />
{{more citations needed|date=October 2013}}<br />
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In [[mathematics]], a [[homogeneous relation]] {{math|''R''}} over a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] {{math|''X''}} is '''transitive''' if for all elements {{math|''a''}}, {{math|''b''}}, {{math|''c''}} in {{math|''X''}}, whenever {{math|''R''}} relates {{math|''a''}} to {{math|''b''}} and {{math|''b''}} to {{math|''c''}}, then {{math|''R''}} also relates {{math|''a''}} to {{math|''c''}}. Each [[partial order]] as well as each [[equivalence relation]] needs to be transitive.<br />
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In mathematics, a homogeneous relation R over a set X is transitive if for all elements a, b, c in X, whenever R relates a to b and b to c, then R also relates a to c. Each partial order as well as each equivalence relation needs to be transitive.<br />
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在数学上,若对于某个集合X中的所有元素a,b,c而言,每当齐次关系R将a与b,b与c建立联系时,R也将a与c联系起来,称集合X中的R是可传递的,每个偏序和每个等价关系都需要是可传递的。<br />
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== Definition ==<br><br />
==定义==<br />
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{{stack|{{Binary relations}}}}<br />
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A homogeneous relation {{mvar|R}} on the set {{mvar|X}} is a ''transitive relation'' if,<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Eggen|St. Andre|2006|loc=p. 145}}</ref><br />
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A homogeneous relation R on the set X is a transitive relation if,<br />
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一个集合X中的齐次关系R,其传递关系是不确定的,<br />
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:for all {{math|''a'', ''b'', ''c'' ∈ ''X''}}, if {{math|''a R b''}} and {{math|''b R c''}}, then {{math|''a R c''}}.<br />
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for all a, b, c ∈ X, if a R b and b R c, then a R c.<br />
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对所有元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''来说,如果存在''a R b''和''b R c'',那么就有''a R c''。<br />
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Or in terms of [[first-order logic]]:<br />
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Or in terms of first-order logic:<br />
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或者按照一阶逻辑:<br />
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:<math>\forall a,b,c \in X: (aRb \wedge bRc) \Rightarrow aRc,</math><br />
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<math>\forall a,b,c \in X: (aRb \wedge bRc) \Rightarrow aRc,</math><br />
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where {{math|''a R b''}} is the [[infix notation]] for {{math|(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R''}}.<br />
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where a R b is the infix notation for (a, b) ∈ R.<br />
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其中,对于(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R'',''a R b''是其中缀表示法。<br />
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==Examples==<br><br />
==例子==<br />
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As a nonmathematical example, the relation "is an ancestor of" is transitive. For example, if Amy is an ancestor of Becky, and Becky is an ancestor of Carrie, then Amy, too, is an ancestor of Carrie.<br />
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As a nonmathematical example, the relation "is an ancestor of" is transitive. For example, if Amy is an ancestor of Becky, and Becky is an ancestor of Carrie, then Amy, too, is an ancestor of Carrie.<br />
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一个非数学的例子,关系“谁是谁的祖先”就是一种传递关系。例如,如果Amy是Becky的祖先,而Becky是Carrie的祖先,那么Amy也是Carrie的祖先。<br />
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On the other hand, "is the birth parent of" is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the birth parent of Brenda, and Brenda is the birth parent of Claire, then Alice is not the birth parent of Claire. What is more, it is [[antitransitive]]: Alice can ''never'' be the birth parent of Claire.<br />
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On the other hand, "is the birth parent of" is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the birth parent of Brenda, and Brenda is the birth parent of Claire, then Alice is not the birth parent of Claire. What is more, it is antitransitive: Alice can never be the birth parent of Claire.<br />
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另一方面,“谁是谁的亲生父母” 不是一个传递关系,因为如果 Alice 是 Brenda 的亲身父母,而 Brenda 是 Claire 的亲身父母,那么 Alice 不会是 Claire 的亲身父母。更重要的是,它是一种反传递关系: Alice 永远不可能是 Claire 的亲身父母。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])亲身父母 亲生父母<br />
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"Is greater than", "is at least as great as", and "is equal to" ([[equality (mathematics)|equality]]) are transitive relations on various sets, for instance, the set of real numbers or the set of natural numbers:<br />
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"Is greater than", "is at least as great as", and "is equal to" (equality) are transitive relations on various sets, for instance, the set of real numbers or the set of natural numbers:<br />
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“ 大于”、“大于等于”和“ 等于”(相等关系)是各种集合上的传递关系,例如实数集合或自然数集合:<br />
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: whenever ''x'' &gt; ''y'' and ''y'' &gt; ''z'', then also ''x'' &gt; ''z''<br />
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whenever x &gt; y and y &gt; z, then also x &gt; z<br />
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只要 x > y 且 y > z,那么 x > z<br />
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: whenever ''x'' &ge; ''y'' and ''y'' &ge; ''z'', then also ''x'' &ge; ''z''<br />
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whenever x &ge; y and y &ge; z, then also x &ge; z<br />
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只要 x ≥y 且 y ≥ z,那么 x ≥ z<br />
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: whenever ''x'' = ''y'' and ''y'' = ''z'', then also ''x'' = ''z''.<br />
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whenever x = y and y = z, then also x = z.<br />
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只要 x = y,y = z,那么 x = z。<br />
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More examples of transitive relations:<br />
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More examples of transitive relations:<br />
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更多传递关系的例子:<br />
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* "is a [[subset]] of" (set inclusion, a relation on sets)<br />
"is a subset of" (set inclusion, a relation on sets)<br />
“XX是XX的子集”(集合里的包含关系,属于一种集合上的关系)<br />
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* "divides" ([[divisor|divisibility]], a relation on natural numbers)<br />
"divides" (divisibility, a relation on natural numbers)<br />
“除以”(可除性,一种自然数里的关系)<br />
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* "implies" ([[material conditional|implication]], symbolized by "⇒", a relation on [[proposition]]s)<br />
"implies" (implication, symbolized by "⇒", a relation on propositions)<br />
“必然包含”(涵盖,推出,用“⇒”表示,一种命题里的关系)<br />
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Examples of non-transitive relations:<br />
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Examples of non-transitive relations:<br />
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不是传递关系的例子:<br />
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* "is the [[successor function|successor]] of" (a relation on natural numbers)<br />
"is the successor of" (a relation on natural numbers)<br />
“XX是XX的后继数”(一种自然数里的关系)<br />
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* "is a member of the set" (symbolized as "∈")<ref>However, the class of [[von Neumann ordinal]]s is constructed in a way such that ∈ ''is'' transitive when restricted to that class.</ref><br />
"is a member of the set" (symbolized as "∈")<br />
“XX是集合里的元素”(用“∈”表示)<br />
* "is [[perpendicular]] to" (a relation on lines in [[Euclidean geometry]])<br />
"is perpendicular to" (a relation on lines in Euclidean geometry)<br />
“垂直于”(一种欧几里得几何中的线关系)<br />
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The [[empty relation]] on any set <math>X</math> is transitive<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Eggen|St. Andre|2006|loc=p. 146}}</ref><ref>https://courses.engr.illinois.edu/cs173/sp2011/Lectures/relations.pdf</ref> because there are no elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> such that <math>aRb</math> and <math>bRc</math>, and hence the transitivity condition is [[vacuous truth|vacuously true]]. A relation {{math|''R''}} containing only one [[ordered pair]] is also transitive: if the ordered pair is of the form <math>(x, x)</math> for some <math>x \in X</math> the only such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> are <math>a=b=c=x</math>, and indeed in this case <math>aRc</math>, while if the ordered pair is not of the form <math>(x, x)</math> then there are no such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> and hence <math>R</math> is vacuously transitive.<br />
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The empty relation on any set <math>X</math> is transitive because there are no elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> such that <math>aRb</math> and <math>bRc</math>, and hence the transitivity condition is vacuously true. A relation containing only one ordered pair is also transitive: if the ordered pair is of the form <math>(x, x)</math> for some <math>x \in X</math> the only such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> are <math>a=b=c=x</math>, and indeed in this case <math>aRc</math>, while if the ordered pair is not of the form <math>(x, x)</math> then there are no such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> and hence <math>R</math> is vacuously transitive.<br />
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任何集合上的空关系是可传递的,因为没有元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''使得满足''a R b''和''b R c''的条件,因此空关系的可传递性为真。仅包含一个有序对的关系也是可传递的:若对于''x∈X'',有序对的形式是(''x'',''x''),只有这样的元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X''满足''a=b=c=x''时,在这种情况下确实有''a R c'',但是当有序对的形式不是(''x'',''x''),那么存在这样的元素''a'',''b'',''c'' ∈ ''X'',因此''R''是空传递的。<br />
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== Properties ==<br><br />
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==性质==<br />
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=== Closure properties ===<br><br />
===闭包性===<br />
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* The [[inverse relation|inverse]] (converse) of a transitive relation is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "is a [[subset]] of" is transitive and "is a [[superset]] of" is its inverse, one can conclude that the latter is transitive as well.<br />
The inverse (converse) of a transitive relation is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "is a subset of" is transitive and "is a superset of" is its inverse, one can conclude that the latter is transitive as well.<br />
传递关系的逆命题总是可传递的。例如,我们知道“XX是XX的一个子集”是可传递的,其逆命题是“XX是XX的一个超集”,则可得到该命题也是可传递的。<br />
* The intersection of two transitive relations is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "was born before" and "has the same first name as" are transitive, one can conclude that "was born before and also has the same first name as" is also transitive.<br />
两个传递关系的交集总是可传递的。例如,我们知道“出生于...之前”的关系和“与...同名”的关系是可传递的,则可得到“既出生于...之前又与...同名”的关系也是可传递的。<br />
* The union of two transitive relations need not be transitive. For instance, "was born before or has the same first name as" is not a transitive relation, since e.g. [[Herbert Hoover]] is related to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], which is in turn related to [[Franklin Pierce]], while Hoover is not related to Franklin Pierce.<br />
The union of two transitive relations need not be transitive. For instance, "was born before or has the same first name as" is not a transitive relation, since e.g. Herbert Hoover is related to Franklin D. Roosevelt, which is in turn related to Franklin Pierce, while Hoover is not related to Franklin Pierce.<br />
两个传递关系的并集不一定是可传递的。例如,“出生于...之前或与...同名”的关系就不是可传递的,因为如,Herbert Hoover与Franklin D. Roosevelt有亲属关系,而Franklin D. Roosevelt与 Franklin Pierce有亲属关系,但是Herbert Hoover与Franklin Pierce没有亲属关系。<br />
* The complement of a transitive relation need not be transitive. For instance, while "equal to" is transitive, "not equal to" is only transitive on sets with at most one element.<br />
传递关系的补集不一定是可传递的。例如,尽管“等于”关系是可传递的,但是“不等于”关系仅在最多只有一个元素的集合中是可传递的。<br />
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=== Other properties ===<br><br />
==其他性质==<br />
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A transitive relation is [[asymmetric relation|asymmetric]] if and only if it is [[irreflexive relation|irreflexive]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Flaška|first1=V.|last2=Ježek|first2=J.|last3=Kepka|first3=T.|last4=Kortelainen|first4=J.|title=Transitive Closures of Binary Relations I|year=2007|publisher=School of Mathematics - Physics Charles University|location=Prague|page=1|url=http://www.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~jezek/120/transitive1.pdf|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102214049/http://www.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~jezek/120/transitive1.pdf|archivedate=2013-11-02}} Lemma 1.1 (iv). Note that this source refers to asymmetric relations as "strictly antisymmetric".</ref><br />
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A transitive relation is asymmetric if and only if it is irreflexive.<br />
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当且仅当传递关系具有反自反性时,它具有反对称性。<br />
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A transitive relation need not be [[Reflexive relation|reflexive]]. When it is, it is called a [[preorder]]. For example, on set ''X'' = {1,2,3}:<br />
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A transitive relation need not be reflexive. When it is, it is called a preorder. For example, on set X = {1,2,3}:<br />
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传递关系不一定具有自反性。当传递关系具有自反性时,它被称为一个预序。例如,集合 X= {1,2,3}:<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3), (3,2){{Hair space}}} is reflexive, but not transitive, as the pair (1,2) is absent,<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,3),(3,2)}具有自反性,但不是可传递的,因为缺失(1,2),<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3){{Hair space}}} is reflexive as well as transitive, so it is a preorder,<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,3)}同时具有自反性和传递性,所以它是一个预序,<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3){{Hair space}}} is reflexive as well as transitive, another preorder.<br><br />
* ''R'' = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}也具有自反性和传递性,所以它是另一个预序。<br />
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==Transitive extensions and transitive closure==<br><br />
==传递扩展和传递闭包==<br />
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{{main|Transitive closure}}<br><br />
{{主要文章|传递闭包}}<br />
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Let {{mvar|R}} be a binary relation on set {{mvar|X}}. The ''transitive extension'' of {{mvar|R}}, denoted {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}}, is the smallest binary relation on {{mvar|X}} such that {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}} contains {{mvar|R}}, and if {{math|(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R''}} and {{math|(''b'', ''c'') ∈ ''R''}} then {{math|(''a'', ''c'') ∈ ''R''<sub>1</sub>}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|loc=p. 111}}</ref> For example, suppose {{mvar|X}} is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let {{mvar|R}} be the relation on towns where {{math|(''A'', ''B'') ∈ ''R''}} if there is a road directly linking town {{mvar|A}} and town {{mvar|B}}. This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by {{math|(''A'', ''C'') ∈ ''R''<sub>1</sub>}} if you can travel between towns {{mvar|A}} and {{mvar|C}} by using at most two roads.<br />
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Let R be a binary relation on set X. The transitive extension of R, denoted R1, is the smallest binary relation on X such that R1 contains R, and if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R then (a, c) ∈ R1.[6] For example, suppose X is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let R be the relation on towns where (A, B) ∈ R if there is a road directly linking town A and town B. This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by (A, C) ∈ R1 if you can travel between towns A and C by using at most two roads.<br />
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Let be a binary relation on set . The transitive extension of , denoted , is the smallest binary relation on such that contains , and if and then . For example, suppose is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let be the relation on towns where if there is a road directly linking town and town . This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by if you can travel between towns and by using at most two roads.<br />
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设''R''是集合''X''上的一个二元关系。''R,''的传递扩展,用 ''R1''表示,是在''X''上最小的二元关系以至于''R1''包含''R,'',并且如果(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R'',(''b'', ''c'') ∈ ''R'',那么(''a'', ''c'') ∈ ''R1''。例如,假设''X''是一组城镇,其中一些城镇通过公路相连。设R表示城镇上的关系,存在(A,B)∈R,若有一条公路直接连接城镇A和城镇B,则该关系不一定是可传递的。若最多仅有两条公路连接城镇A和城镇C,这种关系的传递扩展可以用(A,C)∈R1来定义。<br />
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If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if {{mvar|R}} is a transitive relation then {{math|1=''R''<sub>1</sub> = ''R''}}.<br />
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If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if is a transitive relation then .<br />
If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if R is a transitive relation then R1 = R.<br />
如果一个关系是可传递的,那么它的传递扩展是它本身,即若R是一个传递关系,那么有 R1 = R.<br />
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The transitive extension of {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}} would be denoted by {{math|''R''<sub>2</sub>}}, and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of {{math|''R''<sub>''i''</sub>}} would be {{math|''R''<sub>''i'' + 1</sub>}}. The ''transitive closure'' of {{mvar|R}}, denoted by {{math|''R''*}} or {{math|''R''<sup>∞</sup>}} is the set union of {{mvar|R}}, {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}}, {{math|''R''<sub>2</sub>}}, ... .<ref name=Liu112>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|loc=p. 112}}</ref><br />
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The transitive extension of would be denoted by , and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of would be . The transitive closure of , denoted by or is the set union of , , , ... .<br />
The transitive extension of R1 would be denoted by R2, and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of Ri would be Ri + 1. The transitive closure of R, denoted by R* or R∞ is the set union of R, R1, R2, ... .<br />
R1的传递扩展可以用R2来表示,并以这种方式继续下去,一般来说,Ri的传递扩展是Ri+1。R的传递闭包用 R* 或R∞来表示,它是 R, R1, R2, ...的集合。<br />
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The transitive closure of a relation is a transitive relation.<ref name=Liu112 /><br />
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The transitive closure of a relation is a transitive relation. However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, equivalence relations – , those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.<br />
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关系的传递闭包是传递关系。然而,有一个公式可以计算同时具有自反性、对称性和传递性的关系的数量——换句话说,即等价关系——具有对称性和传递性的关系,具有对称性、传递性和反对称性的关系,具有完全性、传递性和反对称性的关系。Pfeiffer 已经在这个方向上取得了一些进展,通过结合这些性质表示相互之间的关系,但是仍然很难计算。请参见。<br />
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The relation "is the birth parent of" on a set of people is not a transitive relation. However, in biology the need often arises to consider birth parenthood over an arbitrary number of generations: the relation "is a birth ancestor of" ''is'' a transitive relation and it is the transitive closure of the relation "is the birth parent of".<br />
在一群人中的关系“XX是XX的亲生父母”不是一个传递关系。但是,生物学上,经常需要考虑任意多代人的亲生关系:关系“XX是XX的鼻祖”是一个传递关系,并且它是关系“XX是XX的亲生父母”的传递闭包。<br />
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For the example of towns and roads above, {{math|(''A'', ''C'') ∈ ''R''*}} provided you can travel between towns {{mvar|A}} and {{mvar|C}} using any number of roads.<br />
以上述城镇和公路为例,(A,C)∈R*的前提假设是你可以在城镇A和C之间的任意数量的公路上行驶。<br />
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The [[Rock–paper–scissors game is based on an intransitive and antitransitive relation "x beats y".]]<br><br />
[[游戏石头-剪刀-布是基于一个非传递和反传递的关系“ x 胜过 y”。]]<br />
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== Relation properties that require transitivity ==<br><br />
==依赖传递性的关系性质==<br />
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A relation R is called intransitive if it is not transitive, that is, if xRy and yRz, but not xRz, for some x, y, z.<br />
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如果关系 R 不是可传递的,则称之为非传递性,即对于某个 x,y,z而言,若存在 xRy 和 yRz ,而没有xRz,则称之为非传递性。<br />
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* [[Preorder]] – a [[reflexive relation|reflexive]] transitive relation<br />
* [[预序]] -一个具有自反性和传递性的关系<br />
In contrast, a relation R is called antitransitive if xRy and yRz always implies that xRz does not hold.<br />
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相反,如果 xRy 和 yRz 总是表明 xRz 不成立,则关系R被称为具有反传递性。<br />
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* [[Partially ordered set|Partial order]] – an [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] preorder<br />
偏序-一个具有反对称性的预序<br />
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For example, the relation defined by xRy if xy is an even number is intransitive, but not antitransitive. The relation defined by xRy if x is even and y is odd is both transitive and antitransitive. <br />
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例如,如果 xy 是偶数,由 xRy 定义的关系具有非传递性,而不是反传递性。如果 x 是偶数,y 是奇数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有传递性又具有反传递性。<br />
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* [[Total preorder]] – a [[total relation|total]] preorder<br />
总预序-一个总预序<br />
The relation defined by xRy if x is the successor number of y is both intransitive and antitransitive. Unexpected examples of intransitivity arise in situations such as political questions or group preferences.<br />
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如果 x 是 y 的后继数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有非传递性,又具有反传递性。非传递性的例外出现在政治问题或群体偏好等情况中。<br />
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* [[Equivalence relation]] – a [[symmetric relation|symmetric]] preorder<br />
等价关系-一个对称的预序<br />
* [[Strict weak ordering]] – a strict partial order in which incomparability is an equivalence relation<br />
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严格弱序–一种严格的偏序,其中不可比性是一种等价关系<br />
Generalized to stochastic versions (stochastic transitivity), the study of transitivity finds applications of in decision theory, psychometrics and utility models.<br />
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将传递性的研究推广到随机版本(随机传递性),在决策理论、心理测量学和效用模型中都有应用。<br />
* [[Total ordering]] – a [[total relation|total]], [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] transitive relation<br />
总序-一个具有完全性、反对称性和传递性的关系<br />
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A quasitransitive relation is another generalization; it is required to be transitive only on its non-symmetric part. Such relations are used in social choice theory or microeconomics.<br />
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(传递性研究的)另一种推广是拟传递关系,它只要求在它的非对称部分是可传递的。这种关系被用于社会选择理论或微观经济学当中。<br />
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==Counting transitive relations==<br><br />
==计算传递关系==<br />
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No general formula that counts the number of transitive relations on a finite set {{OEIS|id=A006905}} is known.<ref>Steven R. Finch, [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~sfinch/csolve/posets.pdf "Transitive relations, topologies and partial orders"], 2003.</ref> However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, [[equivalence relation]]s – {{OEIS|id=A000110}}, those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer<ref>Götz Pfeiffer, "[http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL7/Pfeiffer/pfeiffer6.html Counting Transitive Relations]", ''Journal of Integer Sequences'', Vol. 7 (2004), Article 04.3.2.</ref> has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.<ref>Gunnar Brinkmann and Brendan D. McKay,"[http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/papers/topologies.pdf Counting unlabelled topologies and transitive relations]"</ref><br />
{{Number of relations}}<br />
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No general formula that counts the number of transitive relations on a finite set (sequence A006905 in the OEIS) is known.[8] However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, equivalence relations – (sequence A000110 in the OEIS), those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer[9] has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.[10]<br />
目前还没有计算有限集上传递关系数量的通用公式(OEIS中的序列A006905)。[8]但是,有一个公式可以用来计算同时具有自反性、对称性和传递性的关系数量——换句话说,即等价关系(OEIS中的序列A000110),具有对称性和传递性的关系,具有对称性、传递性和反对称性的关系,具有完全性、传递性和反对称性的关系。Pfeiffer 已经在这个方向上取得了一些进展,通过结合这些性质表示相互之间的关系,但是仍然很难计算。请参见[10]。<br />
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== Related properties ==<br><br />
==相关性质==<br />
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[[File:Rock-paper-scissors.svg|alt=Cycle diagram|thumb|The [[Rock–paper–scissors]] game is based on an intransitive and antitransitive relation "''x'' beats ''y''".]]<br />
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A relation ''R'' is called ''[[intransitivity|intransitive]]'' if it is not transitive, that is, if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'', but not ''xRz'', for some ''x'', ''y'', ''z''.<br />
A relation R is called intransitive if it is not transitive, that is, if xRy and yRz, but not xRz, for some x, y, z.<br><br />
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如果关系 R 不是可传递的,则称之为非传递性,即对于某个 x,y,z而言,若存在 xRy 和 yRz ,而没有xRz,则称之为非传递性。<br />
In contrast, a relation ''R'' is called ''[[antitransitive]]'' if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' always implies that ''xRz'' does not hold.<br><br />
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相反,如果 xRy 和 yRz 总是表明 xRz 不成立,则关系R被称为具有反传递性。<br />
For example, the relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''xy'' is an [[even number]] is intransitive,<ref>since e.g. 3''R''4 and 4''R''5, but not 3''R''5</ref> but not antitransitive.<ref>since e.g. 2''R''3 and 3''R''4 and 2''R''4</ref> The relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''x'' is even and ''y'' is [[odd number|odd]] is both transitive and antitransitive.<ref>since ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' can never happen</ref> <br><br />
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例如,如果 xy 是偶数,由 xRy 定义的关系具有非传递性,而不是反传递性。如果 x 是偶数,y 是奇数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有传递性又具有反传递性。<br />
The relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''x'' is the [[successor function|successor]] number of ''y'' is both intransitive<ref>since e.g. 3''R''2 and 2''R''1, but not 3''R''1</ref> and antitransitive.<ref>since, more generally, ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' implies ''x''=''y''+1=''z''+2≠''z''+1, i.e. not ''xRz'', for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z''</ref> Unexpected examples of intransitivity arise in situations such as political questions or group preferences.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2018/11/preferences-are-not-transitive/|title=Preferences are not transitive|last=Drum|first=Kevin|date=November 2018|work=Mother Jones|access-date=2018-11-29}}</ref><br><br />
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如果 x 是 y 的后继数,则 xRy 定义的关系既具有非传递性,又具有反传递性。非传递性的例外出现在政治问题或群体偏好等情况中。<br />
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Generalized to stochastic versions (''[[stochastic transitivity]]''), the study of transitivity finds applications of in [[decision theory]], [[psychometrics]] and [[Utilitarianism|utility models]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oliveira|first=I.F.D.|last2=Zehavi|first2=S.|last3=Davidov|first3=O.|date=August 2018|title=Stochastic transitivity: Axioms and models|journal=Journal of Mathematical Psychology|volume=85|pages=25–35|doi=10.1016/j.jmp.2018.06.002|issn=0022-2496}}</ref><br><br />
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将传递性的研究推广到随机版本(随机传递性),在决策理论、心理测量学和效用模型中都有应用。<br />
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A ''[[quasitransitive relation]]'' is another generalization; it is required to be transitive only on its non-symmetric part. Such relations are used in [[social choice theory]] or [[microeconomics]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Sen | first=A. | authorlink=Amartya Sen | title=Quasi-transitivity, rational choice and collective decisions | zbl=0181.47302 | journal=Rev. Econ. Stud. | volume=36 | issue=3 | pages=381–393 | year=1969 | doi=10.2307/2296434 | ref=harv | jstor=2296434 }}</ref><br><br />
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(传递性研究的)另一种推广是拟传递关系,它只要求在它的非对称部分是可传递的。这种关系被用于社会选择理论或微观经济学当中。<br />
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==See also==<br><br />
==参见==<br />
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* [[Transitive reduction]]<br />
* [[传递归约]]<br />
* [[Nontransitive dice]]<br />
* [[非传递骰子]]<br />
* [[Rational choice theory#Formal statement|Rational choice theory]]<br />
* [[理性选择理论]]<br />
* [[Hypothetical syllogism]] &mdash; transitivity of the material conditional<br />
* [[假言推理-物质条件的传递三元组]]<br />
Category:Elementary algebra<br />
类别: 初等代数<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Transitive relation]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[传递关系/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%AF%B9%E7%A7%B0%E6%80%A7%E7%A0%B4%E7%BC%BA&diff=19774对称性破缺2020-12-06T16:03:33Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由趣木木翻译,翻译字数共549,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}<br />
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{{Short description|Physical process transitioning a system from a symmetric state to a more ordered state}}<br />
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{{expert|Physics|reason=Lacking. It discusses symmetry breaking like a dictionary without saying why its so critically important in nearly every field of physics. Does not even discuss [[Noether's theorem]] here or in subpages. Originally set in May 2014|date=October 2020}}<br />
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[[File:Spontaneous symmetry breaking from an instable equilibrium.svg|thumb|A ball is initially located at the top of the central hill (C). This position is an unstable equilibrium: a very small perturbation will cause it to fall to one of the two stable wells left (L) or right (R). Even if the hill is symmetric and there is no reason for the ball to fall on either side, the observed final state is not symmetric.]]<br />
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A ball is initially located at the top of the central hill (C). This position is an unstable equilibrium: a very small perturbation will cause it to fall to one of the two stable wells left (L) or right (R). Even if the hill is symmetric and there is no reason for the ball to fall on either side, the observed final state is not symmetric.<br />
[[图一:一个小球位于中央山丘的山峰处(C)这是一种不稳定的平衡位置,具体表现为:一个很小的扰动会使它下降到稳定井左(L)或右(R)中的一个。即使是对称的,没有理由让球落在两侧,观察到的最终状态是不对称的]]<br />
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In [[physics]], '''symmetry breaking''' is a [[phenomenon]] in which (infinitesimally) small [[Quantum fluctuation|fluctuation]]s acting on a [[system]] crossing a [[critical point (thermodynamics)|critical point]] decide the system's fate, by determining which branch of a [[Bifurcation theory|bifurcation]] is taken. To an outside observer unaware of the fluctuations (or "[[Thermal noise|noise]]"), the choice will appear arbitrary. This process is called [[symmetry (physics)|symmetry]] "breaking", because such transitions usually bring the system from a symmetric but [[randomness|disorderly]] [[Quantum state|state]] into one or more definite states. Symmetry breaking is thought to play a major role in [[pattern formation]].<br />
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In physics, symmetry breaking is a phenomenon in which (infinitesimally) small fluctuations acting on a system crossing a critical point decide the system's fate, by determining which branch of a bifurcation is taken. To an outside observer unaware of the fluctuations (or "noise"), the choice will appear arbitrary. This process is called symmetry "breaking", because such transitions usually bring the system from a symmetric but disorderly state into one or more definite states. Symmetry breaking is thought to play a major role in pattern formation.<br />
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在物理学中,对称性破缺是一种现象,在这种现象中,对系统作用一个很小的力使其达到临界点产生波动,从而决定去向分岔的哪个分支。对于一个不知道波动(或“噪音”)的外部观察者来说,这个选择看起来是任意的。这个过程被称为对称性破缺,因为这种跃迁通常使系统从一个对称但无序的状态进入一个或多个确定的状态。在斑图形成中对称性破缺起着重要作用。<br />
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In his 1972 [[Science (journal)|''Science'']] paper titled "More is different"<ref>{{cite journal | last=Anderson | first=P.W. | title=More is Different | journal=Science | volume=177 | issue=4047| pages=393–396 | year=1972 | url=http://robotics.cs.tamu.edu/dshell/cs689/papers/anderson72more_is_different.pdf | doi=10.1126/science.177.4047.393 | pmid=17796623 | format=|bibcode = 1972Sci...177..393A }}</ref> [[Nobel prize in physics|Nobel laureate]] [[Philip Warren Anderson|P.W. Anderson]] used the idea of symmetry breaking to show that even if [[reductionism]] is true, its converse, constructionism, which is the idea that scientists can easily predict complex phenomena given theories describing their components, is not.<br />
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In his 1972 Science paper titled "More is different" Nobel laureate P.W. Anderson used the idea of symmetry breaking to show that even if reductionism is true, its converse, constructionism, which is the idea that scientists can easily predict complex phenomena given theories describing their components, is not.<br />
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1972年,诺贝尔奖得主P·W·安德森(P.W.Anderson)在《科学》(Science)杂志上发表了一篇名为《More is different》的论文,文中利用对称性破缺的概念来表明,即使还原论是正确的,但与之相反的建构主义(construcism)却是错误的。建构主义认为,在给出描述其组成部分的理论的情况下科学家可以轻易地预测复杂现象。<br />
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Symmetry breaking can be distinguished into two types, [[explicit symmetry breaking]] and [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]], characterized by whether the equations of motion fail to be invariant or the [[Vacuum state|ground state]] fails to be invariant.<br />
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Symmetry breaking can be distinguished into two types, explicit symmetry breaking and spontaneous symmetry breaking, characterized by whether the equations of motion fail to be invariant or the ground state fails to be invariant.<br />
对称性破缺可以分为明显对称性破缺和自发对称性破缺两种类型,其特征是运动方程是否不变或基态是否不变。<br />
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==Explicit symmetry breaking明显对称性破缺==<br />
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{{main|Explicit symmetry breaking}}<br />
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In explicit symmetry breaking, the [[equations of motion]] describing a system are variant under the broken symmetry. In [[Hamiltonian mechanics]] or [[Lagrangian Mechanics]], this happens when there is at least one term in the Hamiltonian (or Lagrangian) that explicitly breaks the given symmetry.<br />
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In explicit symmetry breaking, the equations of motion describing a system are variant under the broken symmetry. In Hamiltonian mechanics or Lagrangian Mechanics, this happens when there is at least one term in the Hamiltonian (or Lagrangian) that explicitly breaks the given symmetry.<br />
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在20世纪90年代,明显对称性破缺描述一个系统的运动方程在对称性破缺的情况下是不同的。在哈密顿力学或拉格朗日力学中,假若系统的哈密顿量或拉格朗日量本身存在一个或多个违反某种对称性的项目,导致系统的物理行为不具备这种对称性,则称此为明显对称性破缺。这术语特别适用于大致具有对称性、违反对称项目很小的系统。<br />
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==Spontaneous symmetry breaking自发对称性破缺==<br />
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{{main|Spontaneous symmetry breaking}}<br />
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In spontaneous symmetry breaking, the [[equations of motion]] of the system are invariant, but the system is not. This is because the background ([[spacetime]]) of the system, its [[Vacuum state|vacuum]], is non-invariant. Such a symmetry breaking is parametrized by an [[order parameter]]. A special case of this type of symmetry breaking is [[dynamical symmetry breaking]].<br />
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In spontaneous symmetry breaking, the equations of motion of the system are invariant, but the system is not. This is because the background (spacetime) of the system, its vacuum, is non-invariant. Such a symmetry breaking is parametrized by an order parameter. A special case of this type of symmetry breaking is dynamical symmetry breaking.<br />
在自发对称性破缺中,系统的运动方程是不变的,但系统不是。这是因为系统的背景(时空)是非恒定的。这种对称破缺用序参量进行参数化。这类对称破缺的一个特殊情况是动力学对称性破缺。<br />
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== Examples 实例==<br />
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Symmetry breaking can cover any of the following scenarios:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/stars5/astroinfo/gloss/s.html|title=Astronomical Glossary|author=|date=|website=www.angelfire.com}}</ref><br />
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Symmetry breaking can cover any of the following scenarios:<br />
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对称性破缺可以涵盖以下任何一种情况:<br />
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:* The breaking of an exact symmetry of the underlying laws of physics by the apparently random formation of some structure; <br />
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* The breaking of an exact symmetry of the underlying laws of physics by the apparently random formation of some structure; <br />
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* 某些结构的随机形成破坏了物理学基本定律的精确对称性;<br />
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:* A situation in physics in which a [[ground state|minimal energy state]] has less symmetry than the system itself; <br />
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* A situation in physics in which a minimal energy state has less symmetry than the system itself; <br />
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* 物理学中最小能量状态的对称性不如系统本身的一种情况;<br />
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:* Situations where the actual state of the system does not reflect the underlying symmetries of the dynamics because the manifestly symmetric state is unstable (stability is gained at the cost of [[local property|local]] asymmetry); <br />
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* Situations where the actual state of the system does not reflect the underlying symmetries of the dynamics because the manifestly symmetric state is unstable (stability is gained at the cost of local asymmetry); <br />
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* 系统的实际状态由于明显对称的状态不稳定而不能反映动力学的基本对称性的情况(稳定性是以局部不对称为代价的) ;<br />
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:* Situations where the equations of a theory may have certain symmetries, though their solutions may not (the symmetries are "hidden").<br />
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* Situations where the equations of a theory may have certain symmetries, though their solutions may not (the symmetries are "hidden").<br />
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* 理论方程可能具有某种对称性,但其解可能没有(对称性是“隐藏的”)的情况。<br />
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One of the first cases of broken symmetry discussed in the physics literature is related to the form taken by a uniformly rotating body of [[Incompressible flow|incompressible fluid]] in [[gravitational]] and [[hydrostatic equilibrium]]. [[Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi|Jacobi]]<ref>{{cite journal| last=Jacobi | first=C.G.J. | title=Über die figur des gleichgewichts | journal=[[Annalen der Physik und Chemie]] | volume=109 | issue=33| pages=229–238 | year=1834| doi=10.1002/andp.18341090808 | bibcode=1834AnP...109..229J | url=https://zenodo.org/record/2027349 }}</ref> and soon later [[Liouville]],<ref>{{cite journal| last=Liouville | first=J. | title=Sur la figure d'une masse fluide homogène, en équilibre et douée d'un mouvement de rotation| journal=Journal de l'École Polytechnique | issue=14| pages=289–296 | year=1834}}</ref> in 1834, discussed the fact that a tri-axial ellipsoid was an equilibrium solution for this problem when the kinetic energy compared to the gravitational energy of the rotating body exceeded a certain critical value. The axial symmetry presented by the McLaurin spheroids is broken at this bifurcation point. Furthermore, above this bifurcation point, and for constant angular momentum, the solutions that minimize the kinetic energy are the ''non''-axially symmetric [[Jacobi ellipsoid]]s instead of the [[Maclaurin spheroid]]s.<br />
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One of the first cases of broken symmetry discussed in the physics literature is related to the form taken by a uniformly rotating body of incompressible fluid in gravitational and hydrostatic equilibrium. Jacobi and soon later Liouville, in 1834, discussed the fact that a tri-axial ellipsoid was an equilibrium solution for this problem when the kinetic energy compared to the gravitational energy of the rotating body exceeded a certain critical value. The axial symmetry presented by the McLaurin spheroids is broken at this bifurcation point. Furthermore, above this bifurcation point, and for constant angular momentum, the solutions that minimize the kinetic energy are the non-axially symmetric Jacobi ellipsoids instead of the Maclaurin spheroids.<br />
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在物理学文献中讨论的首批对称性破缺案例之一,与不可压缩流体在重力和流体静力平衡中的均匀旋转物体的形式有关。在1834年,Jacobi 和后来的 Liouville 讨论了这样一个事实: 当旋转物体的动能相对于引力势能超过一定的临界值时,三轴椭球是这个问题的平衡解。在这个分叉点上,麦克劳林椭球体的轴对称性被破坏。此外,在这个分叉点之上,对于常数角动量,使动能最小化的解是非轴对称的 Jacobi 椭球,而不是 Maclaurin 椭球。<br />
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在物理文献中讨论的最早的对称性破坏案例之一与不可压缩流体在重力和静水平衡中均匀旋转的物体所采取的形式有关。<br />
1834年,Jacobi和随后不久的Liouville讨论了当旋转体的动能与重力能的比值超过某一临界值时,三轴椭球是这一问题的平衡解。<br />
麦克劳林球状体所呈现的轴对称在这个分岔点被打破。<br />
此外,在这个分岔点之上,对于常角动量,使动能最小的解是非轴对称的雅可比椭球而不是麦克劳林椭球。<br />
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==See also==<br />
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*[[Higgs mechanism]]<br />
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*[[QCD vacuum]]<br />
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*[[Goldstone boson]]<br />
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*[[1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers]]<br />
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*[[希格斯机制]]<br />
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*[[QCD真空]]<br />
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*[[戈德斯通玻色子]]<br />
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*[[1964年PRL对称性破缺论文]]<br />
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==References==<br />
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{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Symmetry Breaking}}<br />
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[[Category:Symmetry]]<br />
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Category:Symmetry<br />
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范畴: 对称<br />
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[[Category:Pattern formation]]<br />
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Category:Pattern formation<br />
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类别: 模式形成<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Symmetry breaking]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[对称性破缺/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%AF%B9%E7%A7%B0%E6%80%A7%E7%A0%B4%E7%BC%BA&diff=19773对称性破缺2020-12-06T16:03:10Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,翻译字数共549,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}<br />
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{{Short description|Physical process transitioning a system from a symmetric state to a more ordered state}}<br />
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{{expert|Physics|reason=Lacking. It discusses symmetry breaking like a dictionary without saying why its so critically important in nearly every field of physics. Does not even discuss [[Noether's theorem]] here or in subpages. Originally set in May 2014|date=October 2020}}<br />
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[[File:Spontaneous symmetry breaking from an instable equilibrium.svg|thumb|A ball is initially located at the top of the central hill (C). This position is an unstable equilibrium: a very small perturbation will cause it to fall to one of the two stable wells left (L) or right (R). Even if the hill is symmetric and there is no reason for the ball to fall on either side, the observed final state is not symmetric.]]<br />
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A ball is initially located at the top of the central hill (C). This position is an unstable equilibrium: a very small perturbation will cause it to fall to one of the two stable wells left (L) or right (R). Even if the hill is symmetric and there is no reason for the ball to fall on either side, the observed final state is not symmetric.<br />
[[图一:一个小球位于中央山丘的山峰处(C)这是一种不稳定的平衡位置,具体表现为:一个很小的扰动会使它下降到稳定井左(L)或右(R)中的一个。即使是对称的,没有理由让球落在两侧,观察到的最终状态是不对称的]]<br />
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In [[physics]], '''symmetry breaking''' is a [[phenomenon]] in which (infinitesimally) small [[Quantum fluctuation|fluctuation]]s acting on a [[system]] crossing a [[critical point (thermodynamics)|critical point]] decide the system's fate, by determining which branch of a [[Bifurcation theory|bifurcation]] is taken. To an outside observer unaware of the fluctuations (or "[[Thermal noise|noise]]"), the choice will appear arbitrary. This process is called [[symmetry (physics)|symmetry]] "breaking", because such transitions usually bring the system from a symmetric but [[randomness|disorderly]] [[Quantum state|state]] into one or more definite states. Symmetry breaking is thought to play a major role in [[pattern formation]].<br />
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In physics, symmetry breaking is a phenomenon in which (infinitesimally) small fluctuations acting on a system crossing a critical point decide the system's fate, by determining which branch of a bifurcation is taken. To an outside observer unaware of the fluctuations (or "noise"), the choice will appear arbitrary. This process is called symmetry "breaking", because such transitions usually bring the system from a symmetric but disorderly state into one or more definite states. Symmetry breaking is thought to play a major role in pattern formation.<br />
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在物理学中,对称性破缺是一种现象,在这种现象中,对系统作用一个很小的力使其达到临界点产生波动,从而决定去向分岔的哪个分支。对于一个不知道波动(或“噪音”)的外部观察者来说,这个选择看起来是任意的。这个过程被称为对称性破缺,因为这种跃迁通常使系统从一个对称但无序的状态进入一个或多个确定的状态。在斑图形成中对称性破缺起着重要作用。<br />
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In his 1972 [[Science (journal)|''Science'']] paper titled "More is different"<ref>{{cite journal | last=Anderson | first=P.W. | title=More is Different | journal=Science | volume=177 | issue=4047| pages=393–396 | year=1972 | url=http://robotics.cs.tamu.edu/dshell/cs689/papers/anderson72more_is_different.pdf | doi=10.1126/science.177.4047.393 | pmid=17796623 | format=|bibcode = 1972Sci...177..393A }}</ref> [[Nobel prize in physics|Nobel laureate]] [[Philip Warren Anderson|P.W. Anderson]] used the idea of symmetry breaking to show that even if [[reductionism]] is true, its converse, constructionism, which is the idea that scientists can easily predict complex phenomena given theories describing their components, is not.<br />
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In his 1972 Science paper titled "More is different" Nobel laureate P.W. Anderson used the idea of symmetry breaking to show that even if reductionism is true, its converse, constructionism, which is the idea that scientists can easily predict complex phenomena given theories describing their components, is not.<br />
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1972年,诺贝尔奖得主P·W·安德森(P.W.Anderson)在《科学》(Science)杂志上发表了一篇名为《More is different》的论文,文中利用对称性破缺的概念来表明,即使还原论是正确的,但与之相反的建构主义(construcism)却是错误的。建构主义认为,在给出描述其组成部分的理论的情况下科学家可以轻易地预测复杂现象。<br />
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Symmetry breaking can be distinguished into two types, [[explicit symmetry breaking]] and [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]], characterized by whether the equations of motion fail to be invariant or the [[Vacuum state|ground state]] fails to be invariant.<br />
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Symmetry breaking can be distinguished into two types, explicit symmetry breaking and spontaneous symmetry breaking, characterized by whether the equations of motion fail to be invariant or the ground state fails to be invariant.<br />
对称性破缺可以分为明显对称性破缺和自发对称性破缺两种类型,其特征是运动方程是否不变或基态是否不变。<br />
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==Explicit symmetry breaking明显对称性破缺==<br />
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{{main|Explicit symmetry breaking}}<br />
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In explicit symmetry breaking, the [[equations of motion]] describing a system are variant under the broken symmetry. In [[Hamiltonian mechanics]] or [[Lagrangian Mechanics]], this happens when there is at least one term in the Hamiltonian (or Lagrangian) that explicitly breaks the given symmetry.<br />
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In explicit symmetry breaking, the equations of motion describing a system are variant under the broken symmetry. In Hamiltonian mechanics or Lagrangian Mechanics, this happens when there is at least one term in the Hamiltonian (or Lagrangian) that explicitly breaks the given symmetry.<br />
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在20世纪90年代,明显对称性破缺描述一个系统的运动方程在对称性破缺的情况下是不同的。在哈密顿力学或拉格朗日力学中,假若系统的哈密顿量或拉格朗日量本身存在一个或多个违反某种对称性的项目,导致系统的物理行为不具备这种对称性,则称此为明显对称性破缺。这术语特别适用于大致具有对称性、违反对称项目很小的系统。<br />
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==Spontaneous symmetry breaking自发对称性破缺==<br />
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{{main|Spontaneous symmetry breaking}}<br />
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In spontaneous symmetry breaking, the [[equations of motion]] of the system are invariant, but the system is not. This is because the background ([[spacetime]]) of the system, its [[Vacuum state|vacuum]], is non-invariant. Such a symmetry breaking is parametrized by an [[order parameter]]. A special case of this type of symmetry breaking is [[dynamical symmetry breaking]].<br />
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In spontaneous symmetry breaking, the equations of motion of the system are invariant, but the system is not. This is because the background (spacetime) of the system, its vacuum, is non-invariant. Such a symmetry breaking is parametrized by an order parameter. A special case of this type of symmetry breaking is dynamical symmetry breaking.<br />
在自发对称性破缺中,系统的运动方程是不变的,但系统不是。这是因为系统的背景(时空)是非恒定的。这种对称破缺用序参量进行参数化。这类对称破缺的一个特殊情况是动力学对称性破缺。<br />
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== Examples 实例==<br />
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Symmetry breaking can cover any of the following scenarios:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/stars5/astroinfo/gloss/s.html|title=Astronomical Glossary|author=|date=|website=www.angelfire.com}}</ref><br />
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Symmetry breaking can cover any of the following scenarios:<br />
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对称性破缺可以涵盖以下任何一种情况:<br />
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:* The breaking of an exact symmetry of the underlying laws of physics by the apparently random formation of some structure; <br />
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* The breaking of an exact symmetry of the underlying laws of physics by the apparently random formation of some structure; <br />
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* 某些结构的随机形成破坏了物理学基本定律的精确对称性;<br />
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:* A situation in physics in which a [[ground state|minimal energy state]] has less symmetry than the system itself; <br />
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* A situation in physics in which a minimal energy state has less symmetry than the system itself; <br />
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* 物理学中最小能量状态的对称性不如系统本身的一种情况;<br />
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:* Situations where the actual state of the system does not reflect the underlying symmetries of the dynamics because the manifestly symmetric state is unstable (stability is gained at the cost of [[local property|local]] asymmetry); <br />
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* Situations where the actual state of the system does not reflect the underlying symmetries of the dynamics because the manifestly symmetric state is unstable (stability is gained at the cost of local asymmetry); <br />
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* 系统的实际状态由于明显对称的状态不稳定而不能反映动力学的基本对称性的情况(稳定性是以局部不对称为代价的) ;<br />
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:* Situations where the equations of a theory may have certain symmetries, though their solutions may not (the symmetries are "hidden").<br />
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* Situations where the equations of a theory may have certain symmetries, though their solutions may not (the symmetries are "hidden").<br />
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* 理论方程可能具有某种对称性,但其解可能没有(对称性是“隐藏的”)的情况。<br />
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One of the first cases of broken symmetry discussed in the physics literature is related to the form taken by a uniformly rotating body of [[Incompressible flow|incompressible fluid]] in [[gravitational]] and [[hydrostatic equilibrium]]. [[Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi|Jacobi]]<ref>{{cite journal| last=Jacobi | first=C.G.J. | title=Über die figur des gleichgewichts | journal=[[Annalen der Physik und Chemie]] | volume=109 | issue=33| pages=229–238 | year=1834| doi=10.1002/andp.18341090808 | bibcode=1834AnP...109..229J | url=https://zenodo.org/record/2027349 }}</ref> and soon later [[Liouville]],<ref>{{cite journal| last=Liouville | first=J. | title=Sur la figure d'une masse fluide homogène, en équilibre et douée d'un mouvement de rotation| journal=Journal de l'École Polytechnique | issue=14| pages=289–296 | year=1834}}</ref> in 1834, discussed the fact that a tri-axial ellipsoid was an equilibrium solution for this problem when the kinetic energy compared to the gravitational energy of the rotating body exceeded a certain critical value. The axial symmetry presented by the McLaurin spheroids is broken at this bifurcation point. Furthermore, above this bifurcation point, and for constant angular momentum, the solutions that minimize the kinetic energy are the ''non''-axially symmetric [[Jacobi ellipsoid]]s instead of the [[Maclaurin spheroid]]s.<br />
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One of the first cases of broken symmetry discussed in the physics literature is related to the form taken by a uniformly rotating body of incompressible fluid in gravitational and hydrostatic equilibrium. Jacobi and soon later Liouville, in 1834, discussed the fact that a tri-axial ellipsoid was an equilibrium solution for this problem when the kinetic energy compared to the gravitational energy of the rotating body exceeded a certain critical value. The axial symmetry presented by the McLaurin spheroids is broken at this bifurcation point. Furthermore, above this bifurcation point, and for constant angular momentum, the solutions that minimize the kinetic energy are the non-axially symmetric Jacobi ellipsoids instead of the Maclaurin spheroids.<br />
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在物理学文献中讨论的首批对称性破缺案例之一,与不可压缩流体在重力和流体静力平衡中的均匀旋转物体的形式有关。在1834年,Jacobi 和后来的 Liouville 讨论了这样一个事实: 当旋转物体的动能相对于引力势能超过一定的临界值时,三轴椭球是这个问题的平衡解。在这个分叉点上,麦克劳林椭球体的轴对称性被破坏。此外,在这个分叉点之上,对于常数角动量,使动能最小化的解是非轴对称的 Jacobi 椭球,而不是 Maclaurin 椭球。<br />
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在物理文献中讨论的最早的对称性破坏案例之一与不可压缩流体在重力和静水平衡中均匀旋转的物体所采取的形式有关。<br />
1834年,Jacobi和随后不久的Liouville讨论了当旋转体的动能与重力能的比值超过某一临界值时,三轴椭球是这一问题的平衡解。<br />
麦克劳林球状体所呈现的轴对称在这个分岔点被打破。<br />
此外,在这个分岔点之上,对于常角动量,使动能最小的解是非轴对称的雅可比椭球而不是麦克劳林椭球。<br />
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==See also==<br />
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*[[Higgs mechanism]]<br />
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*[[QCD vacuum]]<br />
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*[[Goldstone boson]]<br />
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*[[1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers]]<br />
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*[[希格斯机制]]<br />
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*[[QCD真空]]<br />
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*[[戈德斯通玻色子]]<br />
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*[[1964年PRL对称性破缺论文]]<br />
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==References==<br />
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{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Symmetry Breaking}}<br />
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[[Category:Symmetry]]<br />
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Category:Symmetry<br />
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范畴: 对称<br />
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[[Category:Pattern formation]]<br />
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Category:Pattern formation<br />
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类别: 模式形成<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Symmetry breaking]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[对称性破缺/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E9%9A%8F%E6%9C%BA%E8%BF%87%E7%A8%8B&diff=19587随机过程2020-12-02T09:33:13Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由水流心不竞初译,未经审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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[[File:BMonSphere.jpg|thumb|A computer-simulated realization of a [[Wiener process|Wiener]] or [[Brownian motion]] process on the surface of a sphere. The Wiener process is widely considered the most studied and central stochastic process in probability theory.<ref name="doob1953stochasticP46to47"/><ref name="RogersWilliams2000page1"/><ref name="Steele2012page29"/>]]<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])图注没有翻译<br />
Wiener or Brownian motion process on the surface of a sphere. The Wiener process is widely considered the most studied and central stochastic process in probability theory. Stochastic processes are widely used as mathematical models of systems and phenomena that appear to vary in a random manner. They have applications in many disciplines such as biology, chemistry, ecology, neuroscience, physics, image processing, signal processing, control theory, information theory, computer science, cryptography and telecommunications. Furthermore, seemingly random changes in financial markets have motivated the extensive use of stochastic processes in finance.<br />
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球面上的 Wiener 或 Brownian 运动过程。'''<font color="#ff8000"> 维纳过程Wiener process</font>'''被广泛认为是概率论研究最多和最核心的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机过程Stochastic processes</font>'''。'''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机过程Stochastic processes</font>'''被广泛用作以随机方式变化的系统和现象的数学模型。它们在生物学、化学、生态学、神经科学、物理学、图像处理、信号处理、控制理论、信息理论、计算机科学、密码学和电信学等许多学科都有应用。此外,金融市场表面上的随机变化促进了'''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机过程Stochastic processes</font>'''在金融领域的广泛应用。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])球面上的 Wiener 或 Brownian 运动过程 首次出现应该翻译出来维纳过程...<br />
In [[probability theory]] and related fields, a '''stochastic''' or '''random process''' is a [[mathematical object]] usually defined as a [[Indexed family|family]] of [[random variable]]s. Historically, the random variables were associated with or indexed by a set of numbers, usually viewed as points in time, giving the interpretation of a stochastic process representing numerical values of some system [[random]]ly changing over [[time]], such as the growth of a [[bacteria]]l population, an [[electrical current]] fluctuating due to [[thermal noise]], or the movement of a [[gas]] [[molecule]].<ref name="doob1953stochasticP46to47">{{cite book|author=Joseph L. Doob|title=Stochastic processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Bu8jgEACAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Wiley|pages=46, 47}}</ref><ref name="Parzen1999">{{cite book|author=Emanuel Parzen|title=Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0mB2CQAAQBAJ|year= 2015|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-79688-8|pages=7, 8}}</ref><ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1">{{cite book|author1=Iosif Ilyich Gikhman|author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich Skorokhod|title=Introduction to the Theory of Random Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q0lo91imeD0C|year=1969|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-69387-3|page=1}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Markov Chains: From Theory to Implementation and Experimentation|last=Gagniuc|first=Paul A.|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2017|isbn=978-1-119-38755-8|location= NJ|pages=1–235}}</ref> Stochastic processes are widely used as [[mathematical models]] of systems and phenomena that appear to vary in a random manner. They have applications in many disciplines such as [[biology]],<ref name="Bressloff2014">{{cite book|author=Paul C. Bressloff|title=Stochastic Processes in Cell Biology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SwZYBAAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-08488-6}}</ref> [[chemistry]],<ref name="Kampen2011">{{cite book|author=N.G. Van Kampen|title=Stochastic Processes in Physics and Chemistry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6II-6HlPxEC|year=2011|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-047536-3}}</ref> [[ecology]],<ref name="LandeEngen2003">{{cite book|author1=Russell Lande|author2=Steinar Engen|author3=Bernt-Erik Sæther|title=Stochastic Population Dynamics in Ecology and Conservation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6KClauq8OekC|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-852525-7}}</ref> [[neuroscience]]<ref name="LaingLord2010">{{cite book|author1=Carlo Laing|author2=Gabriel J Lord|title=Stochastic Methods in Neuroscience|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RaYSDAAAQBAJ|year=2010|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-923507-0}}</ref>, [[physics]]<ref name="PaulBaschnagel2013">{{cite book|author1=Wolfgang Paul|author2=Jörg Baschnagel|title=Stochastic Processes: From Physics to Finance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWANAAAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-319-00327-6}}</ref>, [[image processing]], [[signal processing]],<ref name="Dougherty1999">{{cite book|author=Edward R. Dougherty|title=Random processes for image and signal processing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ePxDAQAAIAAJ|year=1999|publisher=SPIE Optical Engineering Press|isbn=978-0-8194-2513-3}}</ref> [[Stochastic control|control theory]], <ref name="Bertsekas1996">{{cite book|author=Dimitri P. Bertsekas|title=Stochastic Optimal Control: The Discrete-Time Case|url=http://www.athenasc.com/socbook.html|year=1996|publisher=Athena Scientific]|isbn=1-886529-03-5}}</ref> [[information theory]],<ref name="CoverThomas2012page71">{{cite book|author1=Thomas M. Cover|author2=Joy A. Thomas|title=Elements of Information Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VWq5GG6ycxMC=PT16|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-58577-1|page=71}}</ref> [[computer science]],<ref name="Baron2015">{{cite book|author=Michael Baron|title=Probability and Statistics for Computer Scientists, Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CwQZCwAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4987-6060-7|page=131}}</ref> [[cryptography]]<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jonathan Katz|author2=Yehuda Lindell|title=Introduction to Modern Cryptography: Principles and Protocols|url=https://archive.org/details/Introduction_to_Modern_Cryptography|year=2007|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-58488-586-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/Introduction_to_Modern_Cryptography/page/n44 26]}}</ref> and [[telecommunications]].<ref name="BaccelliBlaszczyszyn2009">{{cite book|author1=François Baccelli|author2=Bartlomiej Blaszczyszyn|title=Stochastic Geometry and Wireless Networks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3ZkTN2pYS4C|year=2009|publisher=Now Publishers Inc|isbn=978-1-60198-264-3}}</ref> Furthermore, seemingly random changes in [[financial markets]] have motivated the extensive use of stochastic processes in [[finance]].<ref name="Steele2001">{{cite book|author=J. Michael Steele|title=Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H06xzeRQgV4C|year=2001|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-95016-7}}</ref><ref name="MusielaRutkowski2006">{{cite book|author1=Marek Musiela|author2=Marek Rutkowski|title=Martingale Methods in Financial Modelling|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iojEts9YAxIC|year= 2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-26653-2}}</ref><ref name="Shreve2004">{{cite book|author=Steven E. Shreve|title=Stochastic Calculus for Finance II: Continuous-Time Models|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O8kD1NwQBsQC|year=2004|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-40101-0}}</ref><br />
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在[[概率论]及相关领域中,“随机”或“随机过程”是一个[[数学对象]],通常被定义为[[随机变量]]的[[索引族]],给出对一个随机过程的解释,该过程表示某个系统[[随机]]的数值随[[时间]]的变化,例如[[细菌]]l种群的增长,[[电流]]由于[[热噪声]]而波动,或者一个[[气体]][[分子]]的运动<ref name="doob1953stochasticP46to47">{{cite book|author=Joseph L. Doob|title=Stochastic processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Bu8jgEACAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Wiley|pages=46, 47}}</ref><ref name="Parzen1999">{{cite book|author=Emanuel Parzen|title=Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0mB2CQAAQBAJ|year= 2015|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-79688-8|pages=7, 8}}</ref><ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1”>{引用图书| author1=Iosif Ilyich Gikhman | author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich Skorokhod | title=随机过程理论简介| url=图书https://books.com/?id=q0lo91imeD0C | year=1969 | publisher=Courier Corporation | isbn=978-0-486-693877-3 | page=1}</ref><ref name=“:0”{{引用图书;title=马尔可夫链:从理论到实施和实验;last=Gagniuc | first=Paul A.;出版商=John Wiley&Sons;年=2017年| isbn=978-1-119-387755-3 |位置=NJ NJ NJ[NJ-NJ:从理论到实施到实施和实验;最后=最后=最后随机过程是广泛存在的用作以随机方式变化的系统和现象的[[数学模型]]。{124lossf[author=124lossf]=图书https://books.com/?id=swzybaaqbaj | year=2014 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-3-319-08488-6}</ref>[[chemistry]],<ref name=“Kampen2011”>{cite book | author=N.G.Van Kampen | title=物理和化学中的随机过程| url=图书https://books.com/?id=N6II-6HlPxEC | year=2011 | publisher=Elsevier | isbn=978-0-08-047536-3}</ref>[[economic]],<ref name=“LandeEngen2003”>{引用图书| author1=Russell Lande | author2=Steinar Engen | author3=Bernt Erik S|ther | title=生态学和保护中的随机种群动态| url=图书https://books.com/?id=6KClauq8OekC | year=2003 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-852525-7}</ref>[[neuroscience]]<ref name=“LaingLord2010”>{cite book | author1=Carlo Laing | author2=Gabriel J Lord | title=神经科学中的随机方法| url=图书https://books.com/?id=RaYSDAAAQBAJ | year=2010 | publisher=OUP Oxford | isbn=978-0-19-923507-0}</ref>,[[physics]]<ref name=“PaulBaschnagel2013”>{cite book | author1=Wolfgang Paul | author2=Jörg Baschnagel | title=随机过程:从物理到金融| url=图书https://books.com/?id=owanaaaqbaj | year=2013 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-319-00327-6}</ref>,[[image processing]],[[signal processing]],<ref name=“dougherty999”>{cite book | author=Edward R.Dougherty | title=图像和信号处理的随机过程| url=图书https://books.com/?id=epxdaqaaaj | year=1999 | publisher=SPIE光学工程出版社| isbn=978-0-8194-2513-3}</ref>[[随机控制|控制理论]],<ref name=“Bertsekas1996”>{cite book | author=Dimitri P.Bertsekas | title=随机最优控制:离散时间情况| url=http://www.athenasc.com/socbook.html|年份=1996 | publisher=Athena Scientific]| isbn=1-886529-03-5}</ref>[[信息理论]],<ref name=“CoverThomas2012page71”>{cite book | author1=Thomas M.Cover | author2=Joy A.Thomas | title=Elements of Information Theory |网址=图书https://books.com/?id=VWq5GG6ycxMC=PT16 | year=2012 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-58577-1 | page=71}</ref>[[computer science]],<ref name=“Baron2015”>{引用图书|作者=Michael Baron | title=计算机科学家的概率与统计,第二版|网址=图书https://books.com/?id=CwQZCwAAQBAJ | year=2015 | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=978-1-4987-6060-7 | page=131}</ref>[[cryptography]]<ref>{cite book | author1=Jonathan Katz | author2=Yehuda Lindell | title=现代密码学导论:原则和协议| url=https://archive.org/details/Introduction_到\u现代加密|年份=2007年|出版商=CRC按| isbn=978-1-58488-586-3 |页=[https://archive.org/details/Introduction_to_Modern_加密技术/page/n4426]}</ref>和[[telecommunications].<ref name=“BaccelliBlaszczyszyn2009”>{cite book | author1=fraçois Baccelli|author2=Bartlomiej blaszzzyszyn | title=随机几何和无线网络| url=图书https://books.com/?id=H3ZkTN2pYS4C | year=2009 | publisher=Now Publishers Inc | isbn=978-1-60198-264-3}</ref>此外,[[金融市场]]中看似随机的变化激发了随机过程在[[金融]]中的广泛使用<br />
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Applications and the study of phenomena have in turn inspired the proposal of new stochastic processes. Examples of such stochastic processes include the Wiener process or Brownian motion process, used by Louis Bachelier to study price changes on the Paris Bourse, and the Poisson process, used by A. K. Erlang to study the number of phone calls occurring in a certain period of time. These two stochastic processes are considered the most important and central in the theory of stochastic processes, and were discovered repeatedly and independently, both before and after Bachelier and Erlang, in different settings and countries.<br />
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现象的应用和研究反过来激发了新的随机过程的提出。这类随机过程的例子包括路易斯 · 巴舍利耶用来研究巴黎证券交易所价格变化的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 维纳过程Wiener process</font>''或'''<font color="#ff8000"> 布朗运动过程Brownian motion process</font>'',以及 a · k · 埃尔朗用来研究在一定时期内通话次数的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 泊松过程Poisson process</font>'''。这两个随机过程在随机过程理论中被认为是最重要和最核心的,并且在巴舍利耶和 Erlang 之前和之后,在不同的环境和国家被重复和独立地发现。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])在不同的环境和国家被重复和独立地发现。 应该重新使得文本变得更好理解<br />
Applications and the study of phenomena have in turn inspired the proposal of new stochastic processes. Examples of such stochastic processes include the [[Wiener process]] or Brownian motion process,{{efn|The term ''Brownian motion'' can refer to the physical process, also known as ''Brownian movement'', and the stochastic process, a mathematical object, but to avoid ambiguity this article uses the terms ''Brownian motion process'' or ''Wiener process'' for the latter in a style similar to, for example, Gikhman and Skorokhod<ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969">{{cite book|author1=Iosif Ilyich Gikhman|author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich Skorokhod|title=Introduction to the Theory of Random Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJyLzG7N7r8C|year=1969|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-69387-3}}</ref> or Rosenblatt.<ref name="Rosenblatt1962">{{cite book|author=Murray Rosenblatt|title=Random Processes|url=https://archive.org/details/randomprocesses00rose_0|url-access=registration|year=1962|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>}} used by [[Louis Bachelier]] to study price changes on the [[Paris Bourse]],<ref name="JarrowProtter2004">{{cite book|last1=Jarrow|first1=Robert|title=A Festschrift for Herman Rubin|last2=Protter|first2=Philip|chapter=A short history of stochastic integration and mathematical finance: the early years, 1880–1970|year=2004|pages=75–80|issn=0749-2170|doi=10.1214/lnms/1196285381|citeseerx=10.1.1.114.632|series=Institute of Mathematical Statistics Lecture Notes - Monograph Series|isbn=978-0-940600-61-4}}</ref> and the [[Poisson process]], used by [[A. K. Erlang]] to study the number of phone calls occurring in a certain period of time.<ref name="Stirzaker2000">{{cite journal|last1=Stirzaker|first1=David|title=Advice to Hedgehogs, or, Constants Can Vary|journal=The Mathematical Gazette|volume=84|issue=500|year=2000|pages=197–210|issn=0025-5572|doi=10.2307/3621649|jstor=3621649}}</ref> These two stochastic processes are considered the most important and central in the theory of stochastic processes,<ref name="doob1953stochasticP46to47"/><ref name="Parzen1999"/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Donald L. Snyder|author2=Michael I. Miller|title=Random Point Processes in Time and Space|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_3UBwAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4612-3166-0|page=32}}</ref> and were discovered repeatedly and independently, both before and after Bachelier and Erlang, in different settings and countries.<ref name="JarrowProtter2004"/><ref name="GuttorpThorarinsdottir2012">{{cite journal|last1=Guttorp|first1=Peter|last2=Thorarinsdottir|first2=Thordis L.|title=What Happened to Discrete Chaos, the Quenouille Process, and the Sharp Markov Property? Some History of Stochastic Point Processes|journal=International Statistical Review|volume=80|issue=2|year=2012|pages=253–268|issn=0306-7734|doi=10.1111/j.1751-5823.2012.00181.x}}</ref><br />
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应用和现象研究反过来又启发了新随机过程的提出。这种随机过程的例子包括[[维纳过程]]或布朗运动过程,{efn |术语“布朗运动”可以指物理过程,也被称为“布朗运动”,以及随机过程,一个数学对象,但为了避免歧义,本文使用“布朗运动过程”或“维纳过程”来表示后者,其风格类似于,例如,Gikhman和Skorokhod<ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969”>{cite book | author1=Iosif-Ilyich-Gikhman | author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich Skorokhod | title=随机过程理论导论| url=图书https://books.com/?id=yJyLzG7N7r8C |年份=1969 | publisher=Courier Corporation | isbn=978-0-486-69387-3}</ref>或Rosenblatt。<ref name=“Rosenblatt1962”>{引用图书|作者=Murray Rosenblatt | title=Random Processes | url=https://archive.org/details/randomprocess00rose\u 0|url access=registration | year=1962 | publisher=Oxford University Press}</ref>}}使用人[[Louis Bachelier]]为了研究[[巴黎证券交易所]]的价格变化,<ref name=“JarrowProtter2004”>{cite book | last1=Jarrow | first1=Robert | title=A Festschrift for Herman Rubin | last2=Protter | first2=Philip | chapter=随机积分和数学金融学简史:早期,1880-1970 |年份=2004 |页数=75–80 | issn=0749-2170 | doi=10.1214/lnms/1196285381 | citeserx=10.1.1.114.632 |系列=数理统计研究所讲座笔记-专著系列| isbn=978-0-940600-61-4}</ref>和[[Poisson过程]],被[[A.K.Erlang]]用来研究某段时间内发生的电话号码。<ref name=“Stirzaker2000”>{cite journal | last1=Stirzaker | first1=David | title=Advice to Hedgehogs,或,常数可以变化| journal=The mathematic Gazette | volume=84 | issue=500 | year=2000 | pages=197–210 | issn=0025-5572 | doi=10.2307/3621649 | jstor=3621649}</ref>这两个随机过程被认为是随机过程理论中最重要和最核心的,<ref name=“doob1953stochasticP46to47”/><ref name=“Parzen1999”/><ref>{cite book | author1=Donald L.Snyder | author2=Michael I.Miller | title=时空中的随机点过程| url=图书https://books.com/?id=c_3UBwAAQBAJ | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4612-3166-0 | page=32}}</ref>并且在Bachelier和Erlang前后被反复独立地发现,在不同的环境和国家。<ref name=“JarrowProtter2004”/><ref name=“GuttorpThorarinsdottir2012”>{cite journal | last1=Guttorp | first1=Peter | last2=Thorarinsdottir | first2=Thordis L.| title=离散混沌、Quenouille过程和Sharp Markov属性发生了什么?随机点过程的一些历史| journal=International Statistical Review | volume=80 | issue=2 | year=2012 | pages=253-268 | issn=0306-7734 | doi=10.1111/j.1751-5823.2012.00181.x}}</ref><br />
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The term random function is also used to refer to a stochastic or random process, because a stochastic process can also be interpreted as a random element in a function space. The terms stochastic process and random process are used interchangeably, often with no specific mathematical space for the set that indexes the random variables. But often these two terms are used when the random variables are indexed by the integers or an interval of the real line. The values of a stochastic process are not always numbers and can be vectors or other mathematical objects. martingales, Markov processes, Lévy processes, Gaussian processes, random fields, renewal processes, and branching processes. The study of stochastic processes uses mathematical knowledge and techniques from probability, calculus, linear algebra, set theory, and topology as well as branches of mathematical analysis such as real analysis, measure theory, Fourier analysis, and functional analysis. The theory of stochastic processes is considered to be an important contribution to mathematics and it continues to be an active topic of research for both theoretical reasons and applications.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机函数Random function</font>'''这个术语也用来指随机或随机过程,因为随机过程也可以被解释为函数空间中的随机元素。随机(stochastic)过程和随机(random)过程这两个术语可以互换使用,通常没有专门的数学空间用于对随机变量进行索引。但是,当随机变量被整数或实线的一个区间索引时,通常使用这两个项。随机过程的值并不总是数字,可以是向量或其他数学对象。'''<font color="#ff8000"> 马尔可夫过程Markov processes,列维过程Lévy processes,高斯过程Gaussian processes,随机场random fields,更新过程renewal processes, 分支过程branching processes</font>'''。随机过程的研究使用的数学知识和技术,从概率,微积分,线性代数,集合论,拓扑,以及数学分析的分支,如实分析,测度理论,傅立叶变换家族中的关系,和泛函分析。随机过程理论被认为是对数学的一个重要贡献,无论从理论上还是应用上,它都一直是一个活跃的研究课题。<br />
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The term '''random function''' is also used to refer to a stochastic or random process,<ref name="GusakKukush2010page21">{{cite book|first1=Dmytro|last1=Gusak|first2=Alexander|last2=Kukush|first3=Alexey|last3=Kulik|first4=Yuliya|last4=Mishura|author4-link=Yuliya Mishura|first5=Andrey|last5=Pilipenko|title=Theory of Stochastic Processes: With Applications to Financial Mathematics and Risk Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Nzn51YTbX4C|year=2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-87862-1|page=21|ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="Skorokhod2005page42">{{cite book|author=Valeriy Skorokhod|title=Basic Principles and Applications of Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQkYMjRK3fYC|year= 2005|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-26312-8|page=42}}</ref> because a stochastic process can also be interpreted as a random element in a [[function space]].<ref name="Kallenberg2002page24"/><ref name="Lamperti1977page1">{{cite book|author=John Lamperti|title=Stochastic processes: a survey of the mathematical theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd4cvgAACAAJ|year=1977|publisher=Springer-Verlag|isbn=978-3-540-90275-1|pages=1–2}}</ref> The terms ''stochastic process'' and ''random process'' are used interchangeably, often with no specific [[mathematical space]] for the set that indexes the random variables.<ref name="Kallenberg2002page24">{{cite book|author=Olav Kallenberg|title=Foundations of Modern Probability|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6fhXh13OyMC|year=2002|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-95313-7|pages=24–25}}</ref><ref name="ChaumontYor2012">{{cite book|author1=Loïc Chaumont|author2=Marc Yor|title=Exercises in Probability: A Guided Tour from Measure Theory to Random Processes, Via Conditioning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dcqV9mtQloC&pg=PR4|year= 2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-60655-5|page=175}}</ref> But often these two terms are used when the random variables are indexed by the [[integers]] or an [[Interval (mathematics)|interval]] of the [[real line]].<ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1"/><ref name="ChaumontYor2012"/> If the random variables are indexed by the [[Cartesian plane]] or some higher-dimensional [[Euclidean space]], then the collection of random variables is usually called a [[random field]] instead.<ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1"/><ref name="AdlerTaylor2009page7">{{cite book|author1=Robert J. Adler|author2=Jonathan E. Taylor|title=Random Fields and Geometry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5BGvQ3ejloC|year=2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-48116-6|pages=7–8}}</ref> The values of a stochastic process are not always numbers and can be vectors or other mathematical objects.<ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1"/><ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><br />
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术语“随机函数”也用于指随机或随机过程,[[参考资料][[[参考名称]古斯库库库库库库库库库库什2010年第21页第21页][引用图书| first1=first1=Dmytro;last1=Gusak | first2=Alexander |最后2=Kukukush;first3=Alexey |最后3=Kulik | first4=Yuliya |最后4=Mishura | author4 link=Yuliya Mishura | first5=Andrey | last5=Pilipenko | title=随机过程理论:随机过程理论:应用金融数学和风险理论应用124;网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Nzn51YTbX4C | year=2010 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-87862-1 | page=21 | ref=harv}</ref><ref name=“Skorokhod2005page42”{引用图书|作者=Valeriy skorokord | title=概率论的基本原理和应用| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQkYMjRK3fYC | year=2005 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-540-26312-8 | page=42}</ref>,因为随机过程也可以解释为[[函数空间]]中的随机元素数学理论|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=pd4cvgaacaj | year=1977 | publisher=Springer Verlag | isbn=978-3-540-90275-1 | pages=1–2}</ref>术语“随机过程”和“随机过程”可以互换使用,对于索引随机变量的集合,通常没有特定的[[数学空间]]=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6fhXh13OyMC | year=2002 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-95313-7 | pages=24-25}</ref name=“ChaumontYor2012”>{cite book | author1=Lo|Chaumont | author2=Marc Yor | title=practicess in Probability:A Guided Tour from Theory to Random,Via condition | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dcqV9mtQloC&pg=PR4 | year=2012 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-107-60655-5 | page=175}}</ref>但是当随机变量由[[实线]]的[[整数]]或[[区间(数学)|区间]]索引时,通常使用这两个术语。<ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1”/><ref name=“ChaumontYor2012”/>变量由[[笛卡尔平面]]或更高维的[[欧几里德空间]]索引,通常称之为Jonathan{124ora@random Fields=124hoj=random-field[author2name=random-field]=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5BGvQ3ejloC | year=2009 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-48116-6 | pages=7–8}</ref>随机过程的值并不总是数字,可以是向量或其他数学对象。<ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1”/><ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><br />
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Based on their mathematical properties, stochastic processes can be grouped into various categories, which include [[random walk]]s,<ref name="LawlerLimic2010">{{cite book|author1=Gregory F. Lawler|author2=Vlada Limic|title=Random Walk: A Modern Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UBQdwAZDeOEC|year= 2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48876-1}}</ref> [[Martingale (probability theory)|martingales]],<ref name="Williams1991">{{cite book|author=David Williams|title=Probability with Martingales|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9saZ0YSi-AC|year=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-40605-5}}</ref> [[Markov process]]es,<ref name="RogersWilliams2000">{{cite book|author1=L. C. G. Rogers|author2=David Williams|title=Diffusions, Markov Processes, and Martingales: Volume 1, Foundations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year= 2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-71749-7}}</ref> [[Lévy process]]es,<ref name="ApplebaumBook2004">{{cite book|author=David Applebaum|title=Lévy Processes and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7eDUjdJxIkC|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83263-2}}</ref> [[Gaussian process]]es,<ref>{{cite book|author=Mikhail Lifshits|title=Lectures on Gaussian Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03m2UxI-UYMC|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-24939-6}}</ref> random fields,<ref name="Adler2010">{{cite book|author=Robert J. Adler|title=The Geometry of Random Fields|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryejJmJAj28C&pg=PA1|year= 2010|publisher=SIAM|isbn=978-0-89871-693-1}}</ref> [[renewal process]]es, and [[branching process]]es.<ref name="KarlinTaylor2012">{{cite book|author1=Samuel Karlin|author2=Howard E. Taylor|title=A First Course in Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC|year= 2012|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-057041-9}}</ref> The study of stochastic processes uses mathematical knowledge and techniques from [[probability]], [[calculus]], [[linear algebra]], [[set theory]], and [[topology]]<ref name="Hajek2015">{{cite book|author=Bruce Hajek|title=Random Processes for Engineers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Owy0BgAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-24124-0}}</ref><ref name="LatoucheRamaswami1999">{{cite book|author1=G. Latouche|author2=V. Ramaswami|title=Introduction to Matrix Analytic Methods in Stochastic Modeling|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kan2ki8jqzgC|year=1999|publisher=SIAM|isbn=978-0-89871-425-8}}</ref><ref name="DaleyVere-Jones2007">{{cite book|author1=D.J. Daley|author2=David Vere-Jones|title=An Introduction to the Theory of Point Processes: Volume II: General Theory and Structure|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPENXKw5kwcC|year= 2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-21337-8}}</ref> as well as branches of [[mathematical analysis]] such as [[real analysis]], [[measure theory]], [[Fourier analysis]], and [[functional analysis]].<ref name="Billingsley2008">{{cite book|author=Patrick Billingsley|title=Probability and Measure|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyXqOXyxEeIC|year=2008|publisher=Wiley India Pvt. Limited|isbn=978-81-265-1771-8}}</ref><ref name="Brémaud2014">{{cite book|author=Pierre Brémaud|title=Fourier Analysis and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dP2JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year= 2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-09590-5}}</ref><ref name="Bobrowski2005">{{cite book|author=Adam Bobrowski|title=Functional Analysis for Probability and Stochastic Processes: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7dR3d5nqaUC|year= 2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83166-6}}</ref> The theory of stochastic processes is considered to be an important contribution to mathematics<ref name="Applebaum2004">{{cite journal|last1=Applebaum|first1=David|title=Lévy processes: From probability to finance and quantum groups|journal=Notices of the AMS|volume=51|issue=11|year=2004|pages=1336–1347}}</ref> and it continues to be an active topic of research for both theoretical reasons and applications.<ref name="BlathImkeller2011">{{cite book|author1=Jochen Blath|author2=Peter Imkeller|author3=Sylvie Rœlly|title=Surveys in Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CyK6KAjwdYkC|year=2011|publisher=European Mathematical Society|isbn=978-3-03719-072-2}}</ref><ref name="Talagrand2014">{{cite book|author=Michel Talagrand|title=Upper and Lower Bounds for Stochastic Processes: Modern Methods and Classical Problems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfa5BAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2014|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-54075-2|pages=4–}}</ref><ref name="Bressloff2014VII">{{cite book|author=Paul C. Bressloff|title=Stochastic Processes in Cell Biology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SwZYBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-08488-6|pages=vii–ix}}</ref><br />
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根据随机过程的数学性质,随机过程可以分为不同的类别,包括[[随机游走]]s,<ref name=“LawlerLimic2010”>{cite book | author1=Gregory F.Lawler | author2=Vlada Limic | title=random walk:A Modern Introduction | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UBQdwAZDeOEC | year=2010 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-139-48876-1}</ref>[[鞅(概率论)|鞅]],<ref name=“Williams1991”>{cite book |作者=David Williams | title=probability with鞅| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9saZ0YSi AC | year=1991 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-40605-5}</ref>[[Markov process]]es,<ref name=“rogerswillams2000”>{引用图书| author1=L.C.G.Rogers | author2=David Williams | title=扩散,马尔可夫过程,和鞅:第一卷,基础|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 | year=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-107-71749-7}</ref>[[Lévy process]]es,<ref name=“ApplebaumBook2004”>{cite book |作者=David Applebaum | title=Lévy过程和随机微积分| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7eDUjdJxIkC | year=2004 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-83263-2}</ref>[[Gaussian process]]es,<ref>{cite book | author=Mikhail Lifshits | title=关于高斯过程的讲座| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=03m2UxI UYMC | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-642-24939-6}</ref>随机域,<ref name=“Adler2010”>{cite book | author=Robert J.Adler | title=The Geometry of random fields | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryejJmJAj28C&pg=PA1 | year=2010 | publisher=SIAM | isbn=978-0-89871-693-1}</ref>[[renewal process]]es,和[[branching process]]es.<ref name=“KarlinTaylor2012”>{引用图书| author1=Samuel Karlin | author2=Howard E.Taylor | title=随机过程的第一门课程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC | year=2012 | publisher=academical Press | isbn=978-0-08-057041-9}</ref>随机过程的研究使用了[[概率]]、[[微积分]]、[[线性代数]]、[[集理论]]的数学知识和技术,和[[topology]]<ref name=“Hajek2015”>{cite book | author=Bruce Hajek | title=Random Processes for Engineers |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=Owy0BgAAQBAJ | year=2015 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-316-24124-0}</ref><ref name=“LatoucheRamaswami1999”>{cite book | author1=G.Latouche | author2=V.Ramaswami | title=随机建模中的矩阵分析方法简介| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kan2ki8jqzgC | year=1999 | publisher=SIAM | isbn=978-0-89871-425-8}</ref><ref name=“DaleyVere-Jones 2007”>{引用图书| author1=D.J.Daley | author2=David Vere-Jones | title=点过程理论导论:第二卷:一般理论与结构| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPENXKw5kwcC | year=2007 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-21337-8}</ref>以及[[数学分析]]的分支,如[[真实分析],[[测量理论]],[[傅立叶分析],和[[功能分析].<ref name=“Billingsley2008”>{cite book | author=Patrick Billingsley | title=Probability and Measure |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyXqOXyxEeIC | year=2008 | publisher=Wiley India私人有限公司| isbn=978-81-265-1771-8}</ref><ref name=“Brémaud2014”>{cite book | author=Pierre Brémaud | title=Fourier Analysis and Random Processes |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=dP2JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 | year=2014 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-3-319-09590-5}</ref><ref name=“Bobrowski2005”>{cite book | author=Adam Bobrowski | title=概率与随机过程的函数分析:简介|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7dR3d5nqaUC | year=2005 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-83166-6}</ref>随机过程理论被认为是对数学的重要贡献AMS | volume=51 | issue=11 | year=2004 | pages=1336–1347}</ref>并且由于理论原因和应用,它仍然是一个活跃的研究课题。<ref name=“BlathImkeller2011”>{cite book | author1=Jochen Blath | author2=Peter Imkeller | author3=Sylvie Rœlly | title=Surveys in random Processes | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CyK6KAjwdYkC | year=2011 | publisher=欧洲数学学会| isbn=978-3-03719-072-2}</ref><ref name=“Talagrand2014”>{引用图书|作者=Michel Talagrand | title=随机过程的上下界:现代方法和经典问题| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfa5baaqbaj&pg=PR4 | year=2014 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-642-54075-2 | pages=4–}</ref><ref name=“Bressloff2014VII”>{引用图书|作者=Paul C.Bressloff | title=细胞生物学中的随机过程|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=SWZYBAAQBAJ&pg公司<br />
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A stochastic or random process can be defined as a collection of random variables that is indexed by some mathematical set, meaning that each random variable of the stochastic process is uniquely associated with an element in the set.<br />
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一个随机过程可以被定义为一组随机变量的集合,这些随机变量被一些数学集合索引,这意味着随机过程的每个随机变量唯一地与集合中的一个元素相关联。<br />
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==Introduction简介==<br />
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When interpreted as time, if the index set of a stochastic process has a finite or countable number of elements, such as a finite set of numbers, the set of integers, or the natural numbers, then the stochastic process is said to be in discrete time. If the index set is some interval of the real line, then time is said to be continuous. The two types of stochastic processes are respectively referred to as discrete-time and continuous-time stochastic processes. Discrete-time stochastic processes are considered easier to study because continuous-time processes require more advanced mathematical techniques and knowledge, particularly due to the index set being uncountable. If the index set is the integers, or some subset of them, then the stochastic process can also be called a random sequence. In his work on probability Ars Conjectandi, originally published in Latin in 1713, Jakob Bernoulli used the phrase "Ars Conjectandi sive Stochastice", which has been translated to "the art of conjecturing or stochastics". This phrase was used, with reference to Bernoulli, by Ladislaus Bortkiewicz who in 1917 wrote in German the word stochastik with a sense meaning random. The term stochastic process first appeared in English in a 1934 paper by Joseph Doob. though the German term had been used earlier, for example, by Andrei Kolmogorov in 1931.<br />
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当被解释为时间时,如果一个随机过程的索引集的元素数量有限或可数,如一个有限的数字集,一个整数集,或自然数集,那么随机过程被称为在离散时间内随机。如果索引集是实线的某个区间,那么时间就是连续的。这两类随机过程分别称为离散时间过程和连续时间过程。离散时间随机过程被认为更容易研究,因为连续时间过程需要更先进的数学技术和知识,特别是由于索引集是不可数的。如果索引集是整数,或者整数的一些子集,那么随机过程也可以被称为'''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机序列Random sequence</font>'''。雅各布 · 伯努利在1713年以拉丁文出版的《猜测概率论》一书中使用了“猜测随机论”这个短语,这个短语被翻译成了“猜测或推测的艺术”。1917年,拉迪斯劳斯·博特基威茨在德语中写下了“随机”一词,意思是随机。1934年,Joseph Doob 在一篇论文中首次提到随机过程这个词。尽管这个德语术语早在1931年就被安德烈 · 科尔莫哥罗夫使用过。<br />
--~~~如果一个随机过程的索引集的元素数量有限或可数,如一个有限的数字集,一个整数集,或自然数集,那么随机过程被称为在离散时间内随机。如果索引集是实线的某个区间,那么时间就是连续的 修改润色语言 “实线的某个区间”→在实数轴上的某个区间上<br />
--~~~离散时间随机过程被认为更容易研究,因为连续时间过程需要更先进的数学技术和知识,特别是由于索引集是不可数的。 可进一步修改<br />
A stochastic or random process can be defined as a collection of random variables that is indexed by some mathematical set, meaning that each random variable of the stochastic process is uniquely associated with an element in the set.<ref name="Parzen1999"/><ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1"/> The set used to index the random variables is called the '''index set'''. Historically, the index set was some [[subset]] of the [[real line]], such as the [[natural numbers]], giving the index set the interpretation of time.<ref name="doob1953stochasticP46to47"/> Each random variable in the collection takes values from the same [[mathematical space]] known as the '''state space'''. This state space can be, for example, the integers, the real line or <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref name="doob1953stochasticP46to47"/><ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1"/> An '''increment''' is the amount that a stochastic process changes between two index values, often interpreted as two points in time.<ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page27"/><ref name="Applebaum2004page1337"/> A stochastic process can have many [[Outcome (probability)|outcomes]], due to its randomness, and a single outcome of a stochastic process is called, among other names, a '''sample function''' or '''realization'''.<ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><ref name="RogersWilliams2000page121b"/><br />
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随机(stochastic)或随机(random)过程可以定义为随机变量的集合,这些随机变量由一些数学集合构成索引,这意味着随机过程中的每个随机变量都与集合中的一个元素唯一关联。<ref name=“Parzen1999”/><ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1”/>用于索引随机变量的集合称为“索引集”。从历史上看,索引集是[[实线]]的一些[[子集]],例如[[自然数]],为索引集提供了对时间的解释。<ref name=“doob1953stochasticP46to47”/>集合中的每个随机变量都从相同的[[数学空间]]中获取值,称为“状态空间”。例如,这个状态空间可以是整数、实线或维欧几里德空间。<ref name=“doob1953stochasticP46to47”/>“increment”是随机过程在两个索引值之间变化的量,通常被解释为两个时间点。<ref name=“KarlinTaylor2012page27”/><ref name=“Applebaum2004page1337”/>由于随机性,随机过程可以有许多[[结果(概率)|结果]],随机过程的单个结果称为其他名称中的一个,“示例函数”或“实现”。<ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><ref name=“RogersWilliams2000page121b“/><br />
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According to the Oxford English Dictionary, early occurrences of the word random in English with its current meaning, which relates to chance or luck, date back to the 16th century, while earlier recorded usages started in the 14th century as a noun meaning "impetuosity, great speed, force, or violence (in riding, running, striking, etc.)". The word itself comes from a Middle French word meaning "speed, haste", and it is probably derived from a French verb meaning "to run" or "to gallop". The first written appearance of the term random process pre-dates stochastic process, which the Oxford English Dictionary also gives as a synonym, and was used in an article by Francis Edgeworth published in 1888.<br />
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根据牛津英语词典的研究,英语中随机这个词的早期出现和它现在的意思有关,可以追溯到16世纪,而早期记录的用法开始于14世纪,是一个名词,意思是“浮躁、极速、力量或暴力(在骑马、奔跑、惊人等等)”。这个单词本身来自中世纪法语单词,意思是“速度,匆忙” ,它可能来源于法语动词,意思是“奔跑”或“疾驰”。随机(random)过程这个术语的第一次书面出现早于随机(stochastic)过程,牛津英语词典也把它作为同义词,并在 Francis Edgeworth 1888年发表的一篇文章中使用。<br />
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[[File:Wiener process 3d.png|thumb|right|A single computer-simulated '''sample function''' or '''realization''', among other terms, of a three-dimensional Wiener or Brownian motion process for time 0 ≤ t ≤ 2. The index set of this stochastic process is the non-negative numbers, while its state space is three-dimensional Euclidean space.]]<br />
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[[文件:维纳工艺3d.png | thumb | right |单个计算机模拟时间0≤t≤2的三维Wiener或Brownian运动过程的“样本函数”或“实现”。这个随机过程的指标集是非负数,而其状态空间是三维欧几里德空间<br />
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===Classifications分类===<br />
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The definition of a stochastic process varies, but a stochastic process is traditionally defined as a collection of random variables indexed by some set. Both "collection", while instead of "index set", sometimes the terms "parameter set" though sometimes it is only used when the stochastic process takes real values. while the terms stochastic process and random process are usually used when the index set is interpreted as time, and other terms are used such as random field when the index set is <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^n</math> or a manifold. <math>\{X(t)\}</math> or simply as <math>X</math> or <math>X(t)</math>, although <math>X(t)</math> is regarded as an abuse of function notation. For example, <math>X(t)</math> or <math>X_t</math> are used to refer to the random variable with the index <math>t</math>, and not the entire stochastic process. In other words, a Bernoulli process is a sequence of iid Bernoulli random variables, where each coin flip is an example of a Bernoulli trial.<br />
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随机过程的定义各不相同,但随机过程通常被定义为由一组随机变量组成的集合。两者都是“集合” ,而不是“索引集合” ,有时使用术语“参数集合” ,但有时只有在随机过程数据库采用真实值时才使用。当索引集被解释为时间时,通常使用术语随机过程和随机过程,当索引集是 < math > n </math >-dimensional Euclidean space < math > mathbb { r } ^ n </math > 或者是流形时,则使用随机场。虽然《 math 》被认为是对函数表示法的滥用,但《 math 》还是被简单地称为《 math 》或《 math 》。例如,< math > x (t) </math > 或 < math > x _ t </math > 用于指代带有索引 < math > t </math > 的随机变量,而不是整个随机过程。换句话说,伯努利过程是一系列 iid Bernoulli 随机变量,每次抛硬币都是 Bernoulli 试验的一个例子。<br />
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A stochastic process can be classified in different ways, for example, by its state space, its index set, or the dependence among the random variables. One common way of classification is by the [[cardinality]] of the index set and the state space.<ref name="Florescu2014page294"/><ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page26">{{cite book|author1=Samuel Karlin|author2=Howard E. Taylor|title=A First Course in Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC|year=2012|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-057041-9|page=26}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Donald L. Snyder|author2=Michael I. Miller|title=Random Point Processes in Time and Space|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_3UBwAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4612-3166-0|pages=24, 25}}</ref><br />
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随机过程可以用不同的方法进行分类,例如,根据其状态空间、指标集或随机变量之间的相关性。一种常见的分类方法是通过索引集和状态空间的[[基数]]=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC | year=2012 | publisher=academical Press | isbn=978-0-08-057041-9 | page=26}</ref>{cite book | author1=Donald L.Snyder | author2=Michael I.Miller | title=时空中的随机点过程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c|3UBwAAQBAJ|year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4612-3166-0 |页面=24,25}</ref><br />
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When interpreted as time, if the index set of a stochastic process has a finite or countable number of elements, such as a finite set of numbers, the set of integers, or the natural numbers, then the stochastic process is said to be in '''[[discrete time]]'''.<ref name="Billingsley2008page482"/><ref name="Borovkov2013page527">{{cite book|author=Alexander A. Borovkov|title=Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRk_AAAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-5201-9|page=527}}</ref> If the index set is some interval of the real line, then time is said to be '''[[continuous time|continuous]]'''. The two types of stochastic processes are respectively referred to as '''discrete-time''' and '''[[continuous-time stochastic process]]es'''.<ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page27"/><ref name="Brémaud2014page120"/><ref name="Rosenthal2006page177">{{cite book|author=Jeffrey S Rosenthal|title=A First Look at Rigorous Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=am1IDQAAQBAJ|year=2006|publisher=World Scientific Publishing Co Inc|isbn=978-981-310-165-4|pages=177–178}}</ref> Discrete-time stochastic processes are considered easier to study because continuous-time processes require more advanced mathematical techniques and knowledge, particularly due to the index set being uncountable.<ref name="KloedenPlaten2013page63">{{cite book|author1=Peter E. Kloeden|author2=Eckhard Platen|title=Numerical Solution of Stochastic Differential Equations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r9r6CAAAQBAJ=PA1|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-662-12616-5|page=63}}</ref><ref name="Khoshnevisan2006page153">{{cite book|author=Davar Khoshnevisan|title=Multiparameter Processes: An Introduction to Random Fields|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XADpBwAAQBAJ|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-21631-7|pages=153–155}}</ref> If the index set is the integers, or some subset of them, then the stochastic process can also be called a '''random sequence'''.<ref name="Borovkov2013page527"/><br />
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当解释为时间时,如果随机过程的指标集有有限个或可数个元素,例如有限的一组数、一组整数或自然数,那么随机过程被称为“'[[离散时间]]''”。<ref name=“Billingsley2008page482”/><ref name=“Borovkov2013page527”>{cite book | author=Alexander A.Borovkov | title=Probability Theory |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRk_AAAAQBAJ | year=2013 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4471-5201-9 | page=527}}</ref>如果索引集是实线的某个区间,则时间被称为“'[[continuous time|continuous]]”。这两类随机过程分别被称为“离散时间”和“[[连续时间随机过程]]es”。<ref name=“KarlinTaylor2012page27”/><ref name=“Brémaud2014page120”/><ref name=“Rosenthal2006page177”>{cite book | author=Jeffrey S Rosenthal | title=A First Look on critical Probability理论|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=am1IDQAAQBAJ | year=2006 | publisher=World Scientific Publishing Co Inc | isbn=978-981-310-165-4 | pages=177-178}</ref>离散时间随机过程被认为更容易研究,因为连续时间过程需要更先进的数学技术和知识,特别是由于索引集是不可数的。<ref name=“KloedenPlaten2013page63”>{cite book | author1=Peter E.Kloeden | author2=Eckhard Platen | title=随机微分方程的数值解=https://books.google.com/books?id=r9r6CAAAQBAJ=PA1 | year=2013 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-662-12616-5 | page=63}</ref><ref name=“khoshnivesan2006page153”>{cite book | author=Davar khoshnivesan | title=多参数过程:随机字段简介| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XADpBwAAQBAJ | year=2006 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-21631-7 | pages=153–155}</ref>如果索引集是整数或整数的子集,则随机过程也可以称为“随机序列”。<ref name=“Borovkov2013page527”/><br />
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If the state space is the integers or natural numbers, then the stochastic process is called a '''discrete''' or '''integer-valued stochastic process'''. If the state space is the real line, then the stochastic process is referred to as a '''real-valued stochastic process''' or a '''process with continuous state space'''. If the state space is <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space, then the stochastic process is called a <math>n</math>-'''dimensional vector process''' or <math>n</math>-'''vector process'''.<ref name="Florescu2014page294"/><ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page26"/><br />
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如果状态空间是整数或自然数,则随机过程称为“离散”或“整值随机过程”。如果状态空间是实线,则随机过程被称为“实值随机过程”或“具有连续状态空间的过程”。如果状态空间是<math>n</math>-维欧几里德空间,则随机过程称为<math>n</math>-“维向量过程”或<math>n</math>—“向量过程”。<ref name=“florescu214page294”/><ref name=“KarlinTaylor2012page26”/><br />
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Random walks are stochastic processes that are usually defined as sums of iid random variables or random vectors in Euclidean space, so they are processes that change in discrete time. But some also use the term to refer to processes that change in continuous time, particularly the Wiener process used in finance, which has led to some confusion, resulting in its criticism. There are other various types of random walks, defined so their state spaces can be other mathematical objects, such as lattices and groups, and in general they are highly studied and have many applications in different disciplines.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机游走Random walks</font>'''是随机过程,通常定义为欧氏空间中的等价随机变量或随机向量的和,因此它们是在离散时间中变化的过程。但有些人也用这个词来指连续时间中发生变化的过程,特别是在金融领域使用的维纳过程,这种过程导致了一些混淆,从而招致了批评。还有其他各种类型的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机游走Random walks</font>''',定义它们的状态空间可以是其他数学对象,如格子和群,一般来说,它们被高度研究,在不同学科中有许多应用。<br />
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===Etymology词源学===<br />
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A classic example of a random walk is known as the simple random walk, which is a stochastic process in discrete time with the integers as the state space, and is based on a Bernoulli process, where each Bernoulli variable takes either the value positive one or negative one. In other words, the simple random walk takes place on the integers, and its value increases by one with probability, say, <math>p</math>, or decreases by one with probability <math>1-p</math>, so the index set of this random walk is the natural numbers, while its state space is the integers. If the <math>p=0.5</math>, this random walk is called a symmetric random walk.<br />
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一个经典的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机游走Random walk</font>'''的例子被称为'''<font color="#ff8000"> 简单随机游走SimpleRandom walk</font>''',这是一个以整数为状态空间的离散时间随机过程,它基于一个'''<font color="#ff8000">伯努利过程Bernoulli process</font>''',其中每个 伯努利Bernoulli 变量要么取值为正,要么取值为负。换句话说,简单随机游动发生在整数上,它的值随概率<math>p</math>的增加而增加1,或随概率<math>1-p</math>的减少而减少1,所以这种'''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机游走Random walk</font>'''的索引集是自然数,而它的状态空间是整数。如果 <math>p=0.5</math>,这种随机漫步称为'''<font color="#ff8000"> 对称随机游走Symmetric Random walk</font>'''。<br />
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The word ''stochastic'' in [[English language|English]] was originally used as an adjective with the definition "pertaining to conjecturing", and stemming from a [[Greek language|Greek]] word meaning "to aim at a mark, guess", and the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] gives the year 1662 as its earliest occurrence.<ref name="OxfordStochastic">{{Cite OED|Stochastic}}</ref> In his work on probability ''Ars Conjectandi'', originally published in Latin in 1713, [[Jakob Bernoulli]] used the phrase "Ars Conjectandi sive Stochastice", which has been translated to "the art of conjecturing or stochastics".<ref name="Sheĭnin2006page5">{{cite book|author=O. B. Sheĭnin|title=Theory of probability and statistics as exemplified in short dictums|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XqMZAQAAIAAJ|year=2006|publisher=NG Verlag|isbn=978-3-938417-40-9|page=5}}</ref> This phrase was used, with reference to Bernoulli, by [[Ladislaus Bortkiewicz]]<ref name="SheyninStrecker2011page136">{{cite book|author1=Oscar Sheynin|author2=Heinrich Strecker|title=Alexandr A. Chuprov: Life, Work, Correspondence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1EJZqFIGxBIC&pg=PA9|year=2011|publisher=V&R unipress GmbH|isbn=978-3-89971-812-6|page=136}}</ref> who in 1917 wrote in German the word ''stochastik'' with a sense meaning random. The term ''stochastic process'' first appeared in English in a 1934 paper by [[Joseph Doob]].<ref name="OxfordStochastic"/> For the term and a specific mathematical definition, Doob cited another 1934 paper, where the term ''stochastischer Prozeß'' was used in German by [[Aleksandr Khinchin]],<ref name="Doob1934"/><ref name="Khintchine1934">{{cite journal|last1=Khintchine|first1=A.|title=Korrelationstheorie der stationeren stochastischen Prozesse|journal=Mathematische Annalen|volume=109|issue=1|year=1934|pages=604–615|issn=0025-5831|doi=10.1007/BF01449156}}</ref> though the German term had been used earlier, for example, by Andrei Kolmogorov in 1931.<ref name="Kolmogoroff1931page1">{{cite journal|last1=Kolmogoroff|first1=A.|title=Über die analytischen Methoden in der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung|journal=Mathematische Annalen|volume=104|issue=1|year=1931|page=1|issn=0025-5831|doi=10.1007/BF01457949}}</ref><br />
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在[[英语语言|英语]]中,“随机”一词最初用作形容词,其定义是“与推测有关”,源于一个[[希腊语|希腊语]]一词,意思是“瞄准一个标记,猜测”,而[[牛津英语词典]]将1662年作为最早出现的年份。<ref name=“Oxfordstraphic”>{Cite OED | random}</ref>在他关于概率“Ars conquectandi”的著作中,最初于1713年以拉丁文出版,[[Jakob Bernoulli]]使用了“Ars conquectandi istice”这个短语,这本书已经被翻译成“猜想或随机的艺术”。<ref name=“Sheĭnin2006page5”>{cite book | author=O.B.Sheĭnin|title=概率论和统计学,以简短的口述为例=https://books.google.com/books?年=2006年;publisher=NG Verlag Verlag | isbn=978-3-938417-40-9 | page=5}</ref>这一短语是[[Ladislaus bortkiewiccz]]]<ref name=“sheyninstrrecker2011page136”>{{引用本书〈author1=OscarSheynin;author1=奥斯卡Sheynin;author2=Heinrich Strecker;title=Alexandr A.Chuprov A.Chprov:生活,工作,工作,生活,工作,工作,生活,工作,工作,工作,生活,工作,工作,工作,工作,工作,工作,生活,工作,工作,工作,工作在,通信地址=https://books.google.com/books?id=1EJZqFIGxBIC&pg=PA9 | year=2011 | publisher=V&R unipress GmbH | isbn=978-3-89971-812-6 | page=136}</ref>他在1917年用德语写下了“随机”一词。术语“随机过程”最早出现在1934年[[Joseph Doob]]的一篇论文中。<ref name=“oxfordstractical”/>对于这个术语和一个具体的数学定义,Doob引用了另一篇1934年的论文,其中[[Aleksandr Khinchin]]在德语中使用了术语“随机过程”,<ref name=“Doob1934”/><<ref name=“Doob1934”>>{{引用期刊| last1=Khintchine | first1=A.| title=KorrationationTheOrie Oreider StatinerenStochastische陈Prozessese | journal=MatheMatheMatche Annalen;volume=109;volume=109;问题=1年=1934年|年=1934 |第604–615 | Issnn=00225-5831 | doi=10.1007/BF014449156}}}}}{}}}}例如,尽管德语这个词在早些时候被使用过,安德烈科莫戈罗夫于1931年由Andrei Kolmogorov1931年由Andrei Kolmogorov1931年的Andrei Kolmogorov1931Page1>{〈引用期刊| last1=Kolmogoroff 124;first1=A.| title=ÜBerDie Analyt陈Methoden在德Wahrscheinlickeitsrcherechnung | journal=MatheMatheMatheAnnanLen;卷=104 |问题=1年=1931年|页=1 |页=1 | issn=00225-5831 | 124; doi=10.1007/}}</ref><br />
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According to the Oxford English Dictionary, early occurrences of the word ''random'' in English with its current meaning, which relates to chance or luck, date back to the 16th century, while earlier recorded usages started in the 14th century as a noun meaning "impetuosity, great speed, force, or violence (in riding, running, striking, etc.)". The word itself comes from a Middle French word meaning "speed, haste", and it is probably derived from a French verb meaning "to run" or "to gallop". The first written appearance of the term ''random process'' pre-dates ''stochastic process'', which the Oxford English Dictionary also gives as a synonym, and was used in an article by [[Francis Edgeworth]] published in 1888.<ref name="OxfordRandom">{{Cite OED|Random}}</ref><br />
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根据《牛津英语词典》,英语中“random”(随机)一词的最早出现时间可追溯到16世纪,而早期有记载的用法则始于14世纪,意思是“急躁、速度快、力量大或暴力(骑马、跑步、击打等)”。这个词本身来自法语中间的一个词,意思是“速度,匆忙”,它可能是从法语动词“奔跑”或“飞奔”衍生而来。术语“随机过程”的首次书面出现是在“随机过程”之前出现的,牛津英语词典也将其作为同义词出现,并被[[Francis Edgeworth]]于1888年发表的一篇文章中使用。<ref name=“OxfordRandom”>{Cite OED | random}</ref><br />
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===Terminology术语===<br />
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The Wiener process is a stochastic process with stationary and independent increments that are normally distributed based on the size of the increments. The Wiener process is named after Norbert Wiener, who proved its mathematical existence, but the process is also called the Brownian motion process or just Brownian motion due to its historical connection as a model for Brownian movement in liquids.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 维纳过程Wiener process</font>'''是一个具有平稳和独立增量的随机过程,这些增量是基于增量大小的正态分布。维纳过程是以诺伯特 · 维纳的名字命名的,他证明了维纳过程的数学存在性。<br />
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The definition of a stochastic process varies,<ref name="FristedtGray2013page580">{{cite book|author1=Bert E. Fristedt|author2=Lawrence F. Gray|title=A Modern Approach to Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xT3BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA716|year= 2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4899-2837-5|page=580}}</ref> but a stochastic process is traditionally defined as a collection of random variables indexed by some set.<ref name="RogersWilliams2000page121"/><ref name="Asmussen2003page408"/> The terms ''random process'' and ''stochastic process'' are considered synonyms and are used interchangeably, without the index set being precisely specified.<ref name="Kallenberg2002page24"/><ref name="ChaumontYor2012"/><ref name="AdlerTaylor2009page7"/><ref name="Stirzaker2005page45">{{cite book|author=David Stirzaker|title=Stochastic Processes and Models|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0avUelS7e7cC|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-856814-8|page=45}}</ref><ref name="Rosenblatt1962page91">{{cite book|author=Murray Rosenblatt|title=Random Processes|url=https://archive.org/details/randomprocesses00rose_0|url-access=registration|year=1962|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/randomprocesses00rose_0/page/91 91]}}</ref><ref name="Gubner2006page383">{{cite book|author=John A. Gubner|title=Probability and Random Processes for Electrical and Computer Engineers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pa20eZJe4LIC|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-45717-0|page=383}}</ref> Both "collection",<ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><ref name="Stirzaker2005page45"/> or "family" are used<ref name="Parzen1999"/><ref name="Ito2006page13">{{cite book|author=Kiyosi Itō|title=Essentials of Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pY5_DkvI-CcC&pg=PR4|year=2006|publisher=American Mathematical Soc.|isbn=978-0-8218-3898-3|page=13}}</ref> while instead of "index set", sometimes the terms "parameter set"<ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/> or "parameter space"<ref name="AdlerTaylor2009page7"/> are used.<br />
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随机过程的定义是不同的,<ref name=“FristedGray2013Page580”>{cite book | author1=Bert E.Fristedt|author2=Lawrence F.Gray | title=a Modern Approach to Probability Theory |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xT3BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA716 | year=2013 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4899-2837-5 | page=580}}</ref>但是随机过程传统上被定义为由一些集合索引的随机变量的集合进程“”被视为同义词,可以互换使用,而无需精确指定索引集。<ref name=“KallenbergG2002Page24”/><ref name=“ChaumontYor2012”/><ref name=“adlertaylor2009 page7”/><ref name=“Stirzaker2005page45”>{cite book | author=David Stirzaker | title=random Processes and Models | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0avUelS7e7cC | year=2005 | publisher=Oxford University Press | isbn=978-0-19-856814-8 | page=45}</ref><ref name=“Rosenblatt1962page91”>{cite book |作者=Murray Rosenblatt | title=Random Processes | url=https://archive.org/details/randomprocess00rose\u 0|url access=注册|年份=1962 | publisher=牛津大学按|页=[https://archive.org/details/randomprocess00rose_0/page/9191]}</ref><ref name=“Gubner2006page383”>{cite book | author=John A.Gubner | title=电气和计算机工程师的概率和随机过程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pa20eZJe4LIC | year=2006 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-139-45717-0 | page=383}</ref>两个“收藏”,<ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><ref name=“Stirzaker2005page45”/>或“family”用于<ref name=“Parzen1999”/><ref name=“Ito2006page13”>{cite book | author=Kiyosi Itōtitle=Essentials of randomic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pY5_DkvI-CcC&pg=PR4 | year=2006 | publisher=American Mathematic Soc.| isbn=978-0-8218-3898-3 | page=13}}</ref>而不是“索引集”,有时使用术语“parameter set”<ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/>或“parameter space”<ref name=“adlertaylor2009 page7”/>。<br />
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Realizations of Wiener processes (or Brownian motion processes) with drift () and without drift ().<br />
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带漂移()和无漂移()的 '''<font color="#ff8000"> 维纳过程Wiener process</font>'''(或布朗运动过程)的实现。<br />
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The term ''random function'' is also used to refer to a stochastic or random process,<ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1"/><ref name="Loeve1978">{{cite book|author=M. Loève|title=Probability Theory II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1y229yBbULIC|year=1978|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-90262-3|page=163}}</ref><ref name="Brémaud2014page133">{{cite book|author=Pierre Brémaud|title=Fourier Analysis and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dP2JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-09590-5|page=133}}</ref> though sometimes it is only used when the stochastic process takes real values.<ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><ref name="Ito2006page13"/> This term is also used when the index sets are mathematical spaces other than the real line,<ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1"/><ref name="GusakKukush2010page1">{{harvtxt|Gusak|Kukush|Kulik|Mishura|2010}}, p. 1</ref> while the terms ''stochastic process'' and ''random process'' are usually used when the index set is interpreted as time,<ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1"/><ref name="GusakKukush2010page1"/><ref name="Bass2011page1">{{cite book|author=Richard F. Bass|title=Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ll0T7PIkcKMC|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-50147-7|page=1}}</ref> and other terms are used such as ''random field'' when the index set is <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^n</math> or a [[manifold]].<ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1"/><ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><ref name="AdlerTaylor2009page7"/><br />
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术语'''<font color="#ff8000"> “随机函数”Random function</font>'''也用于指随机或随机过程,<ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1”/><ref name=“Loeve1978”>{cite book | author=M.Loève|title=Probability Theory II | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1y229ybulic | year=1978 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-90262-3 | page=163}</ref><ref name=“Brémaud2014page133”>{cite book |作者=Pierre Brémaud | title=Fourier Analysis and randocial Processes |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=dP2JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 | year=2014 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-3-319-09590-5 | page=133}</ref>尽管有时它只在随机过程取实值时使用。<ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><ref name=“Ito2006page13”/>当索引集是数学空间而不是实线时,也使用这个术语,<ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1”/><ref name=“gusakkush2010page1”>{harvxt | Gusak | Kukush | Kulik | Mishura | 2010},p.1</ref>,而术语“随机过程”和“随机过程”通常在指数集被解释为时间时使用,<ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1”/><ref name=“GusakKukush2010page1”/><ref name=“Bass2011page1”>{引用图书|作者=Richard F.Bass | title=随机过程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ll0T7PIkcKMC | year=2011 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-139-50147-7 | page=1}</ref>和其他术语,例如当索引集是<math>n</math>-维欧几里德空间<math>\mathbb{R}^n</math>或[[流形]].<ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1”/><ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1”/><ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/>name=“adlertaylor2009第7页”/><br />
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Playing a central role in the theory of probability, the Wiener process is often considered the most important and studied stochastic process, with connections to other stochastic processes. Its index set and state space are the non-negative numbers and real numbers, respectively, so it has both continuous index set and states space. But the process can be defined more generally so its state space can be <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space. If the mean of any increment is zero, then the resulting Wiener or Brownian motion process is said to have zero drift. If the mean of the increment for any two points in time is equal to the time difference multiplied by some constant <math> \mu</math>, which is a real number, then the resulting stochastic process is said to have drift <math> \mu</math>.<br />
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在概率论中起着核心作用的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 维纳过程Wiener process</font>''',通常被认为是最重要的和研究过的随机过程,与其他随机过程有联系。它的索引集和状态空间分别为非负数和实数,因此它既有连续索引集又有状态空间。但是这个过程可以定义得更广泛,因此它的状态空间可以是<math>n</math>维的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 欧氏空间Euclidean space</font>'''。如果增量的平均值为零,那么由此产生的维纳Wiener或布朗Brownian运动过程称为具有零漂移。如果任意两个时间点的增量的平均值等于时间差乘以某个常数<math> \mu</math>,即一个实数,那么得到的随机过程就具有<math> \mu</math>漂移。<br />
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===Notation符号===<br />
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A stochastic process can be denoted, among other ways, by <math>\{X(t)\}_{t\in T} </math>,<ref name="Brémaud2014page120"/> <math>\{X_t\}_{t\in T} </math>,<ref name="Asmussen2003page408"/> <math>\{X_t\}</math><ref name="Lamperti1977page3">,{{cite book|author=John Lamperti|title=Stochastic processes: a survey of the mathematical theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd4cvgAACAAJ|year=1977|publisher=Springer-Verlag|isbn=978-3-540-90275-1|page=3}}</ref> <math>\{X(t)\}</math> or simply as <math>X</math> or <math>X(t)</math>, although <math>X(t)</math> is regarded as an [[abuse of notation#Function notation|abuse of function notation]].<ref name="Klebaner2005page55">{{cite book|author=Fima C. Klebaner|title=Introduction to Stochastic Calculus with Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C|year=2005|publisher=Imperial College Press|isbn=978-1-86094-555-7|page=55}}</ref> For example, <math>X(t)</math> or <math>X_t</math> are used to refer to the random variable with the index <math>t</math>, and not the entire stochastic process.<ref name="Lamperti1977page3"/> If the index set is <math>T=[0,\infty)</math>, then one can write, for example, <math>(X_t , t \geq 0)</math> to denote the stochastic process.<ref name="ChaumontYor2012"/><br />
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随机过程可以用<math>\{X(t)\{t}</math>,<ref name=“Brémaud2014page120”/><math>\{X\{t\}在t}</math>中,<ref name=“Asmussen2003page408”/><math>\{X\}</math><ref name=“Lamperti1977page3”>,{引用书籍{作者=John Lamperti | title=随机过程:数学理论综述=https://books.google.com/books?id=pd4cvgaacaj | year=1977 | publisher=Springer Verlag | isbn=978-3-540-90275-1 | page=3}</ref><math>\{X(t)\}</math>或简单地称为<math>X</math>或<math>X(t)</math>,尽管<math>X(t)</math>被视为[[符号滥用#函数表示法|函数表示法滥用]]。<ref name=“Klebaner2005page55”>{cite book | author=Fima C.Klebaner | title=随机微积分及其应用简介=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C | year=2005 | publisher=Imperial College Press | isbn=978-1-86094-555-7 | page=55}</ref>例如,<math>X(t)</math>或<math>X_t</math>引用具有索引<math>t</math>的随机变量,而不是整个随机过程。<ref name=“Lamperti1977page3”/>如果索引集是<math>t=[0,\infty)</math>,然后,我们可以写,例如,<math>(X\u t,t\geq 0)</math>来表示随机过程。<ref name=“ChaumontYor2012”/><br />
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Almost surely, a sample path of a Wiener process is continuous everywhere but nowhere differentiable. It can be considered as a continuous version of the simple random walk. The process arises as the mathematical limit of other stochastic processes such as certain random walks rescaled, which is the subject of Donsker's theorem or invariance principle, also known as the functional central limit theorem.<br />
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几乎可以肯定,'''<font color="#ff8000"> 维纳过程Wiener process</font>'''的样本路径在任何地方都是连续的,但是没有可微的地方。它可以看作是简单随机游走的连续形式。这个过程作为其他随机过程的数学极限出现,例如某些随机游动的重新标度,这是 Donsker 定理或不变性原理的主题,也被称为函数中心极限定理。<br />
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==Examples示例==<br />
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The Wiener process is a member of some important families of stochastic processes, including Markov processes, Lévy processes and Gaussian processes. It plays a central role in quantitative finance, where it is used, for example, in the Black–Scholes–Merton model. The process is also used in different fields, including the majority of natural sciences as well as some branches of social sciences, as a mathematical model for various random phenomena.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 维纳过程Wiener process</font>'''是马尔可夫过程、 列维Lévy 过程和 高斯Gaussian 过程等重要随机过程的一个成员。它在定量金融学中扮演着核心角色,例如,在'''<font color="#ff8000"> 布莱克-斯科尔斯-默顿模型Black–Scholes–Merton model</font>'''中就使用了它。这个过程也用于不同的领域,包括大多数自然科学和一些社会科学分支,作为各种随机现象的数学模型。<br />
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==='''<font color="#ff8000"> Bernoulli process伯努利过程</font>'''===<br />
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{{Main|Bernoulli process}}<br />
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{{Main |伯努利过程}}<br />
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One of the simplest stochastic processes is the [[Bernoulli process]],<ref name="Florescu2014page293"/> which is a sequence of [[independent and identically distributed]] (iid) random variables, where each random variable takes either the value one or zero, say one with probability <math>p</math> and zero with probability <math>1-p</math>. This process can be linked to repeatedly flipping a coin, where the probability of obtaining a head is <math>p</math> and its value is one, while the value of a tail is zero.<ref name="Florescu2014page301">{{cite book|author=Ionut Florescu|title=Probability and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|year=2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-59320-2|page=301}}</ref> In other words, a Bernoulli process is a sequence of [[Independent and identically distributed random variables|iid]] Bernoulli random variables,<ref name="BertsekasTsitsiklis2002page273">{{cite book|author1=Dimitri P. Bertsekas|author2=John N. Tsitsiklis|title=Introduction to Probability|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcHaAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Athena Scientific|isbn=978-1-886529-40-3|page=273}}</ref> where each coin flip is an example of a [[Bernoulli trial]].<ref name="Ibe2013page11">{{cite book|author=Oliver C. Ibe|title=Elements of Random Walk and Diffusion Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DUqaAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-61793-9|page=11}}</ref><br />
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最简单的随机过程之一是[[伯努利过程]],<ref name=“Florescu2014page293”/>它是[[独立且相同分布]](iid)随机变量的序列,其中每个随机变量取1或0,比如概率<math>p</math>的值为1,概率<math>1-p</math>为零。这个过程可以与反复翻动硬币有关,其中获得头部的概率为<math>p</math>,其值为1,而尾部的值为零=https://books.google.com/books?id=z5sebqaaqbaj&pg=PR22 | year=2014 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-59320-2 | page=301}</ref>换句话说,伯努利过程是一个[[独立且同分布随机变量| iid]]伯努利随机变量的序列,<ref name=“Bertsekatsitsiklis2002page273”>{cite book | author1=Dimitri P.Bertsekas | author2=John N.Tsitsiklis | title=概率简介| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcHaAAAAMAAJ | year=2002 | publisher=Athena Scientific | isbn=978-1-886529-40-3 | page=273}</ref>每一次抛硬币都是[[Bernoulli审判]]的一个例子。<ref name=“Ibe2013page11”>{cite book | author=Oliver C.Ibe | title=Elements of Random Walk and Diffusion Processes |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=duqaaaaqbaj&pg=PT10 |年份=2013 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-61793-9 | page=11}</ref><br />
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The Poisson process is a stochastic process that has different forms and definitions. It can be defined as a counting process, which is a stochastic process that represents the random number of points or events up to some time. The number of points of the process that are located in the interval from zero to some given time is a Poisson random variable that depends on that time and some parameter. This process has the natural numbers as its state space and the non-negative numbers as its index set. This process is also called the Poisson counting process, since it can be interpreted as an example of a counting process. The homogeneous Poisson process is a member of important classes of stochastic processes such as Markov processes and Lévy processes. If the parameter constant of the Poisson process is replaced with some non-negative integrable function of <math>t</math>, the resulting process is called an inhomogeneous or nonhomogeneous Poisson process, where the average density of points of the process is no longer constant. Serving as a fundamental process in queueing theory, the Poisson process is an important process for mathematical models, where it finds applications for models of events randomly occurring in certain time windows.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 泊松过程Poisson process</font>'''是一个具有不同形式和定义的随机过程。它可以被定义为一个计数过程,这是一个随机过程,代表到某个时间,点或事件的随机数。从零到给定时间区间内的过程点数是泊松随机变量,取决于该时间和某些参数。该过程以自然数为状态空间,非负数为索引集。这个过程也被称为泊松计数过程,因为它可以被解释为计数过程的一个例子。'''<font color="#ff8000"> 齐次泊松过程Homogeneous Poisson process</font>'''是一类重要的随机过程,如马尔可夫过程和 Lévy 过程的成员。如果将泊松过程的参数常数替换为 < math > t </math > 的非负可积函数,则得到的过程称为'''<font color="#ff8000"> 非齐次或非齐次泊松过程Inhomogeneous or nonhomogeneous Poisson process</font>''',其点的平均密度不再是常数。泊松过程作为排队论中的一个基本过程,是数学模型中的一个重要过程,它在特定时间窗内随机发生的事件模型中找到了应用。<br />
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==='''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机游走Random walk</font>'''===<br />
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Defined on the real line, the Poisson process can be interpreted as a stochastic process, among other random objects. But then it can be defined on the <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space or other mathematical spaces, where it is often interpreted as a random set or a random counting measure, instead of a stochastic process. But it has been remarked that the Poisson process does not receive as much attention as it should, partly due to it often being considered just on the real line, and not on other mathematical spaces.<br />
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在实际线上定义的泊松过程可以被解释为随机过程过程,以及其他随机对象。但是,它可以定义在维欧氏空间或其他数学空间上,在这些空间中,它通常被解释为一个随机集或随机计数测度,而不是一个随机过程。但是人们注意到泊松过程并没有得到应有的重视,部分原因是泊松过程通常只考虑实线,而不考虑其他数学空间。<br />
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{{Main|Random walk}}<br />
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{{Main |随机游走}}<br />
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[[Random walks]] are stochastic processes that are usually defined as sums of [[iid]] random variables or random vectors in Euclidean space, so they are processes that change in discrete time.<ref name="Klenke2013page347">{{cite book|author=Achim Klenke|title=Probability Theory: A Comprehensive Course|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqURswEACAAJ|year=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4471-5362-7|pages=347}}</ref><ref name="LawlerLimic2010page1">{{cite book|author1=Gregory F. Lawler|author2=Vlada Limic|title=Random Walk: A Modern Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UBQdwAZDeOEC|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48876-1|page=1}}</ref><ref name="Kallenberg2002page136">{{cite book|author=Olav Kallenberg|title=Foundations of Modern Probability|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6fhXh13OyMC|date= 2002|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-95313-7|page=136}}</ref><ref name="Florescu2014page383">{{cite book|author=Ionut Florescu|title=Probability and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|year=2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-59320-2|page=383}}</ref><ref name="Durrett2010page277">{{cite book|author=Rick Durrett|title=Probability: Theory and Examples|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evbGTPhuvSoC|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-49113-6|page=277}}</ref> But some also use the term to refer to processes that change in continuous time,<ref name="Weiss2006page1">{{cite book|last1=Weiss|first1=George H.|title=Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences|chapter=Random Walks|year=2006|doi=10.1002/0471667196.ess2180.pub2|page=1|isbn=978-0471667193}}</ref> particularly the Wiener process used in finance, which has led to some confusion, resulting in its criticism.<ref name="Spanos1999page454">{{cite book|author=Aris Spanos|title=Probability Theory and Statistical Inference: Econometric Modeling with Observational Data|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G0_HxBubGAwC|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-42408-0|page=454}}</ref> There are other various types of random walks, defined so their state spaces can be other mathematical objects, such as lattices and groups, and in general they are highly studied and have many applications in different disciplines.<ref name="Weiss2006page1"/><ref name="Klebaner2005page81">{{cite book|author=Fima C. Klebaner|title=Introduction to Stochastic Calculus with Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C|year=2005|publisher=Imperial College Press|isbn=978-1-86094-555-7|page=81}}</ref><br />
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[[Random walks]]是随机过程,通常定义为欧几里德空间中[[iid]]随机变量或随机向量的和,因此它们是离散时间变化的过程=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqURswEACAAJ | year=2013 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-1-4471-5362-7 | pages=347}</ref><ref name=“LawlerLimic2010page1”>{cite book | author1=Gregory F.Lawler | author2=Vlada Limic | title=Random Walk:A Modern Introduction |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=UBQdwAZDeOEC | year=2010 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-139-48876-1 | page=1}</ref><ref name=“Kallenberg 2002page136”>{cite book |作者=Olav Kallenberg | title=Foundations of Modern Probability |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6fhXh13OyMC | date=2002 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-95313-7 | page=136}</ref><ref name=“Florescu2014page383”>{cite book | author=Ionut Florescu | title=概率与随机过程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z5sebqaaqbaj&pg=PR22 | year=2014 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-59320-2 | page=383}}</ref><ref name=“Durrett2010page277”>{引用图书|作者=Rick Durrett | title=Probability:理论和示例| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=evbGTPhuvSoC | year=2010 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-139-49113-6 | page=277}</ref>但是有些人也使用这个术语来指代连续时间变化的过程,<ref name=“Weiss2006page1”>{cite book | last1=Weiss | first1=George H.| title=Statistical Sciences | chapter=Random Walks | year=2006 | doi=10.1002/0471667196.ess2180.pub2 | page=1 | isbn=978-0471667193}}</ref>尤其是金融中使用的维纳过程,这导致了一些混乱,导致其受到批评。<ref name=“Spanos1999page454”>{cite book | author=Aris Spanos | title=概率论和统计推断:观测数据的计量经济学建模|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=G0|HxBubGAwC | year=1999 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-42408-0 | page=454}}</ref>还有其他各种类型的随机游动,它们的状态空间可以是其他数学对象,例如格和群,一般来说,它们都是高度研究的,在不同的学科中有许多应用。<ref name=“Weiss2006page1”/><ref name=“Klebaner2005page81”>{cite book | author=Fima C.Klebaner | title=随机微积分及其应用简介=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C | year=2005 | publisher=Imperial College Press | isbn=978-1-86094-555-7 | page=81}</ref><br />
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A classic example of a random walk is known as the ''simple random walk'', which is a stochastic process in discrete time with the integers as the state space, and is based on a Bernoulli process, where each Bernoulli variable takes either the value positive one or negative one. In other words, the simple random walk takes place on the integers, and its value increases by one with probability, say, <math>p</math>, or decreases by one with probability <math>1-p</math>, so the index set of this random walk is the natural numbers, while its state space is the integers. If the <math>p=0.5</math>, this random walk is called a symmetric random walk.<ref name="Gut2012page88">{{cite book|author=Allan Gut|title=Probability: A Graduate Course|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XDFA-n_M5hMC|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4614-4708-5|page=88}}</ref><ref name="GrimmettStirzaker2001page71">{{cite book|author1=Geoffrey Grimmett|author2=David Stirzaker|title=Probability and Random Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G3ig-0M4wSIC|year=2001|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-857222-0|page=71}}</ref><br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机游走Random walk</font>'''的一个经典例子被称为“简单随机游动”,它是一个离散时间的随机过程,以整数为状态空间,它基于伯努利过程,其中每个贝努利变量取正值或负值。换言之,简单随机游走发生在整数上,例如其值随概率<math>p</math>增加1,,或随着概率<math>1-p</math>而减小1,因此这种随机游动的指标集是自然数,而其状态空间是整数。如果<math>p=0.5</math>,这种随机游动称为对称随机游动。<ref name=“Gut2012page88”>{cite book | author=Allan Gut | title=Probability:a Graduate Course=https://books.google.com/books?id=XDFA-n|M5hMC | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4614-4708-5 | page=88}</ref><ref name=“grimmetttstirzaker2001page71”>{引用图书| author1=Geoffrey Grimmett | author2=David Stirzaker | title=概率和随机过程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G3ig-0M4wSIC |年份=2001 | publisher=OUP Oxford | isbn=978-0-19-857222-0 | page=71}</ref><br />
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A stochastic process is defined as a collection of random variables defined on a common probability space <math>(\Omega, \mathcal{F}, P)</math>, where <math>\Omega</math> is a sample space, <math>\mathcal{F}</math> is a <math>\sigma</math>-algebra, and <math>P</math> is a probability measure; and the random variables, indexed by some set <math>T</math>, all take values in the same mathematical space <math>S</math>, which must be measurable with respect to some <math>\sigma</math>-algebra <math>\Sigma</math>.<br />
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随机过程被定义为一系列随机变量的集合,这些随机变量定义在一个普通的概率空间上(Omega,mathcal { f } ,p) </math > ,其中 < math > Omega </math > 是一个样本空间,< math > mathcal { f } </math > 是 < math > sigma </math >-algebra,而 < math > p </math > 是一个机率量测;以及随机变量,用一些集合作为指标,它们都在同一个数学空间中取值,这些值必须是可以测量的。<br />
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==='''<font color="#ff8000"> Wiener process维纳过程</font>'''===<br />
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\{X(t):t\in T \}.<br />
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{{Main|Wiener process}}<br />
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The Wiener process is a stochastic process with stationary and [[independent increments]] that are [[normally distributed]] based on the size of the increments.<ref name="RogersWilliams2000page1">{{cite book|author1=L. C. G. Rogers|author2=David Williams|title=Diffusions, Markov Processes, and Martingales: Volume 1, Foundations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-71749-7|page=1}}</ref><ref name="Klebaner2005page56">{{cite book|author=Fima C. Klebaner|title=Introduction to Stochastic Calculus with Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C|year=2005|publisher=Imperial College Press|isbn=978-1-86094-555-7|page=56}}</ref> The Wiener process is named after [[Norbert Wiener]], who proved its mathematical existence, but the process is also called the Brownian motion process or just Brownian motion due to its historical connection as a model for [[Brownian movement]] in liquids.<ref name="Brush1968page1">{{cite journal|last1=Brush|first1=Stephen G.|title=A history of random processes|journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences|volume=5|issue=1|year=1968|pages=1–2|issn=0003-9519|doi=10.1007/BF00328110}}</ref><ref name="Applebaum2004page1338">{{cite journal|last1=Applebaum|first1=David|title=Lévy processes: From probability to finance and quantum groups|journal=Notices of the AMS|volume=51|issue=11|year=2004|pages=1338}}</ref><ref name="Applebaum2004page1338"/><ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page21">{{cite book|author1=Iosif Ilyich Gikhman|author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich Skorokhod|title=Introduction to the Theory of Random Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJyLzG7N7r8C&pg=PR2|year=1969|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-69387-3|page=21}}</ref><br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> Wiener process维纳过程</font>'''是一个随机过程,具有平稳的[[独立的增量]]并且基于增量的大小是[[正态分布的].<ref name=“RogersWilliams2000page1”>{cite book | author1=L.C.G.Rogers | author2=David Williams | title=扩散、马尔可夫过程和鞅:第1卷,基金会网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 | year=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-107-71749-7 | page=1}</ref><ref name=“Klebaner2005page56”>{cite book | author=Fima C.Klebaner | title=随机微积分及其应用简介|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C | year=2005 | publisher=Imperial College Press | isbn=978-1-86094-555-7 | page=56}</ref>维纳过程是以[[Norbert Wiener]]命名的,他证明了它的数学存在性,但是这个过程也被称为布朗运动过程或仅仅是布朗运动,因为它是液体中[[布朗运动]]的模型科学|卷=5 |议题=1 |年份=1968 |页数=1-2 | issn=0003-9519 | doi=10.1007/BF00328110}}</ref><ref name=“applebauma2004page1338”{{{引用杂志| last1=Applebaum | first1=David | title=Lévy过程:从概率到金融和量子群的概率到金融和量子群| journal=Na从概率到金融和量子群| journal=通知AMS | volume=51 | volume=11;年份=2004 |页数=1338}</ref><refname=“Applebaum2004page1338”/><ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page21”>{cite book | author1=Iosif Ilyich Gikhman | author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich skorokod | title=随机过程理论简介| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJyLzG7N7r8C&pg=PR2 |年份=1969 | publisher=Courier Corporation | isbn=978-0-486-69387-3 | page=21}</ref><br />
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Historically, in many problems from the natural sciences a point <math>t\in T</math> had the meaning of time, so <math>X(t)</math> is a random variable representing a value observed at time <math>t</math>. A stochastic process can also be written as <math> \{X(t,\omega):t\in T \}</math> to reflect that it is actually a function of two variables, <math>t\in T</math> and <math>\omega\in \Omega</math>.<br />
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从历史上看,在自然科学的许多问题中,t 中的一个点<math>t\in T</math>代表时间,所以<math>X(t)</math>是一个随机变量,代表时间<math>t</math>观察到的值。一个随机过程也可以写成<math> \{X(t,\omega):t\in T \}</math> 来反映它实际上是一个双变量的函数,<math>t\in T</math> 且<math>\omega\in \Omega</math>。<br />
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[[File:DriftedWienerProcess1D.svg|thumb|left|Realizations of Wiener processes (or Brownian motion processes) with drift ({{color|blue|blue}}) and without drift ({{color|red|red}}).]]<br />
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[[文件:floadWienerProcess1d.svg|拇指|左|实现维纳Wiener过程(或布朗运动过程),具有漂移({color |蓝色}且不漂移({color |红色}红色})。]]<br />
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There are other ways to consider a stochastic process, with the above definition being considered the traditional one. For example, a stochastic process can be interpreted or defined as a <math>S^T</math>-valued random variable, where <math>S^T</math> is the space of all the possible <math>S</math>-valued functions of <math>t\in T</math> that map from the set <math>T</math> into the space <math>S</math>. of the stochastic process. Often this set is some subset of the real line, such as the natural numbers or an interval, giving the set <math>T</math> the interpretation of time. such as the Cartesian plane <math>R^2</math> or <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space, where an element <math>t\in T</math> can represent a point in space. But in general more results and theorems are possible for stochastic processes when the index set is ordered.<br />
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还有其他的方法来考虑随机过程,上面的定义被认为是传统的定义。例如,随机过程可以被解释或定义为一个 <math>S^T</math> 值随机变量,其中 <math>S^T</math> 是 <math>t\in T</math> 中所有可能的 <math>S</math>值函数的空间,这些函数从集合 <math>T</math> 映射到空间 <math>S</math> 。随机过程。这个集合通常是实数线的一些子集,比如使集合 <math>T</math> 时间有意义的自然数集或者区间。比如笛卡尔平面 <math>R^2</math> 或 <math>n</math> 维欧氏空间,其中的一个元素 <math>t\in T</math>可以表示空间中的一个点。但是一般来说,当指标集是有序的时候,对于随机过程可能有更多的结果和定理。<br />
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Playing a central role in the theory of probability, the Wiener process is often considered the most important and studied stochastic process, with connections to other stochastic processes.<ref name="doob1953stochasticP46to47"/><ref name="RogersWilliams2000page1"/><ref name="Steele2012page29">{{cite book|author=J. Michael Steele|title=Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4|page=29}}</ref><ref name="Florescu2014page471">{{cite book|author=Ionut Florescu|title=Probability and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|year=2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-59320-2|page=471}}</ref><ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page21">{{cite book|author1=Samuel Karlin|author2=Howard E. Taylor|title=A First Course in Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC|year=2012|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-057041-9|pages=21, 22}}</ref><ref name="KaratzasShreve2014pageVIII">{{cite book|author1=Ioannis Karatzas|author2=Steven Shreve|title=Brownian Motion and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5|year=1991|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2|page=VIII}}</ref><ref name="RevuzYor2013pageIX">{{cite book|author1=Daniel Revuz|author2=Marc Yor|title=Continuous Martingales and Brownian Motion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYbnCAAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-662-06400-9|page=IX|author1-link=Daniel Revuz}}</ref> Its index set and state space are the non-negative numbers and real numbers, respectively, so it has both continuous index set and states space.<ref name="Rosenthal2006page186">{{cite book|author=Jeffrey S Rosenthal|title=A First Look at Rigorous Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=am1IDQAAQBAJ|year=2006|publisher=World Scientific Publishing Co Inc|isbn=978-981-310-165-4|page=186}}</ref> But the process can be defined more generally so its state space can be <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref name="Klebaner2005page81"/><ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page21"/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Donald L. Snyder|author2=Michael I. Miller|title=Random Point Processes in Time and Space|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_3UBwAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4612-3166-0|page=33}}</ref> If the [[mean]] of any increment is zero, then the resulting Wiener or Brownian motion process is said to have zero drift. If the mean of the increment for any two points in time is equal to the time difference multiplied by some constant <math> \mu</math>, which is a real number, then the resulting stochastic process is said to have drift <math> \mu</math>.<ref name="Steele2012page118">{{cite book|author=J. Michael Steele|title=Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4|page=118}}</ref><ref name="MörtersPeres2010page1"/><ref name="KaratzasShreve2014page78">{{cite book|author1=Ioannis Karatzas|author2=Steven Shreve|title=Brownian Motion and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5|year=1991|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2|page=78}}</ref><br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> Wiener process维纳过程</font>'''在概率论中起着中心作用,通常被认为是最重要和研究的随机过程,并与其他随机过程联系在一起微积分与金融应用|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkbaaqbaj&pg=PR4 | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4 | page=29}</ref><ref name=“florescu214page471”>{cite book |作者=Ionut Florescu | title=概率与随机过程|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22 | year=2014 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-59320-2 | page=471}</ref><ref name=“KarlinTaylor2012page21”>{cite book | author1=Samuel Karlin | author2=Howard E.Taylor | title=随机过程的第一门课程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC | year=2012 | publisher=academical Press | isbn=978-0-08-057041-9 | pages=21,22}</ref><ref name=“karatzarshreeve2014pageviii”{引用图书| author1=Ioannis Karatzas | author2=Steven Shreve | title=布朗运动和随机微积分| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5 | year=1991;publisher=Springer | isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2 | page=VIII}</ref><ref name=“RevuzYor2013pageIX”>{cite book | author1=Daniel Revuz | author2=Marc Yor| title=连续鞅和布朗运动| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oybncaaqbaj | year=2013 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-662-06400-9 | page=IX | author1 link=Daniel Revuz}</ref>其索引集和状态空间分别是非负数和实数,因此它既有连续索引集又有状态空间=https://books.google.com/books?id=am1IDQAAQBAJ | year=2006 | publisher=World Scientific Publishing Co Inc | isbn=978-981-310-165-4 | page=186}</ref>但是过程可以定义得更广泛,这样它的状态空间可以是维欧几里德空间。<ref name=“klebaner205page81”/><ref name=“KarlinTaylor2012page21”/><ref>{cite book | author1=Donald L。Snyder | author2=Michael I.Miller | title=时空中的随机点过程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_3UBwAAQBAJ | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4612-3166-0 | page=33}</ref>如果任何增量的[[平均值]]为零,则所得到的维纳或布朗运动过程称为零漂移。如果任意两个时间点的增量的平均值等于时间差乘以某个常数<math>\mu</math>,即实数,由此产生的随机过程被称为漂移<math>\mu</math><ref name=“Steele2012page118”>{cite book | author=J.Michael Steele | title=随机微积分和金融应用程序| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkbaaqbaj&pg=PR4 | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4 | page=118}</ref><ref name=“MörtersPeres2010page1”/><ref name=“Karatzasshreeve2014page78”>{cite book | author1=Ioannis Karatzas | author2=Steven Shreve | title=布朗运动和随机演算| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5 |年份=1991 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2 | page=78}</ref><br />
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The mathematical space <math>S</math> of a stochastic process is called its state space. This mathematical space can be defined using integers, real lines, <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean spaces, complex planes, or more abstract mathematical spaces. The state space is defined using elements that reflect the different values that the stochastic process can take.<br />
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随机过程的数学空间 <math>S</math>称为状态空间。这个数学空间可以使用整数、实数线、维欧氏空间、复平面或更抽象的数学空间来定义。状态空间使用元素定义,这些元素反映了随机过程可以采用的不同值。<br />
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[[Almost surely]], a sample path of a Wiener process is continuous everywhere but [[nowhere differentiable function|nowhere differentiable]]. It can be considered as a continuous version of the simple random walk.<ref name="Applebaum2004page1337">{{cite journal|last1=Applebaum|first1=David|title=Lévy processes: From probability to finance and quantum groups|journal=Notices of the AMS|volume=51|issue=11|year=2004|page=1337}}</ref><ref name="MörtersPeres2010page1">{{cite book|author1=Peter Mörters|author2=Yuval Peres|title=Brownian Motion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-TbA-dSrzYC|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48657-6|pages=1, 3}}</ref> The process arises as the mathematical limit of other stochastic processes such as certain random walks rescaled,<ref name="KaratzasShreve2014page61">{{cite book|author1=Ioannis Karatzas|author2=Steven Shreve|title=Brownian Motion and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5|year=1991|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2|page=61}}</ref><ref name="Shreve2004page93">{{cite book|author=Steven E. Shreve|title=Stochastic Calculus for Finance II: Continuous-Time Models|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O8kD1NwQBsQC|year=2004|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-40101-0|page=93}}</ref> which is the subject of [[Donsker's theorem]] or invariance principle, also known as the functional central limit theorem.<ref name="Kallenberg2002page225and260">{{cite book|author=Olav Kallenberg|title=Foundations of Modern Probability|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6fhXh13OyMC|year=2002|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-95313-7|pages=225, 260}}</ref><ref name="KaratzasShreve2014page70">{{cite book|author1=Ioannis Karatzas|author2=Steven Shreve|title=Brownian Motion and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5|year=1991|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2|page=70}}</ref><ref name="MörtersPeres2010page131">{{cite book|author1=Peter Mörters|author2=Yuval Peres|title=Brownian Motion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-TbA-dSrzYC|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48657-6|page=131}}</ref><br />
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[[几乎可以肯定]],'''<font color="#ff8000"> Wiener process维纳过程</font>'''的样本路径处处连续,但[[无处可微函数|无处可微]]。它可以看作是简单随机游走的一个连续版本。<ref name=“Applebaum2004page1337”>{cite journal | last1=Applebaum | first1=David | title=Lévy过程:从概率到金融和量子群| journal=AMS的通知| volume=51 | issue=11 | year=2004|page=1337}</ref name=“MörtersPeres2010page1”>{citebook | author1=Peter Mörters | author2=Yuval Peres | title=布朗运动|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-TbA-dSrzYC | year=2010 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-139-48657-6 | pages=1,3}}</ref>当其他随机过程(如某些随机游动重新缩放)的数学极限时,该过程出现,<ref name=“KaratzasShreve2014page61”>{cite book | author1=Ioannis Karatzas | author2=Steven Shreve | title=布朗运动和随机微积分| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5 | year=1991 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2 | page=61}</ref><ref name=“Shreve2004page93”>{cite book |作者=Steven E.Shreve | title=金融随机微积分II:连续时间模型| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O8kD1NwQBsQC | year=2004 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-40101-0 | page=93}</ref>这是[[Donsker定理]]或不变性原理的主题,也被称为函数中心极限定理=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6fhXh13OyMC | year=2002 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-95313-7 | pages=225260}}</ref><ref name=“karatzarshreve2014page70”{引用图书| author1=Ioannis Karatzas | author2=Steven Shreve | title=布朗运动和随机演算| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5|year=1991;publisher=Springer | isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2 | page=70}</ref><ref name=“MörtersPeres2010page131”>{cite book | author1=Peter Mörters | author2=Yuval Peres | title=布朗运动| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-TbA-dSrzYC |年=2010 | publisher=剑桥大学出版社| isbn=978-1-139-48657-6 | page=131}</ref><br />
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The Wiener process is a member of some important families of stochastic processes, including Markov processes, Lévy processes and Gaussian processes.<ref name="RogersWilliams2000page1"/><ref name="Applebaum2004page1337"/> The process also has many applications and is the main stochastic process used in stochastic calculus.<ref name="Klebaner2005">{{cite book|author=Fima C. Klebaner|title=Introduction to Stochastic Calculus with Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C|year=2005|publisher=Imperial College Press|isbn=978-1-86094-555-7}}</ref><ref name="KaratzasShreve2014page">{{cite book|author1=Ioannis Karatzas|author2=Steven Shreve|title=Brownian Motion and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5|year=1991|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2}}</ref> It plays a central role in quantitative finance,<ref name="Applebaum2004page1341">{{cite journal|last1=Applebaum|first1=David|title=Lévy processes: From probability to finance and quantum groups|journal=Notices of the AMS|volume=51|issue=11|year=2004|page=1341}}</ref><ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page340">{{cite book|author1=Samuel Karlin|author2=Howard E. Taylor|title=A First Course in Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC|year=2012|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-057041-9|page=340}}</ref> where it is used, for example, in the Black–Scholes–Merton model.<ref name="Klebaner2005page124">{{cite book|author=Fima C. Klebaner|title=Introduction to Stochastic Calculus with Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C|year=2005|publisher=Imperial College Press|isbn=978-1-86094-555-7|page=124}}</ref> The process is also used in different fields, including the majority of natural sciences as well as some branches of social sciences, as a mathematical model for various random phenomena.<ref name="Steele2012page29"/><ref name="KaratzasShreve2014page47">{{cite book|author1=Ioannis Karatzas|author2=Steven Shreve|title=Brownian Motion and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5|year=1991|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2|page=47}}</ref><ref name="Wiersema2008page2">{{cite book|author=Ubbo F. Wiersema|title=Brownian Motion Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0h-n0WWuD9cC|year=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-02171-2|page=2}}</ref><br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> Wiener process维纳过程</font>'''是一些重要的随机过程家族的成员,包括马尔可夫过程,Lévy过程和高斯过程。<ref name=“RogersWilliams2000page1”/><ref name=“Applebaum2004page1337”/>该过程也有许多应用,是随机微积分中使用的主要随机过程。<ref name=“Klebaner2005”>{cite book | author=Fima C.Klebaner | title=随机微积分简介应用程序| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C | year=2005 | publisher=Imperial College Press | isbn=978-1-86094-555-7}</ref><ref name=“KaratzasShreve2014page”>{引用图书| author1=Ioannis Karatzas | author2=Steven Shreve | title=布朗运动和随机微积分| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5 | year=1991 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2}</ref>它在数量金融中起着核心作用,{{本刊|从概率到金融金融和量子集团的过程〈124; journal从概率到金融和量子群的群| journal=journal=金融金融和量子群群| journal=noticof the AMS | volume=51 | issue=11 |年=2004年2004年| page=1341}}</ref><ref name=“KarlinTaylor2012page340 340{引用书〈author1=author1=Samuel Karlin | author1=Samuel Karlin;author2=Howard2=Howarde.Taylor | Howarde.Taylor标题=第一门课程随机过程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC | year=2012 | publisher=academical Press | isbn=978-0-08-057041-9 | page=340}</ref>在Black-Scholes-Merton模型中使用它。<ref name=“Klebaner2005page124”>{cite book | author=Fima C.Klebaner | title=Introduction to Rastic Calculation with Applications |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C | year=2005 | publisher=Imperial College Press | isbn=978-1-86094-555-7 | page=124}</ref>该过程也被用于不同的领域,包括大多数自然科学以及社会科学的一些分支,作为各种随机现象的数学模型=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5 | year=1991 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2 | page=47}</ref><ref name=“Wiersema2008page2”>{cite book |作者=Ubbo F.Wiersema | title=布朗运动演算| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0h-n0WWuD9cC |年=2008 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-0-470-02171-2 | page=2}</ref><br />
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A sample function is a single outcome of a stochastic process, so it is formed by taking a single possible value of each random variable of the stochastic process. More precisely, if <math>\{X(t,\omega):t\in T \}</math> is a stochastic process, then for any point <math>\omega\in\Omega</math>, the mapping<br />
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样本函数是随机过程的单一结果,所以它是由每个随机过程的随机变量的单一可能值构成的。更确切地说,如果 < math > { x (t,Omega) : t in t } </math > 是随机过程,那么对于任意点 < math > Omega </math > ,映射就是<br />
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===Poisson process泊松过程===<br />
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X(\cdot,\omega): T \rightarrow S,<br />
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X (cdot,omega) : t,<br />
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{{Main|Poisson process}}<br />
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[数学中心]<br />
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is called a sample function, a realization, or, particularly when <math>T</math> is interpreted as time, a sample path of the stochastic process <math>\{X(t,\omega):t\in T \}</math>. This means that for a fixed <math>\omega\in\Omega</math>, there exists a sample function that maps the index set <math>T</math> to the state space <math>S</math>. or path.<br />
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被称为一个样本函数,一个实现,或者,特别是当 < math > t </math > 被解释为时间,一个随机过程 < math > { x (t,omega) : t in t } </math > 的样本路径。这意味着对于 Omega </math > 中的一个固定的 < math > Omega,存在一个示例函数,它将索引集 < math > t </math > 映射到状态空间 < math > s </math > 。或者路径。<br />
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The Poisson process is a stochastic process that has different forms and definitions.<ref name="Tijms2003page1">{{cite book|author=Henk C. Tijms|title=A First Course in Stochastic Models|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eBeNngEACAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-49881-0|pages=1, 2}}</ref><ref name="DaleyVere-Jones2006chap2">{{cite book|author1=D.J. Daley|author2=D. Vere-Jones|title=An Introduction to the Theory of Point Processes: Volume I: Elementary Theory and Methods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Sv4BwAAQBAJ|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-21564-8|pages=19–36}}</ref> It can be defined as a counting process, which is a stochastic process that represents the random number of points or events up to some time. The number of points of the process that are located in the interval from zero to some given time is a Poisson random variable that depends on that time and some parameter. This process has the natural numbers as its state space and the non-negative numbers as its index set. This process is also called the Poisson counting process, since it can be interpreted as an example of a counting process.<ref name="Tijms2003page1"/><br />
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{124jms{124tik=随机过程的定义是不同的=https://books.google.com/books?id=eBeNngEACAAJ | year=2003 | publisher=Wiley | isbn=978-0-471-49881-0 | pages=1,2}</ref><ref name=“daleyviere-Jones 2006chap2”>{cite book | author1=D.J.Daley | author2=D.Vere Jones | title=点过程理论导论:第一卷:基本理论与方法|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Sv4BwAAQBAJ | year=2006 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-21564-8 | pages=19–36}</ref>它可以定义为一个计数过程,它是一个随机过程,表示某个时间点或事件的随机数量。在从零到某个给定时间区间内的过程点的数目是一个泊松随机变量,它取决于该时间和某个参数。该过程以自然数为状态空间,非负数为索引集。此过程也称为泊松计数过程,因为它可以被解释为计数过程的一个示例。<ref name=“tijms2303page1”/><br />
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If a Poisson process is defined with a single positive constant, then the process is called a homogeneous Poisson process.<ref name="Tijms2003page1"/><ref name="PinskyKarlin2011">{{cite book|author1=Mark A. Pinsky|author2=Samuel Karlin|title=An Introduction to Stochastic Modeling|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PqUmjp7k1kEC|year=2011|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-381416-6|page=241}}</ref> The homogeneous Poisson process is a member of important classes of stochastic processes such as Markov processes and Lévy processes.<ref name="Applebaum2004page1337"/><br />
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如果一个泊松过程是用一个正常数定义的,那么这个过程称为齐次泊松过程=https://books.google.com/books?id=PqUmjp7k1kEC | year=2011 | publisher=academical Press | isbn=978-0-12-381416-6 | page=241}</ref>齐次泊松过程是随机过程的一个重要类,如马尔可夫过程和Lévy过程<br />
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An increment of a stochastic process is the difference between two random variables of the same stochastic process. For a stochastic process with an index set that can be interpreted as time, an increment is how much the stochastic process changes over a certain time period. For example, if <math>\{X(t):t\in T \}</math> is a stochastic process with state space <math>S</math> and index set <math>T=[0,\infty)</math>, then for any two non-negative numbers <math>t_1\in [0,\infty)</math> and <math>t_2\in [0,\infty)</math> such that <math>t_1\leq t_2</math>, the difference <math>X_{t_2}-X_{t_1}</math> is a <math>S</math>-valued random variable known as an increment.<br />
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一个随机过程的增量是同一个随机过程的两个随机变量之间的差。对于一个索引集可以被解释为时间的随机过程,增量是随机过程在一定时间段内的变化量。例如,如果 < math > { x (t) : t in t } </math > 是一个状态空间 < math > s </math > 并且索引设置为 < math > t = [0,infty ] </math > ,那么对于[0,infty ] </math > 中的任意两个非负数 t _ 1和[0,infty ] </math > </math > t _ 2在[0,infty ] </math </math > 这样 < t _ 1 leq t _ 2 </math > ,差值 < math > x _ { t _ 2}-x _ { t _ 1} </math > 是一个 < math > s </math >-valued 随机变量,称为递增量。<br />
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The homogeneous Poisson process can be defined and generalized in different ways. It can be defined such that its index set is the real line, and this stochastic process is also called the stationary Poisson process.<ref name="Kingman1992page38">{{cite book|author=J. F. C. Kingman|title=Poisson Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEiM-OtwDHkC|year=1992|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-159124-2|page=38}}</ref><ref name="DaleyVere-Jones2006page19">{{cite book|author1=D.J. Daley|author2=D. Vere-Jones|title=An Introduction to the Theory of Point Processes: Volume I: Elementary Theory and Methods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Sv4BwAAQBAJ|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-21564-8|page=19}}</ref> If the parameter constant of the Poisson process is replaced with some non-negative integrable function of <math>t</math>, the resulting process is called an inhomogeneous or nonhomogeneous Poisson process, where the average density of points of the process is no longer constant.<ref name="Kingman1992page22">{{cite book|author=J. F. C. Kingman|title=Poisson Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEiM-OtwDHkC|year=1992|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-159124-2|page=22}}</ref> Serving as a fundamental process in queueing theory, the Poisson process is an important process for mathematical models, where it finds applications for models of events randomly occurring in certain time windows.<ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page118">{{cite book|author1=Samuel Karlin|author2=Howard E. Taylor|title=A First Course in Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC|year=2012|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-057041-9|pages=118, 119}}</ref><ref name="Kleinrock1976page61">{{cite book|author=Leonard Kleinrock|title=Queueing Systems: Theory|url=https://archive.org/details/queueingsystems00klei|url-access=registration|year=1976|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-49110-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/queueingsystems00klei/page/61 61]}}</ref><br />
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齐次泊松过程可以用不同的方法定义和推广。它的指标集可以定义为实线,这个随机过程也被称为平稳泊松过程=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEiM OtwDHkC | year=1992 | publisher=Clarendon Press | isbn=978-0-19-159124-2 | page=38}</ref><ref name=“daleyviere-Jones 2006page19”>{引用图书| author1=D.J.Daley | author2=D.Vere Jones | title=点过程理论导论:第一卷:基本理论与方法| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Sv4BwAAQBAJ | year=2006 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-21564-8 | page=19}</ref>如果泊松过程的参数常数被某个非负可积函数的<math>t</math>代替,则得到的过程称为非齐次或非齐次Poisson过程,其中过程点的平均密度不再是常数=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEiM OtwDHkC | year=1992 | publisher=Clarendon Press | isbn=978-0-19-159124-2 | page=22}</ref>作为排队论中的一个基本过程,泊松过程是数学模型的一个重要过程,在这里,它找到了在特定时间窗口中随机发生的事件模型的应用程序。<ref name=“KarlinTaylor2012page118”>{cite book | author1=Samuel Karlin | author2=Howard E.Taylor | title=A First Course in randocial Processes |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC |年份=2012 |出版商=学术出版社| isbn=978-0-08-057041-9 |页数=118,119}}</ref><ref name=“Kleinrock1976page61”>{cite book | author=Leonard Kleinrock | title=排队系统:理论|网址=https://archive.org/details/queueingsystems00klei|url access=registration |年份=1976 | publisher=Wiley | isbn=978-0-471-49110-1 |页=[https://archive.org/details/queueingsystems00klei/page/6161]}}</ref><br />
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For a measurable subset <math>B</math> of <math>S^T</math>, the pre-image of <math>X</math> gives<br />
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对于 < math > s ^ t </math > 的可测子集 < math > b </math > ,< math > x </math > 的前映像给出了<br />
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Defined on the real line, the Poisson process can be interpreted as a stochastic process,<ref name="Applebaum2004page1337"/><ref name="Rosenblatt1962page94">{{cite book|author=Murray Rosenblatt|title=Random Processes|url=https://archive.org/details/randomprocesses00rose_0|url-access=registration|year=1962|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/randomprocesses00rose_0/page/94 94]}}</ref> among other random objects.<ref name="Haenggi2013page10and18">{{cite book|author=Martin Haenggi|title=Stochastic Geometry for Wireless Networks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CLtDhblwWEgC|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-01469-5|pages=10, 18}}</ref><ref name="ChiuStoyan2013page41and108">{{cite book|author1=Sung Nok Chiu|author2=Dietrich Stoyan|author3=Wilfrid S. Kendall|author4=Joseph Mecke|title=Stochastic Geometry and Its Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=825NfM6Nc-EC|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-65825-3|pages=41, 108}}</ref> But then it can be defined on the <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space or other mathematical spaces,<ref name="Kingman1992page11">{{cite book|author=J. F. C. Kingman|title=Poisson Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEiM-OtwDHkC|year=1992|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-159124-2|page=11}}</ref> where it is often interpreted as a random set or a random counting measure, instead of a stochastic process.<ref name="Haenggi2013page10and18"/><ref name="ChiuStoyan2013page41and108"/> In this setting, the Poisson process, also called the Poisson point process, is one of the most important objects in probability theory, both for applications and theoretical reasons.<ref name="Stirzaker2000"/><ref name="Streit2010page1">{{cite book|author=Roy L. Streit|title=Poisson Point Processes: Imaging, Tracking, and Sensing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KAWmFYUJ5zsC&pg=PA11|year=2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4419-6923-1|page=1}}</ref> But it has been remarked that the Poisson process does not receive as much attention as it should, partly due to it often being considered just on the real line, and not on other mathematical spaces.<ref name="Streit2010page1"/><ref name="Kingman1992pagev">{{cite book|author=J. F. C. Kingman|title=Poisson Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEiM-OtwDHkC|year=1992|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-159124-2|page=v}}</ref><br />
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在实线上定义的泊松过程可以解释为一个随机过程,<ref name=“Applebaum2004page1337”/><ref name=“Rosenblatt1962page94”>{cite book | author=Murray Rosenblatt | title=Random Processes |网址=https://archive.org/details/randomprocess00rose\u 0|url access=注册|年份=1962 | publisher=牛津大学出版社|页=[归档文件https://randomesu/0094/94]}}</ref>等随机变量对象。<ref name=“Haenggi2013page10and18”>{cite book | author=Martin Haenggi | title=无线网络随机几何| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CLtDhblwWEgC | year=2013 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-107-01469-5 | pages=10,18}</ref><ref name=“ChiuStoyan2013page41and108”>{cite book | author1=Sung Nok Chiu | author2=Dietrich Stoyan | author3=Wilfrid S.Kendall | author4=Joseph Mecke | title=随机几何及其应用| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=825NfM6Nc EC | year=2013 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-65825-3 | pages=41108}</ref>但是它可以定义在<math>n</math>维欧几里德空间或其他数学空间上,<ref name=“kingmann1992page11”>{cite book | author=J.F.C.Kingman | title=Poisson Processess | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEiM OtwDHkC | year=1992 | publisher=Clarendon Press | isbn=978-0-19-159124-2 | page=11}</ref>其中它通常被解释为随机集或随机计数度量,而不是随机过程。<ref name=“Haenggi2013page10and18”/><ref name=“ChiuStoyan2013page41and108”/>在此设置中,是泊松过程,也称为泊松点过程,是概率论中最重要的研究对象之一,无论是应用还是理论原因=https://books.google.com/books?id=KAWmFYUJ5zsC&pg=PA11 | year=2010 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4419-6923-1 | page=1}}</ref>但有人指出,Poisson过程并没有得到应有的重视,部分原因是它经常被认为只是在实线上,而不是在其他数学空间中。<ref name=“Streit2010page1”/><refname=“kingmann1992pagev”>{cite book | author=J.F.C.Kingman | title=Poisson进程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEiM OtwDHkC | year=1992 | publisher=Clarendon Press | isbn=978-0-19-159124-2 | page=v}</ref><br />
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X^{-1}(B)=\{\omega\in \Omega: X(\omega)\in B \},<br />
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X ^ {-1}(b) = { Omega: x (Omega) in b } ,<br />
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==Definitions定义==<br />
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so the law of a <math>X</math> can be written as:<br />
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所以 <math>X</math>的定律可以写成:<br />
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===Stochastic process随机过程===<br />
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A stochastic process is defined as a collection of random variables defined on a common [[probability space]] <math>(\Omega, \mathcal{F}, P)</math>, where <math>\Omega</math> is a [[sample space]], <math>\mathcal{F}</math> is a <math>\sigma</math>-[[Sigma-algebra|algebra]], and <math>P</math> is a [[probability measure]]; and the random variables, indexed by some set <math>T</math>, all take values in the same mathematical space <math>S</math>, which must be [[measurable]] with respect to some <math>\sigma</math>-algebra <math>\Sigma</math>.<ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><br />
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随机过程被定义为在一个公共[[概率空间]]<math>(\Omega, \mathcal{F}, P)</math>上定义的随机变量集合,其中<math>\Omega</math> 是[[样本空间]],<math>\mathcal{F}</math>是一个<math>\sigma</math>-[[sigma代数|代数]],<math>P</math>是[[概率测度]];而随机变量,由某个集合<math>T</math>索引,所有值都取同一个数学空间<math>S</math>,对于某些<math>\sigma</math>-代数<math>\sigma</math><ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><br />
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For a stochastic process <math>X</math> with law <math>\mu</math>, its finite-dimensional distributions are defined as:<br />
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对于一个随机过程,其有限维分布被定义为:<br />
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In other words, for a given probability space <math>(\Omega, \mathcal{F}, P)</math> and a measurable space <math>(S,\Sigma)</math>, a stochastic process is a collection of <math>S</math>-valued random variables, which can be written as:<ref name="Florescu2014page293">{{cite book|author=Ionut Florescu|title=Probability and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|year=2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-59320-2|page=293}}</ref><br />
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换言之,对于给定的概率空间<math>(\Omega,\mathcal{F},P)</math>和可测空间<math>(S,Sigma)</math>,随机过程是一个值为<math>S</math>的随机变量的集合,可以写成:<ref name="Florescu2014page293">{{cite book|author=Ionut Florescu|title=Probability and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|year=2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-59320-2|page=293}}</ref><br />
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\mu_{t_1,\dots,t_n} =P\circ (X({t_1}),\dots, X({t_n}))^{-1},<br />
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Mu _ { t _ 1,dots,t _ n } = p circ (x ({ t _ 1}) ,dots,x ({ t _ n })) ^ {-1} ,<br />
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\{X(t):t\in T \}.<br />
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where <math>n\geq 1</math> is a counting number and each set <math>t_i</math> is a non-empty finite subset of the index set <math>T</math>, so each <math>t_i\subset T</math>, which means that <math>t_1,\dots,t_n</math> is any finite collection of subsets of the index set <math>T</math>.<br />
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其中 <math>n\geq 1</math> 是一个计数数字,每个集 <math>t_i</math> 是指数集 <math>T</math> 的非空有限子集,因此每个 <math>t_i\subset T</math> ,这意味着 <math>t_1,\dots,t_n</math>是指数集 <math>T</math> 的任何有限子集。<br />
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Historically, in many problems from the natural sciences a point <math>t\in T</math> had the meaning of time, so <math>X(t)</math> is a random variable representing a value observed at time <math>t</math>.<ref name="Borovkov2013page528">{{cite book|author=Alexander A. Borovkov|authorlink=Alexander A. Borovkov|title=Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRk_AAAAQBAJ&pg|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-5201-9|page=528}}</ref> A stochastic process can also be written as <math> \{X(t,\omega):t\in T \}</math> to reflect that it is actually a function of two variables, <math>t\in T</math> and <math>\omega\in \Omega</math>.<ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><ref name="LindgrenRootzen2013page11">{{cite book|author1=Georg Lindgren|author2=Holger Rootzen|author3=Maria Sandsten|title=Stationary Stochastic Processes for Scientists and Engineers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FYJFAQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1|year=2013|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4665-8618-5|pages=11}}</ref><br />
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历史上,在许多自然科学问题中,一个点<math>t\in T</math> 具有时间的意义,因此,<math>X(t)</math>表示是一个在时间<math>t</math>的随机变量。<ref name=“Borovkov2013page528”>{cite book | authorlink=Alexander a.Borovkov | title=Probability Theory | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRk_AAAAQBAJ&pg | year=2013 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4471-5201-9 | page=528}</ref>随机过程也可以写成<math>\{X(t,omega):t\ in t\}</math>来反映它实际上是两个变量的函数,<math>t\in t</math>和<math>\omega\in\omega</math><ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><ref name=“LindgrenRootzen2013page11”>{cite book | author1=Georg Lindgren | author2=Holger Rootzen | author3=Maria Sandsten | title=科学家和工程师的平稳随机过程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fyjfaqbaj&pg=PR1 | year=2013 | publisher=CRC出版社| isbn=978-1-4665-8618-5 | pages=11}</ref><br />
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For any measurable subset <math>C</math> of the <math>n</math>-fold Cartesian power <math>S^n=S\times\dots \times S</math>, the finite-dimensional distributions of a stochastic process <math>X</math> can be written as: But the concept of stationarity also exists for point processes and random fields, where the index set is not interpreted as time.<br />
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对于任何可测量的子集 < math > c </math > n </math >-fold 笛卡尔幂 < math > s ^ n = s 乘以 s </math > ,一个随机过程 < math > x </math > 的有限维分布可以写成: 但是平稳性的概念也存在于点过程和随机场,其中指数集不被解释为时间。<br />
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There are other ways to consider a stochastic process, with the above definition being considered the traditional one.<ref name="RogersWilliams2000page121">{{cite book|author1=L. C. G. Rogers|author2=David Williams|title=Diffusions, Markov Processes, and Martingales: Volume 1, Foundations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-71749-7|pages=121, 122}}</ref><ref name="Asmussen2003page408">{{cite book|author=Søren Asmussen|title=Applied Probability and Queues|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BeYaTxesKy0C|year=2003|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-00211-8|page=408}}</ref> For example, a stochastic process can be interpreted or defined as a <math>S^T</math>-valued random variable, where <math>S^T</math> is the space of all the possible <math>S</math>-valued [[Function (mathematics)|functions]] of <math>t\in T</math> that [[Map (mathematics)|map]] from the set <math>T</math> into the space <math>S</math>.<ref name="Kallenberg2002page24"/><ref name="RogersWilliams2000page121"/><br />
<br />
还有其他方法可以考虑随机过程,上面的定义被认为是传统的=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 | year=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-107-71749-7 | pages=121,122}</ref><ref name=“Asmussen2003page408”>{cite book | author=S|Asmussen | title=Applied Probability and Queues | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BeYaTxesKy0C | year=2003 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-00211-8 | page=408}</ref>例如,一个随机过程可以解释或定义为一个<math>S^T</math>值的随机变量,其中<math>S^T</math>是所有可能的<math>S</math>-值[[函数(数学)|函数]]的空间T</math>从集合<math>T</math>到空间<math>S</math><ref name=“Kallenbergg2002page24”/><ref name=“RogersWilliams2000page121”/><br />
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When the index set <math>T</math> can be interpreted as time, a stochastic process is said to be stationary if its finite-dimensional distributions are invariant under translations of time. This type of stochastic process can be used to describe a physical system that is in steady state, but still experiences random fluctuations. A sequence of random variables forms a stationary stochastic process only if the random variables are identically distributed. Khinchin introduced the related concept of stationarity in the wide sense, which has other names including covariance stationarity or stationarity in the broad sense.<br />
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当指数集 < math > t </math > 可以被解释为时间时,如果一个随机过程的有限维分布在时间平移下是不变的,那么它就是静止的。这种类型的随机过程可以用来描述一个处于稳定状态但仍然经历随机波动的物理系统。只有当随机变量是同分布的时候,一系列随机变量才会形成一个平稳的随机过程。Khinchin 提出了广义平稳性的相关概念,广义的协方差平稳性或平稳性又有其他名称。<br />
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===Index set索引集===<br />
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The set <math>T</math> is called the '''index set'''<ref name="Parzen1999"/><ref name="Florescu2014page294"/> or '''parameter set'''<ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><ref name="Skorokhod2005page93">{{cite book|author=Valeriy Skorokhod|title=Basic Principles and Applications of Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQkYMjRK3fYC|year=2005|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-26312-8|pages=93, 94}}</ref> of the stochastic process. Often this set is some subset of the [[real line]], such as the [[natural numbers]] or an interval, giving the set <math>T</math> the interpretation of time.<ref name="doob1953stochasticP46to47"/> In addition to these sets, the index set <math>T</math> can be other linearly ordered sets or more general mathematical sets,<ref name="doob1953stochasticP46to47"/><ref name="Billingsley2008page482">{{cite book|author=Patrick Billingsley|title=Probability and Measure|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyXqOXyxEeIC|year=2008|publisher=Wiley India Pvt. Limited|isbn=978-81-265-1771-8|page=482}}</ref> such as the Cartesian plane <math>R^2</math> or <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space, where an element <math>t\in T</math> can represent a point in space.<ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page27">{{cite book|author1=Samuel Karlin|author2=Howard E. Taylor|title=A First Course in Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC|year=2012|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-057041-9|page=27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Donald L. Snyder|author2=Michael I. Miller|title=Random Point Processes in Time and Space|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_3UBwAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4612-3166-0|page=25}}</ref> But in general more results and theorems are possible for stochastic processes when the index set is ordered.<ref name="Skorokhod2005page104">{{cite book|author=Valeriy Skorokhod|title=Basic Principles and Applications of Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQkYMjRK3fYC|year=2005|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-26312-8|page=104}}</ref><br />
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集合<math>T</math>称为“索引集”<ref name=“Parzen1999”/><ref name=“Florescu2014page294”/>或“‘参数集’”<ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><ref name=“Skorokhod2005page93”>{cite book | author=Valeriy skorokord | title=概率论的基本原理和应用=https://books.google.com/books?随机过程的id=dQkYMjRK3fYC | year=2005 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-540-26312-8 | pages=93,94}}</ref>。通常,这个集合是[[实线]]的一个子集,例如[[自然数]]或一个区间,使集合<math>T</math>能够解释时间。<ref name=“doob1953stochasticP46to47”/>除了这些集合,索引集<math>T</math>可以是其他线性有序集或更一般的数学集,<ref name=“doob1953stochasticP46to47”/><ref name=“Billingsley2008page482”>{cite book | author=Patrick Billingsley | title=Probability and Measure |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=qyxqoxyeic | year=2008 | publisher=Wiley India Pvt.Limited | isbn=978-81-265-1771-8 | page=482}}</ref>例如笛卡尔平面<math>R^2</math>或<math>n</math>维欧几里得空间,其中t中的元素可以表示空间中的一个点=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC | year=2012 | publisher=academical Press | isbn=978-0-08-057041-9 | page=27}</ref>{cite book | author1=Donald L.Snyder | author2=Michael I.Miller | title=时空中的随机点过程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_3UBwAAQBAJ | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4612-3166-0 | page=25}</ref>但一般情况下,当索引集有序时,随机过程可以得到更多的结果和定理。<ref name=“skorokod2005page104”>{cite book | author=Valeriy skorokorokod | title=概率的基本原理和应用理论|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQkYMjRK3fYC |年=2005 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-540-26312-8 | page=104}</ref><br />
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A filtration is an increasing sequence of sigma-algebras defined in relation to some probability space and an index set that has some total order relation, such as in the case of the index set being some subset of the real numbers. More formally, if a stochastic process has an index set with a total order, then a filtration <math>\{\mathcal{F}_t\}_{t\in T} </math>, on a probability space <math>(\Omega, \mathcal{F}, P)</math> is a family of sigma-algebras such that <math> \mathcal{F}_s \subseteq \mathcal{F}_t \subseteq \mathcal{F} </math> for all <math>s \leq t</math>, where <math>t, s\in T</math> and <math>\leq</math> denotes the total order of the index set <math>T</math>.<br />
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过滤是一个增加序列的 sigma-代数定义关于一些概率空间和一个索引集,有一些总序关系,例如在情况下的索引集是一些子集的实数。更正式的说法是,如果一个随机过程有一个总序的索引集,那么在一个总序的索引集上,对一个概率空间的索引集进行一次过滤,这样的索引集就是一个总序的索引集,这样的索引集的总序就是数学的。<br />
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=== State space 状态空间===<br />
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The [[mathematical space]] <math>S</math> of a stochastic process is called its ''state space''. This mathematical space can be defined using [[integer]]s, [[real line]]s, <math>n</math>-dimensional [[Euclidean space]]s, complex planes, or more abstract mathematical spaces. The state space is defined using elements that reflect the different values that the stochastic process can take.<ref name="doob1953stochasticP46to47"/><ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1"/><ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><ref name="Florescu2014page294">{{cite book|author=Ionut Florescu|title=Probability and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|year=2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-59320-2|pages=294, 295}}</ref><ref name="Brémaud2014page120">{{cite book|author=Pierre Brémaud|title=Fourier Analysis and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dP2JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-09590-5|page=120}}</ref><br />
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随机过程的[[数学空间]]<math>S</math>称为其“状态空间”。这个数学空间可以用[[integer]]s、[[real line]]s、<math>n</math>-dimensional[[Euclidean space]]s、复杂平面或更抽象的数学空间来定义。状态空间是用反映随机过程可以采用的不同值的元素来定义的进程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22 | year=2014 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-59320-2 | pages=294295}</ref><ref name=“Brémaud2014page120”>{cite book |作者=Pierre Brémaud | title=Fourier Analysis and random Processes |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=dP2JBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |年=2014 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-3-319-09590-5 | page=120}</ref><br />
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A modification of a stochastic process is another stochastic process, which is closely related to the original stochastic process. More precisely, a stochastic process <math>X</math> that has the same index set <math>T</math>, set space <math>S</math>, and probability space <math>(\Omega,{\cal F},P)</math> as another stochastic process <math>Y</math> is said to be a modification of <math>Y</math> if for all <math>t\in T</math> the following<br />
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一个随机过程的修正是另一个随机过程,它与原始随机过程密切相关。更确切地说,一个随机过程<math>X</math>具有相同的索引集<math>T</math>、集空间<math>和概率空间<math>(\Omega,{\cal F},P)</math>作为另一个随机过程<math>Y</math>的随机过程被称为<math>Y</math>的修改,如果T</math>中的所有<math>T\<br />
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<center><math><br />
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< 中心 > < 数学 ><br />
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===Sample function样本函数===<br />
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P(X_t=Y_t)=1 ,<br />
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P (x _ t = y _ t) = 1,<br />
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A '''sample function''' is a single [[Outcome (probability)|outcome]] of a stochastic process, so it is formed by taking a single possible value of each random variable of the stochastic process.<ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><ref name="Florescu2014page296">{{cite book|author=Ionut Florescu|title=Probability and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|year=2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-59320-2|page=296}}</ref> More precisely, if <math>\{X(t,\omega):t\in T \}</math> is a stochastic process, then for any point <math>\omega\in\Omega</math>, the [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]]<br />
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“样本函数”是随机过程的单个[[结果(概率)|结果]],因此,它是由随机过程中每个随机变量的一个可能值构成的=https://books.google.com/books?id=z5sebqaaqbaj&pg=PR22 | year=2014 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-59320-2 | page=296}</ref>更准确地说,如果<math>\{X(t,omega):t\in t\}</math>是一个随机过程,那么对于任何点<math>\omega\in\omega</math>,则[[Map(mathematics)| mapping]]<br />
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</math></center><br />
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[数学中心]<br />
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<center><math><br />
<br />
holds. Two stochastic processes that are modifications of each other have the same finite-dimensional law and they are said to be stochastically equivalent or equivalent.<br />
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持有。两个相互修正的随机过程具有相同的有限维定律,随机等价或等价。<br />
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X(\cdot,\omega): T \rightarrow S,<br />
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Instead of modification, the term version is also used, however some authors use the term version when two stochastic processes have the same finite-dimensional distributions, but they may be defined on different probability spaces, so two processes that are modifications of each other, are also versions of each other, in the latter sense, but not the converse. The theorem can also be generalized to random fields so the index set is <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space as well as to stochastic processes with metric spaces as their state spaces.<br />
代替修正,术语版本也被使用,然而当两个随机过程具有相同的有限维分布一些作者使用术语版本,但他们可能被定义在不同的概率空间,因此在后一种意义上,两个相互修改的过程也是彼此的版本,但不是相反。该定理还可以推广到随机域,使指标集是<math>n</math>维欧氏空间,也可以推广到以度量空间为状态空间的随机过程。<br />
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不同的概率空间可以定义不同的两个随机过程,因此两个相互修正的过程,在后一种意义上也是相互修正的过程,但不是相反。这个定理也可以推广到随机场,因此指数集是 < math > n </math > 维欧氏空间,以及以度量空间为状态空间的随机过程。<br />
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is called a sample function, a '''realization''', or, particularly when <math>T</math> is interpreted as time, a '''sample path''' of the stochastic process <math>\{X(t,\omega):t\in T \}</math>.<ref name="RogersWilliams2000page121b">{{cite book|author1=L. C. G. Rogers|author2=David Williams|title=Diffusions, Markov Processes, and Martingales: Volume 1, Foundations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-71749-7|pages=121–124}}</ref> This means that for a fixed <math>\omega\in\Omega</math>, there exists a sample function that maps the index set <math>T</math> to the state space <math>S</math>.<ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/> Other names for a sample function of a stochastic process include '''trajectory''', '''path function'''<ref name="Billingsley2008page493">{{cite book|author=Patrick Billingsley|title=Probability and Measure|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyXqOXyxEeIC|year=2008|publisher=Wiley India Pvt. Limited|isbn=978-81-265-1771-8|page=493}}</ref> or '''path'''.<ref name="Øksendal2003page10">{{cite book|author=Bernt Øksendal|title=Stochastic Differential Equations: An Introduction with Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgQDWyihxKYC|year=2003|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-04758-2|page=10}}</ref><br />
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称为样本函数,称为“实现”,或者,特别是当<math>T</math>被解释为时间时,随机过程的“样本路径”<math>\{X(T,omega):T\in T\}</math>{cite book | author1=L.C.G.Rogers | author2=David Williams | title=扩散,马尔可夫过程,和鞅:第1卷,基金会网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 | year=2000 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-107-71749-7 | pages=121–124}</ref>这意味着对于一个固定的<math>\omega\in\omega</math>,存在一个将索引集<math>T</math>映射到状态空间<math>S</math><ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/>的示例函数的其他名称随机过程包括“轨迹”、“路径函数”<ref name=“Billingsley2008page493”>{cite book | author=Patrick Billingsley | title=Probability and Measure | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyXqOXyxEeIC | year=2008 | publisher=Wiley India Pvt.Limited | isbn=978-81-265-1771-8 | page=493}</ref>或“路径”.<ref name=“Øksendal2003page10”>{cite book | author=BerntØksendal | title=随机微分方程:应用简介| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgQDWyihxKYC |年=2003 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-540-04758-2 | page=10}</ref><br />
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===Increment增量===<br />
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Two stochastic processes <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> defined on the same probability space <math>(\Omega,\mathcal{F},P)</math> with the same index set <math>T</math> and set space <math>S</math> are said be indistinguishable if the following<br />
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两个随机过程 < math > x </math > 和 < math > y </math > 定义在同一个概率空间 < math > (Omega,cal { f } ,p) </math > 具有相同的指数集 < math > t </math > 和集合空间 < math > s </math > 如果下列情况,这两个随机过程是无法区分的<br />
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An '''increment''' of a stochastic process is the difference between two random variables of the same stochastic process. For a stochastic process with an index set that can be interpreted as time, an increment is how much the stochastic process changes over a certain time period. For example, if <math>\{X(t):t\in T \}</math> is a stochastic process with state space <math>S</math> and index set <math>T=[0,\infty)</math>, then for any two non-negative numbers <math>t_1\in [0,\infty)</math> and <math>t_2\in [0,\infty)</math> such that <math>t_1\leq t_2</math>, the difference <math>X_{t_2}-X_{t_1}</math> is a <math>S</math>-valued random variable known as an increment.<ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page27"/><ref name="Applebaum2004page1337"/> When interested in the increments, often the state space <math>S</math> is the real line or the natural numbers, but it can be <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space or more abstract spaces such as [[Banach space]]s.<ref name="Applebaum2004page1337"/><br />
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随机过程的“增量”是同一随机过程的两个随机变量之间的差值。对于一个指数集可以解释为时间的随机过程,增量是随机过程在某个时间段内的变化量。例如,如果t\}</math>中的<math>\{X(t):t\in t\}</math>是状态空间<math>S</math>且索引集<math>t=[0,infty)</math>中的任意两个非负数<math>t\u 1\和[0,\infty)</math>中的<math>t_2\使得<math>tˉ,差异<math>X{tu 2}-X{t_1}</math>是一个称为增量的<math>S</math>值随机变量。<ref name=“KarlinTaylor2012page27”/><ref name=“Applebaum2004page1337”/>当对增量感兴趣时,通常状态空间<math>S</math>是实线或自然数,但它可以是<math>n</math>维欧几里德空间或更抽象的空间,如[[Banach space]]s.<ref name=“Applebaum2004page1337”/><br />
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< 中心 > < 数学 ><br />
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P(X_t=Y_t \text{ for all } t\in T )=1 ,<br />
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P (x _ t = y _ t text { for all } t in t) = 1,<br />
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===Further definitions===<br />
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</math></center><br />
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[数学中心]<br />
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holds.<br />
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持有。<br />
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====Law定律====<br />
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For a stochastic process <math>X\colon\Omega \rightarrow S^T</math> defined on the probability space <math>(\Omega, \mathcal{F}, P)</math>, the '''law''' of stochastic process <math>X</math> is defined as the [[Pushforward measure|image measure]]:<br />
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对于定义在概率空间<math>(\Omega,\mathcal{F},P)</math>上的随机过程<math>X\colon\Omega\rightarrow S^T</math>,随机过程X</math>的“定律”被定义为[[前推度量|图像度量]:<br />
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<center><math><br />
<中心><数学><br />
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Separability is a property of a stochastic process based on its index set in relation to the probability measure. The property is assumed so that functionals of stochastic processes or random fields with uncountable index sets can form random variables. For a stochastic process to be separable, in addition to other conditions, its index set must be a separable space,{{efn|The term "separable" appears twice here with two different meanings, where the first meaning is from probability and the second from topology and analysis. For a stochastic process to be separable (in a probabilistic sense), its index set must be a separable space (in a topological or analytic sense), in addition to other conditions.<br />
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可分性是随机过程的一个属性,基于它的索引集与机率量测的关系。假设随机过程泛函或具有不可数指标集的随机场泛函可以形成随机变量。对于可分离的随机过程,除了其他条件外,它的索引集必须是可分离的空间。对于一个可分的随机过程集(在概率意义上) ,它的指数集必须是一个可分的空间(在拓扑或分析意义上) ,除了其他条件。<br />
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\mu=P\circ X^{-1},<br />
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</math></center><br />
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More precisely, a real-valued continuous-time stochastic process <math>X</math> with a probability space <math>(\Omega,{\cal F},P)</math> is separable if its index set <math>T</math> has a dense countable subset <math>U\subset T</math> and there is a set <math>\Omega_0 \subset \Omega</math> of probability zero, so <math>P(\Omega_0)=0</math>, such that for every open set <math>G\subset T</math> and every closed set <math>F\subset \textstyle R =(-\infty,\infty) </math>, the two events <math>\{ X_t \in F \text{ for all } t \in G\cap U\}</math> and <math>\{ X_t \in F \text{ for all } t \in G\}</math> differ from each other at most on a subset of <math>\Omega_0</math>.<br />
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更确切地说,一个带有随机过程的实值连续时间子集 x < math > (Omega,{ cal f } ,p) </math > 是可分的,如果它的指数集 < math > t </math > 有一个稠密的可数子集 < math > u t </math > 并且存在一个集合 < math > Omega 0子集 ω </math > 概率为0,所以 < math > p (Omega _ 0) = 0 </math > ,对于每个开集 < math > g 子集 t </math > 和每个闭集 < math > f 子集文本样式 r = (- infty,infty) </math > ,两个事件 < math > > { x _ t in f text { for all } t in g cap u } </math > 和 < math > { x _ t in f text { for all } t in g } </math > 在 < math > 的子集上最多不同。<br />
<br />
where <math>P</math> is a probability measure, the symbol <math>\circ </math> denotes function composition and <math>X^{-1}</math> is the pre-image of the measurable function or, equivalently, the <math>S^T</math>-valued random variable <math>X</math>, where <math>S^T</math> is the space of all the possible <math>S</math>-valued functions of <math>t\in T</math>, so the law of a stochastic process is a probability measure.<ref name="Kallenberg2002page24"/><ref name="RogersWilliams2000page121"/><ref name="FrizVictoir2010page571"/><ref name="Resnick2013page40">{{cite book|author=Sidney I. Resnick|title=Adventures in Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VQrpBwAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4612-0387-2|pages=40–41}}</ref><br />
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其中<math>P</math>是一个概率度量,符号<math>\circ</math>表示函数组合,<math>X^{-1}</math>是可测量函数的前映像,或者等价地,<math>S^T</math>值随机变量<math>X</math>,其中<math>S^T</math>是T</math>中所有可能的<math>S</math>值函数的空间,所以随机过程的规律就是一个概率测度=https://books.google.com/books?id=VQrpBwAAQBAJ |年=2013 | publisher=Springer科学与商业媒体| isbn=978-1-4612-0387-2 |页=40–41}</ref><br />
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The definition of separability can also be stated for other index sets and state spaces, such as in the case of random fields, where the index set as well as the state space can be <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space. A theorem by Doob, sometimes known as Doob's separability theorem, says that any real-valued continuous-time stochastic process has a separable modification. Versions of this theorem also exist for more general stochastic processes with index sets and state spaces other than the real line.<br />
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可分性的定义也适用于其他索引集和状态空间,例如在随机场的情况下,索引集和状态空间可以是 < math > n </math >-dimensional Euclidean 空间。Doob 的一个定理,有时也被称为 Doob 的可分性定理,说任何实值连续时间随机过程都有一个可分的修正。这个定理的版本也存在于更一般的索引集和状态空间的随机过程,而不是实线。<br />
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For a measurable subset <math>B</math> of <math>S^T</math>, the pre-image of <math>X</math> gives<br />
对于<math>S^T</math>的可测子集<math>B</math>,预图像<math>X</math>给出<br />
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<center><math><br />
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Two stochastic processes <math>\left\{X_t\right\}</math> and <math>\left\{Y_t\right\}</math> are called uncorrelated if their cross-covariance <math>\operatorname{K}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{Y}}(t_1,t_2) = \operatorname{E} \left[ \left( X(t_1)- \mu_X(t_1) \right) \left( Y(t_2)- \mu_Y(t_2) \right) \right]</math> is zero for all times. Formally:<br />
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两个随机过程 < math > 左{ x _ t 右} </math > 和 < math > 左{ y _ t 右} </math > 如果它们的互协方差 < math > 操作者名{ k }{ mathbf { x }{ y }}(t _ 1,t _ 2) = 操作者名{ e }左(x (t _ 1)-mu _ x (t _ 1)右)左(y (t _ 2)-y _ 2)右] </math > 始终为零,则称为不相关过程。形式上:<br />
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X^{-1}(B)=\{\omega\in \Omega: X(\omega)\in B \},<br />
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</math></center><br />
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<math>\left\{X_t\right\},\left\{Y_t\right\} \text{ uncorrelated} \quad \iff \quad \operatorname{K}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{Y}}(t_1,t_2) = 0 \quad \forall t_1,t_2</math>.<br />
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左{ x _ t 右} ,左{ y _ t 右}文本{ uncorrelated }四匹配四匹配操作器名{ k }{ mathbf { x }{ y }(t _ 1,t _ 2) = 0四匹配所有 t _ 1,t _ 2 </math > 。<br />
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so the law of a <math>X</math> can be written as:<ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><br />
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所以a<math>X</math>定律可以写成:<ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><br />
<br />
<center><math><br />
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\mu(B)=P(\{\omega\in \Omega: X(\omega)\in B \}).<br />
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If two stochastic processes <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> are independent, then they are also uncorrelated. Such functions are known as càdlàg or cadlag functions, based on the acronym of the French expression continue à droite, limite à gauche, due to the functions being right-continuous with left limits. A Skorokhod function space, introduced by Anatoliy Skorokhod, The notation of this function space can also include the interval on which all the càdlàg functions are defined, so, for example, <math>D[0,1]</math> denotes the space of càdlàg functions defined on the unit interval <math>[0,1]</math>.<br />
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如果两个随机过程<math>X</math>和<math>Y</math>是独立的,那么它们也是不相关的。这类函数被称为cádla g或cadlag函数,基于法语表达式continue a droite,limiteégauche的首字母缩略词,因为这些函数是右连左限的。由Anatoliy Skorokod引入的一个Skorokod函数空间,该函数空间的表示法还可以包括定义所有cédlág函数的区间,因此,例如,<math>D[0,1]</math>表示定义在单位区间<math>[0,1]</math>上的cádlág函数空间。<br />
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如果两个随机过程 < math > x </math > 和 < math > y </math > 是独立的,那么它们也是不相关的。这种函数称为 càdlàg 或 cadlag 函数,由法语表达式 continue à droite,limite à gauche 的首字母缩写而来,因为这些函数是右连续的,有左限制。由 Anatoliy Skorokhod 引入的 Skorokhod 函数空间,这个函数空间的符号也可以包括定义所有函数的区间,因此,例如,< math > d [0,1] </math > 表示在单位区间 < math > [0,1] </math > 上定义的函数的空间。<br />
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</math></center><br />
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Skorokhod function spaces are frequently used in the theory of stochastic processes because it often assumed that the sample functions of continuous-time stochastic processes belong to a Skorokhod space.<br />
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Skorokhod 函数空间是随机过程理论中的常用空间,因为它经常假定连续时间随机过程的样本函数属于 Skorokhod 空间。<br />
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The law of a stochastic process or a random variable is also called the '''probability law''', '''probability distribution''', or the '''distribution'''.<ref name="Borovkov2013page528"/><ref name="FrizVictoir2010page571"/><ref name="Whitt2006page23">{{cite book|author=Ward Whitt|title=Stochastic-Process Limits: An Introduction to Stochastic-Process Limits and Their Application to Queues|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LkQOBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-21748-2|page=23}}</ref><ref name="ApplebaumBook2004page4">{{cite book|author=David Applebaum|title=Lévy Processes and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7eDUjdJxIkC|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83263-2|page=4}}</ref><ref name="RevuzYor2013page10">{{cite book|author1=Daniel Revuz|author2=Marc Yor|title=Continuous Martingales and Brownian Motion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYbnCAAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-662-06400-9|page=10}}</ref><br />
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随机过程或随机变量的规律也被称为“概率定律”,“概率分布”,或“分布”.<ref name=“Borovkov2013page528”/><ref name=“FrizVictoir2010page571”/><ref name=“Whitt2006page23”>{cite book | author=Ward Whitt | title=随机过程限制:随机过程限制及其在队列中的应用简介=图书https://books.com/?id=LkQOBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 | year=2006 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-21748-2 | page=23}</ref><ref name=“ApplebaumBook2004page4”>{cite book |作者=David Applebaum | title=Lévy过程和随机演算| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7eDUjdJxIkC | year=2004 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-83263-2 | page=4}</ref><ref name=“RevuzYor2013page10”>{cite book | author1=Daniel Revuz | author2=Marc Yor| title=连续鞅和布朗运动| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Oybncaaqbaj |年份=2013 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-662-06400-9 | page=10}</ref><br />
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====Finite-dimensional probability distributions有限维概率分布====<br />
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In the context of mathematical construction of stochastic processes, the term regularity is used when discussing and assuming certain conditions for a stochastic process to resolve possible construction issues. For example, to study stochastic processes with uncountable index sets, it is assumed that the stochastic process adheres to some type of regularity condition such as the sample functions being continuous.<br />
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在随机过程的数学构造的背景下,当讨论和假设一个随机过程的某些条件来解决可能的构造问题时,使用术语正则性。例如,为了研究具有不可数指标集的随机过程,我们假设随机过程函数遵守某种类型的正则性条件,如样本函数是连续的。<br />
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{{Main|Finite-dimensional distribution}}<br />
{{Main |有限维分布}}<br />
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For a stochastic process <math>X</math> with law <math>\mu</math>, its '''finite-dimensional distributions''' are defined as:<br />
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对于随机过程<math>X</math>,其“有限维分布”定义为:<br />
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<center><math><br />
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\mu_{t_1,\dots,t_n} =P\circ (X({t_1}),\dots, X({t_n}))^{-1},<br />
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</math></center><br />
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where <math>n\geq 1</math> is a counting number and each set <math>t_i</math> is a non-empty finite subset of the index set <math>T</math>, so each <math>t_i\subset T</math>, which means that <math>t_1,\dots,t_n</math> is any finite collection of subsets of the index set <math>T</math>.<ref name="Kallenberg2002page24"/><ref name="RogersWilliams2000page123">{{cite book|author1=L. C. G. Rogers|author2=David Williams|title=Diffusions, Markov Processes, and Martingales: Volume 1, Foundations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA356|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-71749-7|pages=123}}</ref><br />
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其中<math>n\geq 1</math>是一个计数数,而每个集合<math>t_i</math>>是索引集<math>T</math>的一个非空有限子集,因此每个<math>t_i\subset T</math>,这意味着<math>t_1,\dots,t_n</math>是索引集<math>T</math>的任何子集的有限集合<ref name="Kallenberg2002page24"/><ref name="RogersWilliams2000page123">{{cite book|author1=L. C. G. Rogers|author2=David Williams|title=Diffusions, Markov Processes, and Martingales: Volume 1, Foundations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA356|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-71749-7|pages=123}}</ref>id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA356 | year=2000 | publisher=剑桥大学出版社| isbn=978-1-107-71749-7 | pages=123}</ref><br />
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Markov processes are stochastic processes, traditionally in discrete or continuous time, that have the Markov property, which means the next value of the Markov process depends on the current value, but it is conditionally independent of the previous values of the stochastic process. In other words, the behavior of the process in the future is stochastically independent of its behavior in the past, given the current state of the process.<br />
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马尔可夫过程是随机过程,传统上在离散或连续时间,具有马尔可夫性,这意味着马尔可夫过程的下一个值取决于当前值,但它是有条件地独立于以前的价值随机过程。换句话说,考虑到过程的当前状态,过程在未来的行为随机地独立于过去的行为。<br />
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For any measurable subset <math>C</math> of the <math>n</math>-fold [[Cartesian power]] <math>S^n=S\times\dots \times S</math>, the finite-dimensional distributions of a stochastic process <math>X</math> can be written as:<ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><br />
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对于<math>n</math>级[[笛卡尔幂]]<math>S^n=S\times\dots \times S</math>的任何可测子集<math>C</math>,<math>X</math>的有限维分布可以写成:<ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><br />
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The Brownian motion process and the Poisson process (in one dimension) are both examples of Markov processes in continuous time, while random walks on the integers and the gambler's ruin problem are examples of Markov processes in discrete time.<br />
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布朗运动过程和一维泊松过程都是连续时间马氏过程的例子,而整数上的随机游动和赌徒破产问题都是离散时间马氏过程的例子。<br />
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<center><math><br />
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\mu_{t_1,\dots,t_n}(C) =P \Big(\big\{\omega\in \Omega: \big( X_{t_1}(\omega), \dots, X_{t_n}(\omega) \big) \in C \big\} \Big).<br />
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A Markov chain is a type of Markov process that has either discrete state space or discrete index set (often representing time), but the precise definition of a Markov chain varies. For example, it is common to define a Markov chain as a Markov process in either discrete or continuous time with a countable state space (thus regardless of the nature of time), but it has been also common to define a Markov chain as having discrete time in either countable or continuous state space (thus regardless of the state space).<br />
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马尔可夫链是一种具有离散状态空间或离散指标集(通常表示时间)的马尔可夫过程,但是马尔可夫链的精确定义是变化的。例如,通常将'''<font color="#ff8000"> 马尔可夫链Markov chain</font>'''定义为离散或连续时间中具有可数状态空间的马尔可夫过程(因此不考虑时间的性质) ,但也通常将'''<font color="#ff8000"> 马尔可夫链Markov chain</font>'''定义为在可数或连续状态空间中具有离散时间的马尔可夫链(因此不考虑状态空间)。<br />
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</math></center><br />
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The finite-dimensional distributions of a stochastic process satisfy two mathematical conditions known as consistency conditions.<ref name="Rosenthal2006page177"/><br />
随机过程的有限维分布满足两个称为一致性条件的数学条件。<ref name=“Rosenthal2006page177”/><br />
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Markov processes form an important class of stochastic processes and have applications in many areas. For example, they are the basis for a general stochastic simulation method known as Markov chain Monte Carlo, which is used for simulating random objects with specific probability distributions, and has found application in Bayesian statistics.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 马尔可夫过程Markov processes</font>'''是一类重要的随机过程,在许多领域有着广泛的应用。例如,它们是一种通用的随机模拟方法的基础,这种方法被称为'''<font color="#ff8000"> 马尔科夫蒙特卡洛模拟法Markov chain MonteCarlo</font>''',用于模拟具有特定概率分布的随机目标,并已在贝叶斯统计中得到应用。<br />
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====Stationarity稳定性====<br />
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The concept of the Markov property was originally for stochastic processes in continuous and discrete time, but the property has been adapted for other index sets such as <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space, which results in collections of random variables known as Markov random fields.<br />
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马尔可夫性的概念最初是用于连续和离散时间的随机过程,但是这个性质已经适用于其他指标集,如 <math>n</math>维欧氏空间,这导致了被称为马尔可夫随机场的随机变量集合。<br />
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{{Main|Stationary process}}<br />
{{Main |稳定过程}}<br />
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'''Stationarity''' is a mathematical property that a stochastic process has when all the random variables of that stochastic process are identically distributed. In other words, if <math>X</math> is a stationary stochastic process, then for any <math>t\in T</math> the random variable <math>X_t</math> has the same distribution, which means that for any set of <math>n</math> index set values <math>t_1,\dots, t_n</math>, the corresponding <math>n</math> random variables<br />
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“稳定性”是当随机过程的所有随机变量都是相同分布时随机过程所具有的数学性质。换言之,如果<math>X</math>是一个平稳随机过程,那么对于任何<math>t\in T</math>,随机变量<math>X_t</math>具有相同的分布,这意味着对于任何一组<math>n</math>索引集值<math>t_1,\dots, t_n</math>而言,对应的<math>n</math>随机变量<br />
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<center><math><br />
<br />
X_{t_1}, \dots X_{t_n},<br />
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A martingale is a discrete-time or continuous-time stochastic process with the property that, at every instant, given the current value and all the past values of the process, the conditional expectation of every future value is equal to the current value. In discrete time, if this property holds for the next value, then it holds for all future values. The exact mathematical definition of a martingale requires two other conditions coupled with the mathematical concept of a filtration, which is related to the intuition of increasing available information as time passes. Martingales are usually defined to be real-valued, but they can also be complex-valued or even more general.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 鞅Martingale</font>'''是一个离散时间或连续时间的随机过程,其特性是,在给定过程的当前值和所有过去值的任何时刻,每个未来值的条件期望都等于当前值。在离散时间中,如果此属性对下一个值有效,则对所有未来值都有效。'''<font color="#ff8000"> 鞅Martingale</font>'''的精确数学定义需要两个其他条件加上过滤的数学概念,这与随着时间的推移增加可用信息的直觉有关。'''<font color="#ff8000"> 鞅Martingale</font>'''通常被定义为实值的,但是它们也可以取复值,甚至是更一般的值。<br />
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</math></center><br />
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all have the same [[probability distribution]]. The index set of a stationary stochastic process is usually interpreted as time, so it can be the integers or the real line.<ref name="Lamperti1977page6">{{cite book|author=John Lamperti|title=Stochastic processes: a survey of the mathematical theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd4cvgAACAAJ|year=1977|publisher=Springer-Verlag|isbn=978-3-540-90275-1|pages=6 and 7}}</ref><ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page4">{{cite book|author1=Iosif I. Gikhman |author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich Skorokhod|title=Introduction to the Theory of Random Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJyLzG7N7r8C&pg=PR2|year=1969|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-69387-3|page=4}}</ref> But the concept of stationarity also exists for point processes and random fields, where the index set is not interpreted as time.<ref name="Lamperti1977page6"/><ref name="Adler2010page14">{{cite book|author=Robert J. Adler|title=The Geometry of Random Fields|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryejJmJAj28C&pg=PA263|year=2010|publisher=SIAM|isbn=978-0-89871-693-1|pages=14, 15}}</ref><ref name="ChiuStoyan2013page112">{{cite book|author1=Sung Nok Chiu|author2=Dietrich Stoyan|author3=Wilfrid S. Kendall|author4=Joseph Mecke|title=Stochastic Geometry and Its Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=825NfM6Nc-EC|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-65825-3|page=112}}</ref><br />
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它们都有相同的[[概率分布]]。平稳随机过程的指标集通常被解释为时间,因此可以是整数或实线。<ref name="Lamperti1977page6">{{cite book|author=John Lamperti|title=Stochastic processes: a survey of the mathematical theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd4cvgAACAAJ|year=1977|publisher=Springer-Verlag|isbn=978-3-540-90275-1|pages=6 and 7}}</ref><ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page4">{{cite book|author1=Iosif I. Gikhman |author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich Skorokhod|title=Introduction to the Theory of Random Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJyLzG7N7r8C&pg=PR2|year=1969|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-69387-3|page=4}}</ref> But the concept of stationarity also exists for point processes and random fields, where the index set is not interpreted as time.<ref name="Lamperti1977page6"/><ref name="Adler2010page14">{{cite book|author=Robert J. Adler|title=The Geometry of Random Fields|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryejJmJAj28C&pg=PA263|year=2010|publisher=SIAM|isbn=978-0-89871-693-1|pages=14, 15}}</ref><ref name="ChiuStoyan2013page112">{{cite book|author1=Sung Nok Chiu|author2=Dietrich Stoyan|author3=Wilfrid S. Kendall|author4=Joseph Mecke|title=Stochastic Geometry and Its Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=825NfM6Nc-EC|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-65825-3|page=112}}</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
A symmetric random walk and a Wiener process (with zero drift) are both examples of martingales, respectively, in discrete and continuous time. In this aspect, discrete-time martingales generalize the idea of partial sums of independent random variables.<br />
<br />
在离散时间和连续时间中,'''<font color="#ff8000"> 对称随机游动Symmetric random walk</font>'''和 维纳Wiener 过程(带零漂移)都是'''<font color="#ff8000"> 鞅Martingale</font>'''的例子。在这方面,离散'''<font color="#ff8000"> 鞅Martingale</font>'''推广了独立随机变量部分和的概念。<br />
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<br />
When the index set <math>T</math> can be interpreted as time, a stochastic process is said to be stationary if its finite-dimensional distributions are invariant under translations of time. This type of stochastic process can be used to describe a physical system that is in steady state, but still experiences random fluctuations.<ref name="Lamperti1977page6"/> The intuition behind stationarity is that as time passes the distribution of the stationary stochastic process remains the same.<ref name="Doob1990page94">{{cite book|author=Joseph L. Doob|title=Stochastic processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrsrAAAAYAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Wiley|pages=94–96}}</ref> A sequence of random variables forms a stationary stochastic process only if the random variables are identically distributed.<ref name="Lamperti1977page6"/><br />
<br />
当指标集<math>T</math>可以解释为时间时,如果随机过程的有限维分布在时间平移下是不变的,则称其为平稳过程。这种随机过程可以用来描述处于稳态的物理系统,但是仍然会经历随机波动。<ref name=“Lamperti1977page6”/>平稳性背后的直觉是,随着时间的推移,平稳随机过程的分布保持不变。<ref name=“Doob1990page94”>{cite book | author=Joseph L.Doob | title=randours | url=图书https://books.com/?id=nrsraaayaaj | year=1990 | publisher=Wiley | pages=94–96}}</ref>只有当随机变量相同分布时,一系列随机变量才会形成平稳随机过程。<ref name=“Lamperti1977page6”/><br />
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Martingales can also be created from stochastic processes by applying some suitable transformations, which is the case for the homogeneous Poisson process (on the real line) resulting in a martingale called the compensated Poisson process.<br />
<br />
也可以通过适当的变换从随机过程中产生'''<font color="#ff8000"> 鞅Martingale</font>''',这是齐次泊松过程(在实线上)产生一个被称为补偿泊松过程的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 鞅Martingale</font>'''的情形。<br />
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A stochastic process with the above definition of stationarity is sometimes said to be strictly stationary, but there are other forms of stationarity. One example is when a discrete-time or continuous-time stochastic process <math>X</math> is said to be stationary in the wide sense, then the process <math>X</math> has a finite second moment for all <math>t\in T</math> and the covariance of the two random variables <math>X_t</math> and <math>X_{t+h}</math> depends only on the number <math>h</math> for all <math>t\in T</math>.<ref name="Doob1990page94"/><ref name="Florescu2014page298">{{cite book|author=Ionut Florescu|title=Probability and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|year=2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-59320-2|pages=298, 299}}</ref> [[Aleksandr Khinchin|Khinchin]] introduced the related concept of '''stationarity in the wide sense''', which has other names including '''covariance stationarity''' or '''stationarity in the broad sense'''.<ref name="Florescu2014page298"/><ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page8">{{cite book|author1=Iosif Ilyich Gikhman|author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich Skorokhod|title=Introduction to the Theory of Random Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJyLzG7N7r8C&pg=PR2|year=1969|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-69387-3|page=8}}</ref><br />
<br />
具有上述平稳性定义的随机过程有时被称为严格平稳的,但也有其他形式的平稳性。一个例子是当离散时间或连续时间随机过程<math>X</math>被称为广义平稳时,那么,对于t</math>中的所有<math>t\n,过程<math>X</math>有一个有限的第二时刻,两个随机变量的协方差只取决于t</math>中所有<math>t\t\的数<math>h</math>Florescu | title=概率和随机过程| url=图书https://books.com/?id=z5sebqaaqabaj&pg=PR22 | year=2014 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-59320-2 | pages=298299}}</ref>[[Aleksandr Khinchin | Khinchin]]介绍了“广义平稳性”的相关概念,其他名称包括“协方差平稳性”或“广义平稳性”。<ref name=“Florescu2014page298”/><ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page8”>{cite book | author1=Iosif Ilyich Gikhman | author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich skorokod | title=随机过程理论导论| url=图书https://books.com/?id=yJyLzG7N7r8C&pg=PR2 |年份=1969 | publisher=Courier Corporation | isbn=978-0-486-69387-3 | page=8}</ref><br />
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Martingales mathematically formalize the idea of a fair game, and they were originally developed to show that it is not possible to win a fair game. Many problems in probability have been solved by finding a martingale in the problem and studying it. Martingales will converge, given some conditions on their moments, so they are often used to derive convergence results, due largely to martingale convergence theorems.<br />
<br />
数学上的鞅形式化了公平游戏的概念,它们最初是为了证明不可能赢得公平游戏而开发的。通过在问题中找到一个鞅并研究它,已经解决了许多概率问题。由于鞅收敛定理的存在,在给定矩的一些条件下,鞅会收敛,因此常用它们来推导收敛结果。<br />
<br />
====Filtration过滤====<br />
<br />
Martingales have many applications in statistics, but it has been remarked that its use and application are not as widespread as it could be in the field of statistics, particularly statistical inference. They have found applications in areas in probability theory such as queueing theory and Palm calculus and other fields such as economics and finance. These processes have many applications in fields such as finance, fluid mechanics, physics and biology. The main defining characteristics of these processes are their stationarity and independence properties, so they were known as processes with stationary and independent increments. In other words, a stochastic process <math>X</math> is a Lévy process if for <math>n</math> non-negatives numbers, <math>0\leq t_1\leq \dots \leq t_n</math>, the corresponding <math>n-1</math> increments<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 鞅Martingales</font>'''在统计学中有许多应用,但有人指出,鞅的使用和应用并不象在统计学领域,特别是推论统计学统计学领域那样广泛。他们已经在排队论和 Palm 演算以及其他领域如经济和金融等概率论领域找到了应用。这些过程在金融、流体力学、物理学和生物学等领域有许多应用。这些过程的主要定义特征是它们的平稳性和独立性,因此它们被称为具有平稳增量和独立增量的过程。换句话说,如果对于 <math>n</math> 非负数,<math>0\leq t_1\leq \dots \leq t_n</math> ,相应的 <math>n-1</math> 递增值是一个列维 Lévy 过程<br />
<br />
A [[Filtration (probability theory)|filtration]] is an increasing sequence of sigma-algebras defined in relation to some probability space and an index set that has some [[total order]] relation, such as in the case of the index set being some subset of the real numbers. More formally, if a stochastic process has an index set with a total order, then a filtration <math>\{\mathcal{F}_t\}_{t\in T} </math>, on a probability space <math>(\Omega, \mathcal{F}, P)</math> is a family of sigma-algebras such that <math> \mathcal{F}_s \subseteq \mathcal{F}_t \subseteq \mathcal{F} </math> for all <math>s \leq t</math>, where <math>t, s\in T</math> and <math>\leq</math> denotes the total order of the index set <math>T</math>.<ref name="Florescu2014page294"/> With the concept of a filtration, it is possible to study the amount of information contained in a stochastic process <math>X_t</math> at <math>t\in T</math>, which can be interpreted as time <math>t</math>.<ref name="Florescu2014page294"/><ref name="Williams1991page93"/> The intuition behind a filtration <math>\mathcal{F}_t</math> is that as time <math>t</math> passes, more and more information on <math>X_t</math> is known or available, which is captured in <math>\mathcal{F}_t</math>, resulting in finer and finer partitions of <math>\Omega</math>.<ref name="Klebaner2005page22">{{cite book|author=Fima C. Klebaner|title=Introduction to Stochastic Calculus with Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C|year=2005|publisher=Imperial College Press|isbn=978-1-86094-555-7|pages=22–23}}</ref><ref name="MörtersPeres2010page37">{{cite book|author1=Peter Mörters|author2=Yuval Peres|title=Brownian Motion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-TbA-dSrzYC|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48657-6|page=37}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[过滤(概率论)|过滤]]是定义在某个概率空间中的sigma代数的递增序列和具有某种[[总阶]]关系的索引集,例如在索引集是实数的某个子集的情况下。更为正式的是,如果随机过程有一个指数集总排序的随机过程,则如果随机过程有一个指数集的总序为总序,那么在概率空间上概率空间<math>(\Omega,\mathcal{F{F}u t}{t}{math>\{\mathcal{F{F},P,P)</math>上是一个西格玛代数家族,这样一个西格玛代数家族使得<math>\mathcal{mathcal{F{F}mathcal{F{F{F{F{F{F{F{F{F}数学>为所有<数学>s\s\s\subteq\mathcal{F}{F}{leq t</math>,其中,t中的<math>t,s\in t</math>和<math>\leq</math>表示索引集<math>t</math>的总顺序<ref name=“Florescu2014page294”/>通过过滤的概念,可以研究t</math>中随机过程<math>X\t</math>所包含的信息量,这可以解释为时间<math>t</math><ref name=“Florescu2014page294”/><ref name=“Williams1991page93”/>过滤背后的直觉是,随着时间的流逝,关于<math>t</math>的更多信息是已知的或可用的,这些信息可以在<math>\mathcal{F}t</math>中获得,使<math>\Omega</math>的分区越来越细{cite book | author=Fima C.Klebaner | title=Introduction to Ratical Calculation with Applications |网址=图书https://books.com/?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C | year=2005 | publisher=Imperial College Press | isbn=978-1-86094-555-7 | pages=22–23}</ref><ref name=“Mörters2010page37”>{cite book | author1=Peter Mörters | author2=Yuval Peres | title=布朗运动| url=图书https://books.com/?id=e-TbA-dSrzYC | year=2010 | publisher=剑桥大学出版社| isbn=978-1-139-48657-6 | page=37}</ref><br />
<br />
<center><math><br />
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<br />
X_{t_2}-X_{t_1}, \dots , X_{t_{n-1}}-X_{t_n},<br />
<br />
2}-x _ { t _ 1} ,点,x _ { t _ { n-1}-x _ { t _ n } ,<br />
<br />
====Modification修正====<br />
<br />
</math></center><br />
<br />
<br />
A '''modification''' of a stochastic process is another stochastic process, which is closely related to the original stochastic process. More precisely, a stochastic process <math>X</math> that has the same index set <math>T</math>, set space <math>S</math>, and probability space <math>(\Omega,{\cal F},P)</math> as another stochastic process <math>Y</math> is said to be a modification of <math>Y</math> if for all <math>t\in T</math> the following<br />
<br />
随机过程的“修正”是另一个随机过程,它与原始随机过程密切相关。更确切地说,一个随机过程<math>X</math>,与另一个随机过程<math>Y</math> 具有相同的索引集<math>T</math>、集空间<math>S</math>和概率空间<math>(\Omega,{\cal F},P)</math>具有相同的索引集<math>T</math>、集空间<math>S</math>和概率空间<math>(\Omega,{\cal F},P)</math>,被称为<math>Y</math>的修改,如果对所有<math>t\in T</math>有<br />
<br />
<br />
are all independent of each other, and the distribution of each increment only depends on the difference in time. If the specific definition of a stochastic process requires the index set to be a subset of the real line, then the random field can be considered as a generalization of stochastic process.<br />
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都是相互独立的,每个增量的分布只取决于时间的差异。如果随机过程的具体定义要求索引集是实线的一个子集,那么随机场可以被认为是随机过程的推广。<br />
<br />
<center><math><br />
<br />
P(X_t=Y_t)=1 ,<br />
<br />
</math></center><br />
<br />
holds. Two stochastic processes that are modifications of each other have the same finite-dimensional law<ref name="RogersWilliams2000page130">{{cite book|author1=L. C. G. Rogers|author2=David Williams|title=Diffusions, Markov Processes, and Martingales: Volume 1, Foundations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA356|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-71749-7|page=130}}</ref> and they are said to be '''stochastically equivalent''' or '''equivalent'''.<ref name="Borovkov2013page530">{{cite book|author=Alexander A. Borovkov|title=Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRk_AAAAQBAJ&pg|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-5201-9|page=530}}</ref><br />
<br />
注意。两个相互修正的随机过程具有相同的有限维法则<ref name="RogersWilliams2000page130">{{cite book|author1=L. C. G. Rogers|author2=David Williams|title=Diffusions, Markov Processes, and Martingales: Volume 1, Foundations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0ydAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA356|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-71749-7|page=130}}</ref>它们被称为“随机等价”或“等价物”<ref name="Borovkov2013page530">{{cite book|author=Alexander A. Borovkov|title=Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRk_AAAAQBAJ&pg|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-5201-9|page=530}}</ref><br />
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<br />
A point process is a collection of points randomly located on some mathematical space such as the real line, <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space, or more abstract spaces. Sometimes the term point process is not preferred, as historically the word process denoted an evolution of some system in time, so a point process is also called a random point field. There are different interpretations of a point process, such a random counting measure or a random set. Some authors regard a point process and stochastic process as two different objects such that a point process is a random object that arises from or is associated with a stochastic process, though it has been remarked that the difference between point processes and stochastic processes is not clear. which corresponds to the index set in stochastic process terminology.}} on which it is defined, such as the real line or <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space. Other stochastic processes such as renewal and counting processes are studied in the theory of point processes.<br />
<br />
点过程是一个点的集合,这些点随机地分布在一些数学空间上,比如实数直线、 n 维欧氏空间或者更多的抽象空间。有时,词汇点过程并不是首选,因为历史上词汇过程表示某个系统在时间上的演变,所以点过程也称为随机点场。一个点过程有不同的解释,比如随机计数测度或随机集合。有些作者把点过程和随机过程过程看作是两个不同的对象,例如,点过程是一个随机的对象,它起源于或与随机过程过程相关联,尽管有人指出点过程和随机过程之间的区别并不清楚。它对应于随机过程术语中的索引集。}它被定义在其上,例如实线或者<math>n</math> 维欧氏空间。在点过程理论中研究了更新和计数过程等其他随机过程。<br />
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<br />
Instead of modification, the term '''version''' is also used,<ref name="Adler2010page14"/><ref name="Klebaner2005page48">{{cite book|author=Fima C. Klebaner|title=Introduction to Stochastic Calculus with Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C|year=2005|publisher=Imperial College Press|isbn=978-1-86094-555-7|page=48}}</ref><ref name="Øksendal2003page14">{{cite book|author=Bernt Øksendal|title=Stochastic Differential Equations: An Introduction with Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgQDWyihxKYC|year=2003|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-04758-2|page=14}}</ref><ref name="Florescu2014page472">{{cite book|author=Ionut Florescu|title=Probability and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|year=2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-59320-2|pages=472}}</ref> however some authors use the term version when two stochastic processes have the same finite-dimensional distributions, but they may be defined on different probability spaces, so two processes that are modifications of each other, are also versions of each other, in the latter sense, but not the converse.<ref name="RevuzYor2013page18">{{cite book|author1=Daniel Revuz|author2=Marc Yor|title=Continuous Martingales and Brownian Motion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OYbnCAAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-662-06400-9|pages=18–19}}</ref><ref name="FrizVictoir2010page571"/><br />
<br />
除了修改,还使用了“版本”一词,<ref name=“Adler2010page14”/><ref name=“Klebaner2005page48”>{cite book | author=Fima C.Klebaner | title=Introduction to Ratical Calculation with Applications |网址=图书https://books.com/?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C | year=2005 | publisher=Imperial College Press | isbn=978-1-86094-555-7 | page=48}</ref><ref name=“Øksendal2003page14”>{cite book | author=BerntØksendal | title=随机微分方程:应用简介| url=图书https://books.com/?id=VgQDWyihxKYC | year=2003 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-540-04758-2 | page=14}</ref><ref name=“Florescu2014page472”>{cite book |作者=Ionut Florescu | title=概率与随机过程| url=图书https://books.com/?id=z5sebqaaqabaj&pg=PR22 | year=2014 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-59320-2 | pages=472}}</ref>然而,当两个随机过程具有相同的有限维分布,但它们可能定义在不同的概率空间上,因此两个过程是相互修改的,在后一种意义上,它们也是彼此的版本,但不是相反=图书https://books.com/?id=Oybncaaqbaj |年份=2013 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-662-06400-9 | pages=18–19}</ref><ref name=“FrizVictoir2010page571”<br />
<br />
If a continuous-time real-valued stochastic process meets certain moment conditions on its increments, then the [[Kolmogorov continuity theorem]] says that there exists a modification of this process that has continuous sample paths with probability one, so the stochastic process has a continuous modification or version.<ref name="Øksendal2003page14"/><ref name="Florescu2014page472"/><ref name="ApplebaumBook2004page20">{{cite book|author=David Applebaum|title=Lévy Processes and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7eDUjdJxIkC|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83263-2|page=20}}</ref> The theorem can also be generalized to random fields so the index set is <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space<ref name="Kunita1997page31">{{cite book|author=Hiroshi Kunita|title=Stochastic Flows and Stochastic Differential Equations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_S1RiCosqbMC|year=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-59925-2|page=31}}</ref> as well as to stochastic processes with [[metric spaces]] as their state spaces.<ref name="Kallenberg2002page">{{cite book|author=Olav Kallenberg|title=Foundations of Modern Probability|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6fhXh13OyMC|year=2002|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-95313-7|page=35}}</ref><br />
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如果一个连续时间的实值随机过程在其增量上满足一定的矩条件,则[[Kolmogorov连续性定理]]指出,该过程存在一个修正,其具有概率为1的连续样本路径,因此随机过程有一个连续的修改或版本=图书https://books.com/?id=q7eDUjdJxIkC | year=2004 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-83263-2 | page=20}</ref>该定理也可以推广到随机域,因此索引集是<math>n</math>-维欧几里德空间<ref name=“Kunita1997page31”>{cite book | author=Hiroshi Kunita|title=随机流和随机微分方程式| url=图书https://books.com/?id=_S1RiCosqbMC | year=1997 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-59925-2 | page=31}</ref>以及以[[度量空间]]为状态空间的随机过程=图书https://books.com/?id=L6fhXh13OyMC | year=2002 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-95313-7 | page=35}</ref><br />
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Probability theory has its origins in games of chance, which have a long history, with some games being played thousands of years ago, but very little analysis on them was done in terms of probability. The year 1654 is often considered the birth of probability theory when French mathematicians Pierre Fermat and Blaise Pascal had a written correspondence on probability, motivated by a gambling problem. But there was earlier mathematical work done on the probability of gambling games such as Liber de Ludo Aleae by Gerolamo Cardano, written in the 16th century but posthumously published later in 1663.<br />
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概率论游戏起源于机会游戏,这种游戏有着悠久的历史,有些游戏在几千年前就已经开始玩了,但是很少从概率的角度对它们进行分析。1654年通常被认为是概率论的诞生,当时法国数学家 Pierre Fermat 和 Blaise Pascal 因为一个赌博问题写了一封关于概率的信。但是在赌博游戏的可能性方面,早期的数学工作已经完成,比如吉罗拉莫·卡尔达诺的 Liber de Ludo Aleae,写于16世纪,但死后于1663年出版。<br />
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====Indistinguishable无法识别====<br />
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Two stochastic processes <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> defined on the same probability space <math>(\Omega,\mathcal{F},P)</math> with the same index set <math>T</math> and set space <math>S</math> are said be '''indistinguishable''' if the following<br />
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两个随机过程<math>X</math>和<math>Y</math>定义在同一概率空间<math>(\Omega,\mathcal{F},P)</math>上,具有相同的索引集<math>T</math>和集空间<math>S</math>上的两个随机过程称为“不可识别的”,如果<br />
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After Cardano, Jakob Bernoulli wrote Ars Conjectandi, which is considered a significant event in the history of probability theory. But despite some renowned mathematicians contributing to probability theory, such as Pierre-Simon Laplace, Abraham de Moivre, Carl Gauss, Siméon Poisson and Pafnuty Chebyshev, most of the mathematical community did not consider probability theory to be part of mathematics until the 20th century.<br />
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在 Cardano 之后,Jakob Bernoulli 写了 Ars Conjectandi,这被认为是概率论历史上的一个重大事件。但是,尽管一些著名的数学家为概率论做出了贡献,比如皮埃尔-西蒙·拉普拉斯,亚伯拉罕·棣莫弗,Carl Gauss,Siméon Poisson 和巴夫尼提·列波维奇·切比雪夫,大多数数学界直到20世纪才认为概率论是数学的一部分。<br />
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<center><math><br />
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P(X_t=Y_t \text{ for all } t\in T )=1 ,<br />
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In the physical sciences, scientists developed in the 19th century the discipline of statistical mechanics, where physical systems, such as containers filled with gases, can be regarded or treated mathematically as collections of many moving particles. Although there were attempts to incorporate randomness into statistical physics by some scientists, such as Rudolf Clausius, most of the work had little or no randomness.<br />
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在物理科学领域,科学家们在19世纪发展了统计力学学科,在这个学科中,物理系统,例如装满气体的容器,可以被看作或者从数学上被当作许多运动粒子的集合。尽管有一些科学家,比如鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯,试图将随机性纳入统计物理学,但大多数工作几乎没有或根本没有随机性。<br />
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holds.<ref name="FrizVictoir2010page571"/><ref name="RogersWilliams2000page130"/> If two <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> are modifications of each other and are almost surely continuous, then <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> are indistinguishable.<ref name="JeanblancYor2009page11">{{cite book|author1=Monique Jeanblanc|author1-link= Monique Jeanblanc |author2=Marc Yor|author2-link=Marc Yor|author3=Marc Chesney|title=Mathematical Methods for Financial Markets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhbROxoQ-ZMC|year=2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-85233-376-8|page=11}}</ref><br />
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保留。<ref name=“FrizVictoir2010page571”/><ref name=“Rogerswillams2000page130”/>如果两个<math>X</math>和<math>Y</math>是相互修改的,几乎肯定是连续的,那么<math>X</math>和<math>Y</math>是无法区分的。<ref name=“JeanblancYor2009page11”>{cite book | author1=Monique Jeanblanc | author2=Marc Yor | author2 link=Marc Yor | author3=Marc Chesney | title=金融市场数学方法| url=图书https://books.com/?id=ZhbROxoQ ZMC |年=2009 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-85233-376-8 | page=11}</ref><br />
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This changed in 1859 when James Clerk Maxwell contributed significantly to the field, more specifically, to the kinetic theory of gases, by presenting work where he assumed the gas particles move in random directions at random velocities. The kinetic theory of gases and statistical physics continued to be developed in the second half of the 19th century, with work done chiefly by Clausius, Ludwig Boltzmann and Josiah Gibbs, which would later have an influence on Albert Einstein's mathematical model for Brownian movement.<br />
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这种情况在1859年发生了改变,当时詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦对这个领域做出了重大贡献,更具体地说,他提出了假设气体粒子以随机速度向随机方向运动的工作,这对分子运动论研究有重大贡献。分子运动论和统计物理学在19世纪下半叶继续发展,主要由克劳修斯、路德维希·玻尔兹曼和约西亚吉布斯完成的工作,后来对阿尔伯特爱因斯坦的布朗运动的数学模型产生了影响。<br />
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====Separability可分性====<br />
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'''Separability''' is a property of a stochastic process based on its index set in relation to the probability measure. The property is assumed so that functionals of stochastic processes or random fields with uncountable index sets can form random variables. For a stochastic process to be separable, in addition to other conditions, its index set must be a [[separable space]],{{efn|The term "separable" appears twice here with two different meanings, where the first meaning is from probability and the second from topology and analysis. For a stochastic process to be separable (in a probabilistic sense), its index set must be a separable space (in a topological or analytic sense), in addition to other conditions.<ref name="Skorokhod2005page93"/>}} which means that the index set has a dense countable subset.<ref name="Adler2010page14"/><ref name="Ito2006page32">{{cite book|author=Kiyosi Itō|title=Essentials of Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pY5_DkvI-CcC&pg=PR4|year=2006|publisher=American Mathematical Soc.|isbn=978-0-8218-3898-3|pages=32–33}}</ref><br />
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“可分离性”是随机过程的一种性质,它基于与概率测度有关的指标集。假设随机过程或具有不可数指标集的随机场的泛函可以形成随机变量。对于一个随机过程是可分离的,除了其他条件外,它的指标集必须是一个[[可分离空间]],{efn |术语“可分离”在这里出现了两次,有两种不同的含义,第一种含义来自概率,第二种含义来自拓扑和分析。对于一个随机过程是可分的(概率意义上),它的指标集必须是一个可分空间(在拓扑或分析意义上),除了其他条件。<ref name=“Skorokhod2005page93”/>}},这意味着索引集有一个稠密的可数子集。<ref name=“Adler2010page14”/><ref name=“Ito2006page32”>{cite book | author=Kiyosi Itōtitle=Essentials of randomic Processes|url=图书https://books.com/?id=pY5|DkvI-CcC&pg=PR4 | year=2006 | publisher=美国数学学会| isbn=978-0-8218-3898-3 |页=32–33}</ref><br />
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At the International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris in 1900, David Hilbert presented a list of mathematical problems, where his sixth problem asked for a mathematical treatment of physics and probability involving axioms.}} and Andrei Kolmogorov. In the early 1930s Khinchin and Kolmogorov set up probability seminars, which were attended by researchers such as Eugene Slutsky and Nikolai Smirnov, and Khinchin gave the first mathematical definition of a stochastic process as a set of random variables indexed by the real line.<br />
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1900年在巴黎的国际数学家大会,David Hilbert 展示了一系列数学问题,其中他的第六个问题要求对物理学和涉及公理的概率进行数学处理和安德烈 · 科尔莫戈罗夫。在20世纪30年代早期,钦钦和科尔莫戈罗夫设立了概率研讨会,参加研讨会的研究人员有 Eugene Slutsky 和 Nikolai Smirnov,钦钦给出了第一个数学定义,随机过程是一组由实数线索引的随机变量。<br />
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More precisely, a real-valued continuous-time stochastic process <math>X</math> with a probability space <math>(\Omega,{\cal F},P)</math> is separable if its index set <math>T</math> has a dense countable subset <math>U\subset T</math> and there is a set <math>\Omega_0 \subset \Omega</math> of probability zero, so <math>P(\Omega_0)=0</math>, such that for every open set <math>G\subset T</math> and every closed set <math>F\subset \textstyle R =(-\infty,\infty) </math>, the two events <math>\{ X_t \in F \text{ for all } t \in G\cap U\}</math> and <math>\{ X_t \in F \text{ for all } t \in G\}</math> differ from each other at most on a subset of <math>\Omega_0</math>.<ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page150">{{cite book|author1=Iosif Ilyich Gikhman|author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich Skorokhod|title=Introduction to the Theory of Random Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yJyLzG7N7r8C&pg=PR2|year=1969|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-69387-3|page=150}}</ref><ref name="Todorovic2012page19">{{cite book|author=Petar Todorovic|title=An Introduction to Stochastic Processes and Their Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpjqBwAAQBAJ&pg=PP5|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4613-9742-7|pages=19–20}}</ref><ref name="Molchanov2005page340">{{cite book|author=Ilya Molchanov|title=Theory of Random Sets|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWEwk1UL42AC|year=2005|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-85233-892-3|page=340}}</ref><br />
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更精确地说,具有概率空间<math>(\Omega,{\calf},P)</math>的实值连续时间随机过程<math>X</math>是可分离的,如果它的指数集<math>T</math>有一个稠密的可数子集<math>U\subset\Omega</math>,因此<math>P(\Omega_0)=0</math>,这样对于每个开集<math>G\subset T</math>和每个闭集<math>F\subset\textstyle R=(-\infty,\infty)</math>,在F\text{FORALALL}t\in G\cap U\}</math>和F\text{FORALALL}\t\G\cap U\}</math>和F\text{FORALALL}t\in G\}</math>这两个事件在<math>\Omega</math><math><ref name=“Gikhmankorokod1969Page150”>{(引自《引证图书| author1=IOSIIF IlichiGikhman | author2=Anatoly Vladimirovich Vladimirovich author2=Anatol2=AnatolyVladimal斯科罗霍德| title=介绍随机过程理论=图书https://books.com/?id=yJyLzG7N7r8C&pg=PR2 | year=1969 | publisher=Courier Corporation | isbn=978-0-486-69387-3 | page=150}</ref><ref name=“Todorovic2012page19”>{cite book | author=Petar Todorovic | title=随机过程及其应用简介| url=图书https://books.com/?第1249页{jqbn=1240页{jqbn=1240第1页{jqbn=1240第1页,第1页,第1页=图书https://books.com/?id=kWEwk1UL42AC |年份=2005 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-85233-892-3 | page=340}</ref><br />
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The definition of separability{{efn|The definition of separability for a continuous-time real-valued stochastic process can be stated in other ways.<ref name="Billingsley2008page526">{{cite book|author=Patrick Billingsley|title=Probability and Measure|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyXqOXyxEeIC|year=2008|publisher=Wiley India Pvt. Limited|isbn=978-81-265-1771-8|pages=526–527}}</ref><ref name="Borovkov2013page535">{{cite book|author=Alexander A. Borovkov|title=Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRk_AAAAQBAJ&pg|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-5201-9|page=535}}</ref>}} can also be stated for other index sets and state spaces,<ref name="GusakKukush2010page22">{{harvtxt|Gusak|Kukush|Kulik|Mishura|2010}}, p. 22</ref> such as in the case of random fields, where the index set as well as the state space can be <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref name="AdlerTaylor2009page7"/><ref name="Adler2010page14"/><br />
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可分离性的定义{efn |连续时间实值随机过程的可分性定义可以用其他方式表述。<ref name=“Billingsley2008page526”>{cite book | author=Patrick Billingsley | title=Probability and Measure | url=图书https://books.com/?id=QyXqOXyxEeIC |年份=2008 | publisher=Wiley India私人有限公司| isbn=978-81-265-1771-8 | pages=526-527}</ref><ref name=“Borovkov2013page535”>{引用图书|作者=Alexander A.Borovkov | title=Probability Theory |网址=图书https://books.com/?id=hRk_AAAAQBAJ&pg | year=2013;publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4471-5201-9 | page=535}}</ref>}}}也可以为其他索引集和状态空间而声明,<ref name=“gusakukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukush201Page22”>{{{harvvxt Gusak kukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukukuku在随机场的情况下,其中,索引集和状态空间可以是<math>n</math>维欧几里德空间。<ref name=“adlertaylor2009 page7”/><ref name=“Adler2010page14”/><br />
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In 1933 Andrei Kolmogorov published in German, his book on the foundations of probability theory titled Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung,{{efn|Later translated into English and published in 1950 as Foundations of the Theory of Probability<br />
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1933年 Andrei Kolmogorov 出版了一本关于概率论基础的书,名为 grundbigriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung,1950年被翻译成英文并出版为概率论基础<br />
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The concept of separability of a stochastic process was introduced by [[Joseph Doob]],<ref name="Ito2006page32"/>. The underlying idea of separability is to make a countable set of points of the index set determine the properties of the stochastic process.<ref name="Billingsley2008page526"/> Any stochastic process with a countable index set already meets the separability conditions, so discrete-time stochastic processes are always separable.<ref name="Doob1990page56">{{cite book|author=Joseph L. Doob|title=Stochastic processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrsrAAAAYAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Wiley|pages=56}}</ref> A theorem by Doob, sometimes known as Doob's separability theorem, says that any real-valued continuous-time stochastic process has a separable modification.<ref name="Ito2006page32"/><ref name="Todorovic2012page19"/><ref name="Khoshnevisan2006page155">{{cite book|author=Davar Khoshnevisan|title=Multiparameter Processes: An Introduction to Random Fields|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XADpBwAAQBAJ|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-21631-7|page=155}}</ref> Versions of this theorem also exist for more general stochastic processes with index sets and state spaces other than the real line.<ref name="Skorokhod2005page93"/><br />
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随机过程可分性的概念是由[[Joseph Doob]],<ref name=“Ito2006page32”/>提出的。可分性的基本思想是使指标集的可数点集决定随机过程的性质,因此离散时间随机过程总是可分离的=图书https://books.com/?id=nrsraaayaaj | year=1990 | publisher=Wiley | pages=56}</ref>Doob的一个定理,有时被称为Doob的可分性定理,表示任何实值连续时间随机过程都有一个可分离的修改。<ref name=“Ito2006page32”/><ref name=“Todorovic2012page19”/><ref name=“Khoshnivesan2006page155”>{cite book | author=Davar khoshnivesan | title=Multiparameter Processes:随机字段简介| url=图书https://books.com/?id=XADpBwAAQBAJ | year=2006 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-21631-7 | page=155}</ref>该定理的版本也适用于具有索引集和状态空间而非实线的更一般的随机过程。<ref name=“skorokood205page93”/><br />
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Mathematician [[Joseph Doob did early work on the theory of stochastic processes, making fundamental contributions, particularly in the theory of martingales. Starting in the 1940s, Kiyosi Itô published papers developing the field of stochastic calculus, which involves stochastic integrals and stochastic differential equations based on the Wiener or Brownian motion process.<br />
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数学家[约瑟夫 · 杜布在随机过程理论方面做了早期的工作,作出了基本的贡献,尤其是在鞅理论方面。从20世纪40年代开始,Kiyosi itô 发表了论文,拓展了随机分析的研究领域,包括随机积分和基于 Wiener 或 Brownian 运动过程的随机微分方程。<br />
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====Independence独立性====<br />
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Also starting in the 1940s, connections were made between stochastic processes, particularly martingales, and the mathematical field of potential theory, with early ideas by Shizuo Kakutani and then later work by Joseph Doob.<br />
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同样从20世纪40年代开始,随机过程,特别是鞅,和势场理论的数学领域之间建立了联系,早期的思想由 Shizuo Kakutani 提出,后来由 Joseph Doob 提出。<br />
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Two stochastic processes <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> defined on the same probability space <math>(\Omega,\mathcal{F},P)</math> with the same index set <math>T</math> are said be '''independent''' if for all <math>n \in \mathbb{N}</math> and for every choice of epochs <math>t_1,\ldots,t_n \in T</math>, the random vectors <math>\left( X(t_1),\ldots,X(t_n) \right)</math> and <math>\left( Y(t_1),\ldots,Y(t_n) \right)</math> are independent.<ref name=Lapidoth>Lapidoth, Amos, ''A Foundation in Digital Communication'', Cambridge University Press, 2009.</ref>{{rp|p. 515}}<br />
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两个在相同的概率空间<math>(\Omega,\mathcal{F},P)</math>上定义,具有相同索引集<math>T</math>的随机过程<math>X</math>和<math>Y</math>被称为“相互独立”,如果对于所有<math>n \in \mathbb{N}</math>,以及每个特定的<math>t_1,\ldots,t_n \in T</math>,随机向量<math>\left( X(t_1),\ldots,X(t_n) \right)</math> 和<math>\left( Y(t_1),\ldots,Y(t_n) \right)</math>是独立的。<ref name=Lapidoth>Amos,“数字通信基础”,剑桥大学出版社,2009年。</ref>{rp | p.515}}<br />
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In 1953 Doob published his book Stochastic processes, which had a strong influence on the theory of stochastic processes and stressed the importance of measure theory in probability. Doob also chiefly developed the theory of martingales, with later substantial contributions by Paul-André Meyer. Earlier work had been carried out by Sergei Bernstein, Paul Lévy and Jean Ville, the latter adopting the term martingale for the stochastic process. Methods from the theory of martingales became popular for solving various probability problems. Techniques and theory were developed to study Markov processes and then applied to martingales. Conversely, methods from the theory of martingales were established to treat Markov processes. which would later result in Varadhan winning the 2007 Abel Prize. In the 1990s and 2000s the theories of Schramm–Loewner evolution and rough paths were introduced and developed to study stochastic processes and other mathematical objects in probability theory, which respectively resulted in Fields Medals being awarded to Wendelin Werner in 2008 and to Martin Hairer in 2014.<br />
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1953年杜布出版了《随机过程》一书,该书对随机过程理论产生了重大影响,并强调了概率测度理论的重要性。Doob 还主要发展了鞅理论,后来保罗-安德烈 · 迈耶做出了重大贡献。早期的工作是由 Sergei Bernstein,Paul Lévy 和 Jean Ville 完成的,Jean Ville 采用了鞅这个术语来称呼随机过程。从鞅理论开始,解决各种概率问题的方法变得流行起来。研究马尔可夫过程的技术和理论得到了发展,并应用于鞅。相反,从鞅理论中建立了处理马尔可夫过程的方法。后来 Varadhan 赢得了2007年的阿贝尔奖。20世纪90年代和21世纪初,Schramm-Loewner 进化理论和粗糙路径理论被引入并发展起来,用于研究21概率论的随机过程和其他数学对象,结果分别在2008年和2014年分别授予 Wendelin Werner 和 Martin Hairer 菲尔兹奖。<br />
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====Uncorrelatedness不相关====<br />
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Two stochastic processes <math>\left\{X_t\right\}</math> and <math>\left\{Y_t\right\}</math> are called '''uncorrelated''' if their cross-covariance <math>\operatorname{K}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{Y}}(t_1,t_2) = \operatorname{E} \left[ \left( X(t_1)- \mu_X(t_1) \right) \left( Y(t_2)- \mu_Y(t_2) \right) \right]</math> is zero for all times.<ref name=KunIlPark>Kun Il Park, Fundamentals of Probability and Stochastic Processes with Applications to Communications, Springer, 2018, 978-3-319-68074-3</ref>{{rp|p. 142}} Formally:<br />
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两个随机过程<math>\left\{X_t\right\}</math>和<math>\left\{Y_t\right\}</math> 称为“不相关的”的,如果它们的互协方差<math>\operatorname{K}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{Y}}(t_1,t_2) = \operatorname{E} \left[ \left( X(t_1)- \mu_X(t_1) \right) \left( Y(t_2)- \mu_Y(t_2) \right) \right]</math>始终为零。<ref name=KunIlPark>Kun Il Park,《概率与随机过程基础与通信应用》,Springer,2018,978-3-319-68074-3</ref>{{rp|p. 142}} 最后:<br />
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The theory of stochastic processes still continues to be a focus of research, with yearly international conferences on the topic of stochastic processes.<br />
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随机过程理论仍然是研究的焦点,每年都有关于随机过程的国际会议。<br />
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:<math>\left\{X_t\right\},\left\{Y_t\right\} \text{ uncorrelated} \quad \iff \quad \operatorname{K}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{Y}}(t_1,t_2) = 0 \quad \forall t_1,t_2</math>.<br />
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The Bernoulli process, which can serve as a mathematical model for flipping a biased coin, is possibly the first stochastic process to have been studied. Bernoulli's work, including the Bernoulli process, were published in his book Ars Conjectandi in 1713.<br />
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伯努利过程可以作为一个数学模型来抛出一个有偏见的硬币,它可能是第一个被研究的随机过程。伯努利的著作,包括《伯努利过程,于1713年在他的书《猜测》中出版。<br />
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====Independence implies uncorrelatedness独立意味着不相关====<br />
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If two stochastic processes <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math> are independent, then they are also uncorrelated.<ref name=KunIlPark/>{{rp|p. 151}}<br />
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如果两个随机过程<math>X</math>和<math>Y</math>是独立的,那么它们也是不相关的<br />
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In 1905 Karl Pearson coined the term random walk while posing a problem describing a random walk on the plane, which was motivated by an application in biology, but such problems involving random walks had already been studied in other fields. Certain gambling problems that were studied centuries earlier can be considered as problems involving random walks. and is an example of a random walk with absorbing barriers. Pascal, Fermat and Huyens all gave numerical solutions to this problem without detailing their methods, and then more detailed solutions were presented by Jakob Bernoulli and Abraham de Moivre.<br />
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1905年,卡尔 · 皮尔森在提出一个描述平面上随机漫步的问题时,创造了'''<font color="#ff8000"> 随机漫步Random walk</font>'''这个术语,这个问题的动机是生物学中的一个应用,但是这种涉及随机漫步的问题已经在其他领域得到了研究。几个世纪前研究过的某些赌博问题可以被认为是涉及随机漫步的问题。这是一个带有吸收屏障的随机漫步的例子。和 Huyens 都给出了这个问题的数值解,但没有详细介绍他们的方法,然后 Jakob Bernoulli 和亚伯拉罕·棣莫弗提供了更详细的解。<br />
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====Orthogonality正交性====<br />
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Two stochastic processes <math>\left\{X_t\right\}</math> and <math>\left\{Y_t\right\}</math> are called '''orthogonal''' if their cross-correlation <math>\operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{Y}}(t_1,t_2) = \operatorname{E}[X(t_1) \overline{Y(t_2)}]</math> is zero for all times.<ref name=KunIlPark/>{{rp|p. 142}} Formally:<br />
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由</math>和<math>\left\{Y Y{R}{mathbf{math>\ left\{YY{right\}</math>和<math>\left\{Y Y{right\}</math>两个随机过程<数学>\operatorname{R{mathbf{mathbf{X}\mathbf{Y}}(t 1、t U2)的=\operatorname{E{E}[X(t(t U1)1)\顶顶天{Y(t〈2)右}}</math>如果它们的相互关联<正交{正交ref name=KunIlPark/>{{rp | p.142}}形式上:<br />
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For random walks in <math>n</math>-dimensional integer lattices, George Pólya published in 1919 and 1921 work, where he studied the probability of a symmetric random walk returning to a previous position in the lattice. Pólya showed that a symmetric random walk, which has an equal probability to advance in any direction in the lattice, will return to a previous position in the lattice an infinite number of times with probability one in one and two dimensions, but with probability zero in three or higher dimensions.<br />
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对于 < math > n </math > 维整数格中的随机游动,George Pólya 在1919年和1921年发表的工作中,他研究了对称随机游动回到格中以前位置的概率。Pólya 证明了对称随机游动,它在格子中向任何方向前进的概率相等,将无限次地回到格子中的一个先前的位置,概率为1在一维和2维,但概率为0在三维或更高维。<br />
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:<math>\left\{X_t\right\},\left\{Y_t\right\} \text{ orthogonal} \quad \iff \quad \operatorname{R}_{\mathbf{X}\mathbf{Y}}(t_1,t_2) = 0 \quad \forall t_1,t_2</math>.<br />
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The Wiener process or Brownian motion process has its origins in different fields including statistics, finance and physics. The work is now considered as an early discovery of the statistical method known as Kalman filtering, but the work was largely overlooked. It is thought that the ideas in Thiele's paper were too advanced to have been understood by the broader mathematical and statistical community at the time. in order to model price changes on the Paris Bourse, a stock exchange, without knowing the work of Thiele. and Bachelier's thesis is now considered pioneering in the field of financial mathematics.<br />
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维纳过程或布朗运动过程起源于不同的领域,包括统计学、金融学和物理学。这项工作现在被认为是卡尔曼滤波统计方法的早期发现,但是这项工作在很大程度上被忽视了。人们认为,蒂勒论文中的观点太过先进,当时更广泛的数学和统计学界无法理解。为了模拟巴黎证券交易所的价格变化,不知道蒂勒的工作。巴切利耶的论文现在被认为是金融数学领域的先驱。<br />
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====Skorokhod space斯科罗霍德空间====<br />
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{{Main|Skorokhod space}}<br />
{{Main |斯科罗霍德空间}}<br />
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Einstein's work, as well as experimental results obtained by Jean Perrin, later inspired Norbert Wiener in the 1920s to use a type of measure theory, developed by Percy Daniell, and Fourier analysis to prove the existence of the Wiener process as a mathematical object. There are a number of claims for early uses or discoveries of the Poisson<br />
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爱因斯坦的工作,以及 Jean Perrin 获得的实验结果,后来激发了 Norbert Wiener 在20世纪20年代使用一种由 Percy Daniell 和傅立叶变换家族中的关系提出的测量理论来证明 Wiener 过程作为一个数学对象的存在。关于泊松鱼的早期用途和发现,有许多说法<br />
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A '''Skorokhod space''', also written as '''Skorohod space''', is a mathematical space of all the functions that are right-continuous with left limits, defined on some interval of the real line such as <math>[0,1]</math> or <math>[0,\infty)</math>, and take values on the real line or on some metric space.<ref name="Whitt2006page78">{{cite book|author=Ward Whitt|title=Stochastic-Process Limits: An Introduction to Stochastic-Process Limits and Their Application to Queues|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LkQOBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-21748-2|pages=78–79}}</ref><ref name="GusakKukush2010page24">{{harvtxt|Gusak|Kukush|Kulik|Mishura|2010}}, p. 24</ref><ref name="Bogachev2007Vol2page53">{{cite book|author=Vladimir I. Bogachev|title=Measure Theory (Volume 2)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CoSIe7h5mTsC|year=2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-34514-5|page=53}}</ref> Such functions are known as càdlàg or cadlag functions, based on the acronym of the French expression ''continue à droite, limite à gauche'', due to the functions being right-continuous with left limits.<ref name="Whitt2006page78"/><ref name="Klebaner2005page4">{{cite book|author=Fima C. Klebaner|title=Introduction to Stochastic Calculus with Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C|year=2005|publisher=Imperial College Press|isbn=978-1-86094-555-7|page=4}}</ref> A Skorokhod function space, introduced by [[Anatoliy Skorokhod]],<ref name="Bogachev2007Vol2page53"/> is often denoted with the letter <math>D</math>,<ref name="Whitt2006page78"/><ref name="GusakKukush2010page24"/><ref name="Bogachev2007Vol2page53"/><ref name="Klebaner2005page4"/> so the function space is also referred to as space <math>D</math>.<ref name="Whitt2006page78"/><ref name="Asmussen2003page420">{{cite book|author=Søren Asmussen|title=Applied Probability and Queues|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BeYaTxesKy0C|year=2003|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-00211-8|page=420}}</ref><ref name="Billingsley2013page121">{{cite book|author=Patrick Billingsley|title=Convergence of Probability Measures|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ItqtwaWZZQC|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-62596-5|page=121}}</ref> The notation of this function space can also include the interval on which all the càdlàg functions are defined, so, for example, <math>D[0,1]</math> denotes the space of càdlàg functions defined on the [[unit interval]] <math>[0,1]</math>.<ref name="Klebaner2005page4"/><ref name="Billingsley2013page121"/><ref name="Bass2011page34">{{cite book|author=Richard F. Bass|title=Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ll0T7PIkcKMC|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-50147-7|page=34}}</ref><br />
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''skorokod space''也写为''Skorohod space'',是所有右连续左极限的函数的数学空间,定义在实线的某个区间上,例如<math>[0,1]</math>或<math>[0,\infty)</math>,取实线或度量空间上的值=图书https://books.com/?id=LkQOBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 | year=2006 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-21748-2 |页=78–79}</ref><ref name=“gusakkush2010page24”>{harvxt | Gusak | kush | Kulik | Mishura | 2010},p、 24</ref><ref name=“Bogachev2007Vol2page53”>{引用图书|作者=Vladimir I.Bogachev | title=测量理论(第2卷)|网址=图书https://books.com/?id=CoSIe7h5mTsC | year=2007 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-540-34514-5 | page=53}</ref>这些函数被称为cádLag或cadlag函数,这是基于法语表达式“continue a droite,limiteégauche”的首字母缩略词,因为这些函数是右连续的,具有左极限。<ref name=“Whitt2006page78”/><refname=“Klebaner2005page4”>{cite book | author=Fima C.Klebaner | title=随机微积分及其应用简介|网址=图书https://books.com/?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C | year=2005 | publisher=Imperial College Press | isbn=978-1-86094-555-7 | page=4}</ref>由[[Anatoliy Skorokod]]引入的Skorokod函数空间,<ref name=“Bogachev2007Vol2page53”/>通常用字母<math>D</math>表示,<ref name=“Whitt2006page78”/><ref name=“GusakKukush2010page24”/><ref name=“Bogachev2007Vol2page53”/><ref name=“Klebaner2005page4”/>因此函数空间也被称为空间<math>D</math><ref name=“Whitt2006page78”/><ref name=“Asmussen2003page420”>{cite book | author=S|ren Asmussen | title=应用概率和队列| url=图书https://books.com/?id=BeYaTxesKy0C | year=2003 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-00211-8 | page=420}</ref><ref name=“Billingsley2013page121”>{cite book |作者=Patrick Billingsley | title=Convergence of Probability Measures|网址=图书https://books.com/?id=6ItqtwaWZZQC | year=2013 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-62596-5 | page=121}</ref>此函数空间的表示法还可以包括定义所有cádlág函数的间隔,因此,例如,<math>D[0,1]</math>表示在[[单位间隔]]<math>[0上定义的c|dla g函数的空间,1] </math><ref name=“Klebaner2005page4”/><ref name=“Billingsley2013page121”/><ref name=“Bass2011page34”>{cite book | author=Richard F.Bass | title=random Processes |网址=图书https://books.com/?id=Ll0T7PIkcKMC |年=2011 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-139-50147-7 | page=34}</ref><br />
<br />
process.<br />
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过程。<br />
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Skorokhod function spaces are frequently used in the theory of stochastic processes because it often assumed that the sample functions of continuous-time stochastic processes belong to a Skorokhod space.<ref name="Bogachev2007Vol2page53"/><ref name="Asmussen2003page420"/> Such spaces contain continuous functions, which correspond to sample functions of the Wiener process. But the space also has functions with discontinuities, which means that the sample functions of stochastic processes with jumps, such as the Poisson process (on the real line), are also members of this space.<ref name="Billingsley2013page121"/><ref name="BinghamKiesel2013page154">{{cite book|author1=Nicholas H. Bingham|author2=Rüdiger Kiesel|title=Risk-Neutral Valuation: Pricing and Hedging of Financial Derivatives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AOIlBQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-3856-3|page=154}}</ref><br />
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在随机过程理论中,由于通常假定连续时间随机过程的样本函数属于一个Skorokod空间,因此经常使用Skorokod函数空间,对应于Wiener过程的样本函数。但是空间也有间断函数,这意味着随机过程的样本函数具有跳跃性,例如泊松过程(在实线上),同时也是这一领域的成员。<ref name=“Billingsley2013page121”/><ref name=“BinghamKiesel2013page154”>{cite book | author1=Nicholas H.Bingham | author2=Rüdiger Kiesel | title=风险中性估值:金融衍生品的定价和对冲| url=图书https://books.com/?id=AOIlBQAAQBAJ |年份=2013 | publisher=Springer科学与商业媒体| isbn=978-1-4471-3856-3 | page=154}</ref><br />
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Another discovery occurred in Denmark in 1909 when A.K. Erlang derived the Poisson distribution when developing a mathematical model for the number of incoming phone calls in a finite time interval. Erlang was not at the time aware of Poisson's earlier work and assumed that the number phone calls arriving in each interval of time were independent to each other. He then found the limiting case, which is effectively recasting the Poisson distribution as a limit of the binomial distribution. Markov was interested in studying an extension of independent random sequences. which had been commonly regarded as a requirement for such mathematical laws to hold. Starting in 1928, Maurice Fréchet became interested in Markov chains, eventually resulting in him publishing in 1938 a detailed study on Markov chains.<br />
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另一个发现发生在1909年的丹麦。在开发一个有限时间间隔内接听电话数量的数学模型时,Erlang 得出了这个泊松分佈。当时 Erlang 并不知道 Poisson 的早期工作,并且假设每个时间间隔内到达的号码电话是相互独立的。然后他发现了极限情况,这是有效地重铸泊松分佈作为一个二项分布的限制。马尔科夫对研究独立随机序列的推广很感兴趣。这被普遍认为是这样的数学定律的一个必要条件。从1928年开始,莫里斯 · 弗雷切特对马尔可夫链产生了兴趣,最终导致他在1938年发表了一篇关于马尔可夫链的详细研究。<br />
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====Regularity规律性====<br />
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Andrei Kolmogorov developed in a 1931 paper a large part of the early theory of continuous-time Markov processes. He introduced and studied a particular set of Markov processes known as diffusion processes, where he derived a set of differential equations describing the processes. Independent of Kolmogorov's work, Sydney Chapman derived in a 1928 paper an equation, now called the Chapman–Kolmogorov equation, in a less mathematically rigorous way than Kolmogorov, while studying Brownian movement. The differential equations are now called the Kolmogorov equations or the Kolmogorov–Chapman equations. Other mathematicians who contributed significantly to the foundations of Markov processes include William Feller, starting in the 1930s, and then later Eugene Dynkin, starting in the 1950s. In addition to Lévy, Khinchin and Kolomogrov, early fundamental contributions to the theory of Lévy processes were made by Bruno de Finetti and Kiyosi Itô.<br />
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安德烈 · 科尔莫戈罗夫在1931年的一篇论文中发展了早期连续时间马尔可夫过程理论的很大一部分。他介绍并研究了一组特殊的马尔可夫过程,称为扩散过程,在这组过程中他推导出了一组描述这些过程的微分方程。在研究布朗运动时,Sydney Chapman 在1928年的一篇论文中,独立于 Kolmogorov 的工作,用一种比 Kolmogorov 更不严密的数学方法,推导出了一个方程,现在称为 Chapman-Kolmogorov 方程。这些微分方程现在被称为 Kolmogorov 方程或 Kolmogorov-Chapman 方程。其他对马尔可夫过程的基础做出了重大贡献的数学家包括威廉 · 费勒,从20世纪30年代开始,然后是尤金 · 戴金,从20世纪50年代开始。除了 Lévy,Khinchin 和 Kolomogrov,早期对 Lévy 过程理论的根本性贡献是由德福内梯和 Kiyosi itô。<br />
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In the context of mathematical construction of stochastic processes, the term '''regularity''' is used when discussing and assuming certain conditions for a stochastic process to resolve possible construction issues.<ref name="Borovkov2013page532">{{cite book|author=Alexander A. Borovkov|title=Probability Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRk_AAAAQBAJ&pg|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-5201-9|page=532}}</ref><ref name="Khoshnevisan2006page148to165">{{cite book|author=Davar Khoshnevisan|title=Multiparameter Processes: An Introduction to Random Fields|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XADpBwAAQBAJ|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-21631-7|pages=148–165}}</ref> For example, to study stochastic processes with uncountable index sets, it is assumed that the stochastic process adheres to some type of regularity condition such as the sample functions being continuous.<ref name="Todorovic2012page22">{{cite book|author=Petar Todorovic|title=An Introduction to Stochastic Processes and Their Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpjqBwAAQBAJ&pg=PP5|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4613-9742-7|page=22}}</ref><ref name="Whitt2006page79">{{cite book|author=Ward Whitt|title=Stochastic-Process Limits: An Introduction to Stochastic-Process Limits and Their Application to Queues|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LkQOBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-21748-2|page=79}}</ref><br />
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在随机过程的数学构造中,当讨论和假设随机过程的某些条件以解决可能的构造问题时,使用术语“正则性”。<ref name=“Borovkov2013page532”>{cite book | author=Alexander a.Borovkov | title=Probability Theory | url=图书https://books.com/?id=hRk|AAAAQBAJ&pg | year=2013 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4471-5201-9 | page=532}</ref><ref name=“khoshnivesan2006page148to165”>{cite book | author=Davar khoshnivesan | title=multiple Processes:An Introduction to Random Fields |网址=图书https://books.com/?id=XADpBwAAQBAJ | year=2006 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-21631-7 | pages=148–165}}</ref>例如,研究具有不可数索引集的随机过程,假设随机过程服从某种正则条件,例如样本函数是连续的=图书https://books.com/?id=XpjqBwAAQBAJ&pg=PP5 | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4613-9742-7 | page=22}</ref><ref name=“Whitt2006page79”>{cite book | author=Ward Whitt | title=随机过程限制:随机过程限制及其在队列中的应用简介| url=图书https://books.com/?id=LkQOBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 | year=2006 | publisher=Springer科学与商业媒体| isbn=978-0-387-21748-2 | page=79}</ref><br />
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Another approach involves defining a collection of random variables to have specific finite-dimensional distributions, and then using Kolmogorov's existence theorem to prove a corresponding stochastic process exists. says that if any finite-dimensional distributions satisfy two conditions, known as consistency conditions, then there exists a stochastic process with those finite-dimensional distributions. This means that the distribution of the stochastic process does not, necessarily, specify uniquely the properties of the sample functions of the stochastic process.<br />
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另一种方法是定义一组具有特定有限维分布的随机变量,然后用 Kolmogorov 的存在性定理证明相应的随机过程存在。他说,如果任何有限维分布满足两个条件,也就是所谓的一致性条件,那么就存在这些有限维分布的随机过程。这意味着随机过程的分布并不一定唯一地指定随机过程的样本函数的属性。<br />
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==Further examples更多示例==<br />
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Another problem is that functionals of continuous-time process that rely upon an uncountable number of points of the index set may not be measurable, so the probabilities of certain events may not be well-defined. Separability ensures that infinite-dimensional distributions determine the properties of sample functions by requiring that sample functions are essentially determined by their values on a dense countable set of points in the index set. Furthermore, if a stochastic process is separable, then functionals of an uncountable number of points of the index set are measurable and their probabilities can be studied. for a continuous-time stochastic process with any metric space as its state space. For the construction of such a stochastic process, it is assumed that the sample functions of the stochastic process belong to some suitable function space, which is usually the Skorokhod space consisting of all right-continuous functions with left limits. This approach is now more used than the separability assumption, but such a stochastic process based on this approach will be automatically separable.<br />
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另一个问题是,连续时间过程的泛函依赖于指数集中无法计算的点数,因此某些事件的概率可能无法很好地定义。可分性保证了无穷维分布决定样本函数的性质,它要求样本函数本质上是由指数集中的稠密可数点集上的值决定的。此外,如果随机过程是可分的,那么指数集上不可数个点的泛函是可测的,并且可以研究它们的概率。对于任意度量空间作为状态空间的连续时间随机过程。为了构造这样一个随机过程,我们假设随机过程的样本函数属于某个适当的函数空间,这个空间通常是由所有右连续函数和左极限组成的 Skorokhod 空间。这种方法现在比可分离性假设更常用,但是基于这种方法的随机过程可自动分离。<br />
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==='''<font color="#ff8000"> 马尔可夫过程与链Markov processes and chains</font>'''===<br />
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{{Main|Markov process}}<br />
{{Main |马尔可夫过程}}<br />
Although less used, the separability assumption is considered more general because every stochastic process has a separable version. For example, separability is assumed when constructing and studying random fields, where the collection of random variables is now indexed by sets other than the real line such as <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space.<br />
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尽管很少使用,但是可分性假设被认为是更一般的,因为每个随机过程都有一个可分离的版本。例如,在构造和研究随机场时假设可分性,其中随机变量的集合现在由实线以外的集合索引,如 <math>n</math> 维欧氏空间。<br />
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Markov processes are stochastic processes, traditionally in [[Discrete time and continuous time|discrete or continuous time]], that have the Markov property, which means the next value of the Markov process depends on the current value, but it is conditionally independent of the previous values of the stochastic process. In other words, the behavior of the process in the future is stochastically independent of its behavior in the past, given the current state of the process.<ref name="Serfozo2009page2">{{cite book|author=Richard Serfozo|title=Basics of Applied Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBBRiuxTN0QC|year=2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-89332-5|page=2}}</ref><ref name="Rozanov2012page58">{{cite book|author=Y.A. Rozanov|title=Markov Random Fields|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGUECAAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4613-8190-7|page=58}}</ref><br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 马尔可夫过程Markov processes </font>'''是一种随机过程,传统上在[[离散时间和连续时间|离散或连续时间]]中,具有马尔可夫特性,即马尔可夫过程的下一个值取决于当前值,但它与随机过程的先前值条件无关。换句话说,给定进程的当前状态,进程在未来的行为与它过去的行为是随机独立的。<ref name=“Serfozo2009page2”>{cite book | author=Richard Serfozo | title=Basics of Applied randocial Processes | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBBRiuxTN0QC | year=2009 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-540-89332-5 | page=2}</ref><ref name=“Rozanov2012page58”>{cite book |作者=Y.A.Rozanov | title=Markov Random Fields| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wguecaaqbaj | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4613-8190-7 | page=58}</ref><br />
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The Brownian motion process and the Poisson process (in one dimension) are both examples of Markov processes<ref name="Ross1996page235and358">{{cite book|author=Sheldon M. Ross|title=Stochastic processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImUPAQAAMAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-12062-9|pages=235, 358}}</ref> in continuous time, while [[random walk]]s on the integers and the [[gambler's ruin]] problem are examples of Markov processes in discrete time.<ref name="Florescu2014page373">{{cite book|author=Ionut Florescu|title=Probability and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22|year=2014|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-59320-2|pages=373, 374}}</ref><ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page49">{{cite book|author1=Samuel Karlin|author2=Howard E. Taylor|title=A First Course in Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC|year=2012|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-057041-9|page=49}}</ref><br />
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布朗运动过程和泊松过程(一维)都是马尔可夫过程的例子<ref name="Ross1996page235and358">{{cite book|author=Sheldon M. Ross|title=Stochastic processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImUPAQAAMAAJ |年=1996 | publisher=Wiley | isbn=978-0-471-12062-9 | pages=235358}</ref>,整数上的[[随机游走]]和[[赌徒破产]]问题是离散时间中马尔可夫过程的例子<ref name="Florescu2014page373">{{cite book|author=Ionut Florescu|title=Probability and Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5xEBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR22 | year=2014 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-59320-2 | pages=373,374}</ref><ref name=“KarlinTaylor2012page49”>{cite book | author1=Samuel Karlin | author2=Howard E.Taylor | title=随机过程第一门课程|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC |年份=2012 | publisher=学术出版社| isbn=978-0-08-057041-9 | page=49}</ref><br />
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A Markov chain is a type of Markov process that has either discrete [[state space]] or discrete index set (often representing time), but the precise definition of a Markov chain varies.<ref name="Asmussen2003page7">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BeYaTxesKy0C|title=Applied Probability and Queues|year=2003|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-00211-8|page=7|author=Søren Asmussen}}</ref> For example, it is common to define a Markov chain as a Markov process in either [[Continuous and discrete variables|discrete or continuous time]] with a countable state space (thus regardless of the nature of time),<ref name="Parzen1999page188">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0mB2CQAAQBAJ|title=Stochastic Processes|year=2015|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-79688-8|page=188|author=Emanuel Parzen}}</ref><ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page29">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC|title=A First Course in Stochastic Processes|year=2012|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-057041-9|pages=29, 30|author1=Samuel Karlin|author2=Howard E. Taylor}}</ref><ref name="Lamperti1977chap6">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pd4cvgAACAAJ|title=Stochastic processes: a survey of the mathematical theory|publisher=Springer-Verlag|year=1977|isbn=978-3-540-90275-1|pages=106–121|author=John Lamperti}}</ref><ref name="Ross1996page174and231">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImUPAQAAMAAJ|title=Stochastic processes|publisher=Wiley|year=1996|isbn=978-0-471-12062-9|pages=174, 231|author=Sheldon M. Ross}}</ref> but it has been also common to define a Markov chain as having discrete time in either countable or continuous state space (thus regardless of the state space).<ref name="Asmussen2003page7" /> It has been argued that the first definition of a Markov chain, where it has discrete time, now tends to be used, despite the second definition having been used by researchers like [[Joseph Doob]] and [[Kai Lai Chung]].<ref name="MeynTweedie2009">{{cite book|author1=Sean Meyn|author2=Richard L. Tweedie|title=Markov Chains and Stochastic Stability|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Md7RnYEPkJwC|year=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-73182-9|page=19}}</ref><br />
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马尔可夫链是一种具有离散[[状态空间]]或离散索引集(通常表示时间)的马尔可夫过程,但马尔可夫链的精确定义各不相同<ref name="Asmussen2003page7">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BeYaTxesKy0C|title=Applied Probability and Queues|year=2003|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-00211-8|page=7|author=Søren Asmussen}}</ref>例如,通常将马尔可夫链定义为具有可数状态空间的[[连续变量|离散或连续时间]]中的马尔可夫过程(因此不管时间的性质),<ref name=“Parzen1999page188”>{cite book |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=0mB2CQAAQBAJ | title=随机过程|年份=2015 | publisher=Courier Dover Publications | isbn=978-0-486-79688-8 | page=188 | author=Emanuel Parzen}</ref><ref name=“KarlinTaylor2012page29”>{cite book|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC | title=A First Course in randocial Processes | year=2012 | publisher=学术出版社| isbn=978-0-08-057041-9 | pages=29,30 | author1=Samuel Karlin | author2=Howard E.Taylor}</ref><ref name=“Lamperti1977chap6”>{cite book|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=pd4cvgaacaj | title=随机过程:数学理论综述| publisher=Springer Verlag | year=1977 | isbn=978-3-540-90275-1 | pages=106–121 | author=John Lamperti}</ref><ref name=“Ross1996page174and231”>{cite book|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImUPAQAAMAAJ | title=随机过程| publisher=Wiley | year=1996 | isbn=978-0-471-12062-9 | pages=174,231 | author=Sheldon M.Ross}</ref>但将马尔可夫链定义为在可数状态空间或连续状态空间(因此与状态空间无关)中具有离散时间也是常见的马尔可夫链的第一个定义,它有离散时间,现在倾向于使用,尽管第二个定义已经被[[Joseph Doob]]和[[Kai Lai Chung]]等研究人员所使用。<ref name=“MeynTweedie2009”>{cite book | author1=Sean Meyn | author2=Richard L.Tweedie | title=Markov链和随机稳定性| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Md7RnYEPkJwC | year=2009 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-73182-9 | page=19}</ref><br />
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Markov processes form an important class of stochastic processes and have applications in many areas.<ref name="LatoucheRamaswami1999"/><ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page47">{{cite book|author1=Samuel Karlin|author2=Howard E. Taylor|title=A First Course in Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC|year=2012|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-057041-9|page=47}}</ref> For example, they are the basis for a general stochastic simulation method known as [[Markov chain Monte Carlo]], which is used for simulating random objects with specific probability distributions, and has found application in [[Bayesian statistics]].<ref name="RubinsteinKroese2011page225">{{cite book|author1=Reuven Y. Rubinstein|author2=Dirk P. Kroese|title=Simulation and the Monte Carlo Method|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yWcvT80gQK4C|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-21052-9|page=225}}</ref><ref name="GamermanLopes2006">{{cite book|author1=Dani Gamerman|author2=Hedibert F. Lopes|title=Markov Chain Monte Carlo: Stochastic Simulation for Bayesian Inference, Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yPvECi_L3bwC|year=2006|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-58488-587-0}}</ref><br />
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马尔可夫过程是一类重要的随机过程,在许多领域有着广泛的应用=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC | year=2012 | publisher=academical Press | isbn=978-0-08-057041-9 | page=47}</ref>例如,它们是一种称为[[Markov chain Monte Carlo]]的一般随机模拟方法的基础,该方法用于模拟具有特定概率分布的随机对象,并在[[Bayesian statistics]].<ref name=“RubinsteinKroese2011page225”>{cite book | author1=Reuven Y.Rubinstein | author2=Dirk P.Kroese | title=Simulation和蒙特卡罗方法url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yWcvT80gQK4C | year=2011 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-21052-9 | page=225}</ref><ref name=“gamerlopes2006”>{引用图书| author1=Dani Gamerman | author2=Hedibert F.Lopes | title=Markov Chain montecarlo:贝叶斯推断随机模拟,第二版|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=yPvECi|L3bwC | year=2006 | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=978-1-58488-587-0}</ref><br />
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The concept of the Markov property was originally for stochastic processes in continuous and discrete time, but the property has been adapted for other index sets such as <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space, which results in collections of random variables known as Markov random fields.<ref name="Rozanov2012page61">{{cite book|author=Y.A. Rozanov|title=Markov Random Fields|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wGUECAAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4613-8190-7|page=61}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Donald L. Snyder|author2=Michael I. Miller|title=Random Point Processes in Time and Space|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_3UBwAAQBAJ|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4612-3166-0|page=27}}</ref><ref name="Bremaud2013page253">{{cite book|author=Pierre Bremaud|title=Markov Chains: Gibbs Fields, Monte Carlo Simulation, and Queues|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jrPVBwAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4757-3124-8|page=253}}</ref><br />
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马尔可夫特性的概念最初是针对连续和离散时间的随机过程,但它也适用于其它指标集,如<math>n</math>维欧氏空间,这导致随机变量的集合被称为马尔可夫随机场。<ref name=“Rozanov2012page61”>{引用图书|作者=Y.A.Rozanov | title=Markov随机场 |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=wguecaaqbaj | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4613-8190-7 | page=61}</ref><ref>{cite book | author1=Donald L.Snyder | author2=Michael I.Miller | title=时空中的随机点过程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c_3UBwAAQBAJ | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4612-3166-0 | page=27}</ref><ref name=“bremaud2013 page253”>{cite book |作者=Pierre Bremaud | title=Markov Chains:Gibbs Fields,montecarlo Simulation,and Queues |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=jrpvwwaaqbaj |年份=2013 | publisher=Springer科学与商业媒体| isbn=978-1-4757-3124-8 | page=253}</ref><br />
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==='''<font color="#ff8000">鞅Martingale</font>'''===<br />
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{{Main|Martingale (probability theory)}}<br />
{{Main |鞅(概率论)}}<br />
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A martingale is a discrete-time or continuous-time stochastic process with the property that, at every instant, given the current value and all the past values of the process, the conditional expectation of every future value is equal to the current value. In discrete time, if this property holds for the next value, then it holds for all future values. The exact mathematical definition of a martingale requires two other conditions coupled with the mathematical concept of a filtration, which is related to the intuition of increasing available information as time passes. Martingales are usually defined to be real-valued,<ref name="Klebaner2005page65">{{cite book|author=Fima C. Klebaner|title=Introduction to Stochastic Calculus with Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C|year=2005|publisher=Imperial College Press|isbn=978-1-86094-555-7|page=65}}</ref><ref name="KaratzasShreve2014page11">{{cite book|author1=Ioannis Karatzas|author2=Steven Shreve|title=Brownian Motion and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5|year=1991|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2|page=11}}</ref><ref name="Williams1991page93">{{cite book|author=David Williams|title=Probability with Martingales|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9saZ0YSi-AC|year=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-40605-5|pages=93, 94}}</ref> but they can also be complex-valued<ref name="Doob1990page292">{{cite book|author=Joseph L. Doob|title=Stochastic processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NrsrAAAAYAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Wiley|pages=292, 293}}</ref> or even more general.<ref name="Pisier2016">{{cite book|author=Gilles Pisier|title=Martingales in Banach Spaces|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n3JNDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-316-67946-3}}</ref><br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">鞅Martingale</font>'''是一个离散时间或连续时间的随机过程,其性质是在给定过程的当前值和所有过去值的情况下,每个未来值的条件期望值等于当前值。在离散时间中,如果此属性适用于下一个值,则它适用于所有未来值。'''<font color="#ff8000">鞅Martingale</font>'''的精确数学定义需要另外两个条件与过滤的数学概念相结合,这与随时间推移增加可用信息的直觉有关。'''<font color="#ff8000">鞅Martingale</font>'''通常被定义为实值,<ref name=“Klebaner2005page65”>{cite book | author=Fima C.Klebaner | title=随机微积分及其应用简介=https://books.google.com/books?id=JYzW0uqQxB0C | year=2005 | publisher=Imperial College Press | isbn=978-1-86094-555-7 | page=65}</ref><ref name=“KaratzasShreve2014page11”>{cite book | author1=Ioannis Karatzas | author2=Steven Shreve | title=布朗运动和随机微积分| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0SgBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5 | year=1991 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-1-4612-0949-2 | page=11}</ref><ref name=“Williams1991page93”>{引用图书|作者=David Williams | title=Probability with鞅| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9saZ0YSi AC | year=1991 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-40605-5 | pages=93,94}</ref>但是它们也可以是复杂值<ref name=“Doob1990page292”>{cite book | author=Joseph L.Doob | title=randouses | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nrsraaayaaj | year=1990 | publisher=Wiley | pages=2929293}</ref>或更一般的。<ref name=“Pisier2016”>{cite book | author=Gilles Pisier | title=Banach空格中的鞅| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n3JNDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4 | year=2016 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-316-67946-3}</ref><br />
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A symmetric random walk and a Wiener process (with zero drift) are both examples of martingales, respectively, in discrete and continuous time.<ref name="Klebaner2005page65"/><ref name="KaratzasShreve2014page11"/> For a [[sequence]] of [[independent and identically distributed]] random variables <math>X_1, X_2, X_3, \dots</math> with zero mean, the stochastic process formed from the successive partial sums <math>X_1,X_1+ X_2, X_1+ X_2+X_3, \dots</math> is a discrete-time martingale.<ref name="Steele2012page12">{{cite book|author=J. Michael Steele|title=Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4|pages=12, 13}}</ref> In this aspect, discrete-time martingales generalize the idea of partial sums of independent random variables.<ref name="HallHeyde2014page2">{{cite book|author1=P. Hall|author2=C. C. Heyde|title=Martingale Limit Theory and Its Application|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqriBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR10|year=2014|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-1-4832-6322-9|page=2}}</ref><br />
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对称随机游动和Wiener过程(具有零漂移)分别是离散时间和连续时间的'''<font color="#ff8000">鞅Martingale</font>'''的例子。<ref name=“Klebaner2005page65”/><ref name=“KaratzasShreve2014page11”/>对于一个[[独立且同分布]]随机变量的[[序列]]<math>X_1, X_2, X_3, \dots</math> 且平均值为零,由连续部分和<math>X_1,X_1+ X_2, X_1+ X_2+X_3, \dots</math> 构成的随机过程是一个离散时间'''<font color="#ff8000">鞅Martingale</font>'''<ref name="Steele2012page12">{{cite book|author=J. Michael Steele|title=Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4|pages=12, 13}}</ref>,离散时间鞅推广了独立随机变量的部分和的概念。<ref name="HallHeyde2014page2">{{cite book|author1=P. Hall|author2=C. C. Heyde|title=Martingale Limit Theory and Its Application|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqriBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR10|year=2014|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-1-4832-6322-9|page=2}}</ref><br />
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Martingales can also be created from stochastic processes by applying some suitable transformations, which is the case for the homogeneous Poisson process (on the real line) resulting in a martingale called the ''compensated Poisson process''.<ref name="KaratzasShreve2014page11"/> Martingales can also be built from other martingales.<ref name="Steele2012page12"/> For example, there are martingales based on the martingale the Wiener process, forming continuous-time martingales.<ref name="Klebaner2005page65"/><ref name="Steele2012page115">{{cite book|author=J. Michael Steele|title=Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4|page=115}}</ref><br />
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通过应用适当的变换,也可以从随机过程中产生'''<font color="#ff8000">鞅Martingale</font>''',这就是齐次泊松过程(在实线上)的情形,其结果是一个称为“补偿泊松过程”的鞅。<ref name=“karatzashreserve2014page11”/>也可以从其他鞅中构建鞅。<ref name=“Steele2012page12”/>例如,有基于鞅的鞅Wiener过程,形成连续时间鞅。<ref name=“Klebaner2005page65”/><ref name=“Steele2012page115”>{cite book | author=J.Michael Steele | title=随机微积分与金融应用=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkbaaqbaj&pg=PR4 | year=2012 | publisher=Springer科学与商业媒体| isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4 | page=115}</ref><br />
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Martingales mathematically formalize the idea of a fair game,<ref name="Ross1996page295">{{cite book|author=Sheldon M. Ross|title=Stochastic processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImUPAQAAMAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-12062-9|page=295}}</ref> and they were originally developed to show that it is not possible to win a fair game.<ref name="Steele2012page11"/> But now they are used in many areas of probability, which is one of the main reasons for studying them.<ref name="Williams1991page93"/><ref name="Steele2012page11">{{cite book|author=J. Michael Steele|title=Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4|page=11}}</ref><ref name="Kallenberg2002page96">{{cite book|author=Olav Kallenberg|title=Foundations of Modern Probability|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6fhXh13OyMC|year=2002|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-95313-7|pages=96}}</ref> Many problems in probability have been solved by finding a martingale in the problem and studying it.<ref name="Steele2012page371">{{cite book|author=J. Michael Steele|title=Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4|page=371}}</ref> Martingales will converge, given some conditions on their moments, so they are often used to derive convergence results, due largely to [[martingale convergence theorem]]s.<ref name="HallHeyde2014page2"/><ref name="Steele2012page22">{{cite book|author=J. Michael Steele|title=Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4|page=22}}</ref><ref name="GrimmettStirzaker2001page336">{{cite book|author1=Geoffrey Grimmett|author2=David Stirzaker|title=Probability and Random Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G3ig-0M4wSIC|year=2001|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-857222-0|page=336}}</ref><br />
<br />
数学上的鞅形式化了公平博弈的概念,<ref name=“Ross1996page295”>{cite book | author=Sheldon M.Ross | title=random processes | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ImUPAQAAMAAJ | year=1996 | publisher=Wiley | isbn=978-0-471-12062-9 | page=295}</ref>它们最初的开发目的是表明不可能赢得一场公平的比赛。<ref name=“Steele2012page11”/>但现在它们被用于许多概率领域,这是研究它们的主要原因之一<ref name=“Williams1991page93”/><ref name=“Steele2012page11”>{cite book | author=J.Michael Steele | title=随机微积分和金融应用|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkbaaqbaj&pg=PR4 | year=2012 | publisher=Springer科学与商业媒体| isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4 | page=11}</ref></ref><ref name=“Kallenberg 2002page96”>{cite book |作者=Olav Kallenberg | title=Foundations of Modern Probability |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=L6fhXh13OyMC | year=2002 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-95313-7 | pages=96}</ref>许多概率问题已经通过在问题中找到鞅并加以研究而得到解决。<ref name=“Steele2012page371”>{cite book | author=J.Michael Steele| title=随机微积分和金融应用程序| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkbaaqbaj&pg=PR4 | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4 | page=371}}</ref>在给定鞅矩的条件下,鞅会收敛,因此经常使用鞅得到收敛结果,这主要是由于[[鞅收敛定理]]s。<ref name="HallHeyde2014page2"/><ref name="Steele2012page22">{{cite book|author=J. Michael Steele|title=Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4|page=22}}</ref><ref name="GrimmettStirzaker2001page336">{{cite book|author1=Geoffrey Grimmett|author2=David Stirzaker|title=Probability and Random Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G3ig-0M4wSIC|year=2001|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-857222-0|page=336}}</ref><br />
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Martingales have many applications in statistics, but it has been remarked that its use and application are not as widespread as it could be in the field of statistics, particularly statistical inference.<ref name="GlassermanKou2006">{{cite journal|last1=Glasserman|first1=Paul|last2=Kou|first2=Steven|title=A Conversation with Chris Heyde|journal=Statistical Science|volume=21|issue=2|year=2006|pages=292, 293|issn=0883-4237|doi=10.1214/088342306000000088|arxiv=math/0609294|bibcode=2006math......9294G}}</ref> They have found applications in areas in probability theory such as queueing theory and Palm calculus<ref name="BaccelliBremaud2013">{{cite book|author1=Francois Baccelli|author2=Pierre Bremaud|title=Elements of Queueing Theory: Palm Martingale Calculus and Stochastic Recurrences|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH3pCAAAQBAJ&pg=PR2|year=2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-662-11657-9}}</ref> and other fields such as economics<ref name="HallHeyde2014pageX">{{cite book|author1=P. Hall|author2=C. C. Heyde|title=Martingale Limit Theory and Its Application|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqriBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR10|year= 2014|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-1-4832-6322-9|page=x}}</ref> and finance.<ref name="MusielaRutkowski2006"/><br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">鞅Martingale</font>'''在统计学中有许多应用,但有人指出,它的使用和应用并不像它在统计学领域那样广泛,尤其是统计推断,293 | issn=0883-4237 | doi=10.1214/088342306000000088 | arxiv=math/0609294 | bibcode=2006math……9294G}</ref>他们在排队论和棕榈微积分等概率论领域找到了应用<ref name=“BaccelliBremaud2013”>{cite book | author1=Francois Baccelli | author2=Pierre Bremaud | title=排队论的元素:Palm鞅演算和随机递归| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dh3pcaaqbaj&pg=PR2 | year=2013 | publisher=Springer科学与商业媒体| isbn=978-3-662-11657-9}</ref>。以及其他领域,如经济学<ref name=“HallHeyde2014pageX”>{cite book | author1=P.Hall | author2=C.C.Heyde | title=鞅极限理论及其应用| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqriBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR10 |年份=2014 | publisher=Elsevier Science | isbn=978-1-4832-6322-9 | page=x}</ref>和金融。<ref name=“Musielarukowski2006”/><br />
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===Lévy process莱维过程===<br />
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{{Main|Lévy process}}<br />
{{Main | Lévy过程}}<br />
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Lévy processes are types of stochastic processes that can be considered as generalizations of random walks in continuous time.<ref name="Applebaum2004page1337"/><ref name="Bertoin1998pageVIII">{{cite book|author=Jean Bertoin|title=Lévy Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ftcsQgMp5cUC&pg=PR8|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64632-1|page=viii}}</ref> These processes have many applications in fields such as finance, fluid mechanics, physics and biology.<ref name="Applebaum2004page1336">{{cite journal|last1=Applebaum|first1=David|title=Lévy processes: From probability to finance and quantum groups|journal=Notices of the AMS|volume=51|issue=11|year=2004|pages=1336}}</ref><ref name="ApplebaumBook2004page69">{{cite book|author=David Applebaum|title=Lévy Processes and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7eDUjdJxIkC|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83263-2|page=69}}</ref> The main defining characteristics of these processes are their stationarity and independence properties, so they were known as ''processes with stationary and independent increments''. In other words, a stochastic process <math>X</math> is a Lévy process if for <math>n</math> non-negatives numbers, <math>0\leq t_1\leq \dots \leq t_n</math>, the corresponding <math>n-1</math> increments<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 莱维Lévy过程</font>'''是随机过程的一种类型,可以看作是连续时间中随机游动的推广<ref name=“Applebaum2004page1337”/><ref name=“Bertoin1998pageVIII”>{引用图书|作者=Jean Bertoin | title=莱维过程 |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=ftcsQgMp5cUC&pg=PR8 | year=1998 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-64632-1 | page=viii}}</ref>这些过程在金融、流体力学等领域有着广泛的应用,<ref name="Applebaum2004page1336">{{cite journal|last1=Applebaum|first1=David|title=Lévy processes: From probability to finance and quantum groups|journal=Notices of the AMS|volume=51|issue=11|year=2004|pages=1336}}</ref><ref name="ApplebaumBook2004page69">{{cite book|author=David Applebaum|title=Lévy Processes and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7eDUjdJxIkC|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83263-2|page=69}}</ref> 这些过程和过程的独立性被称为平稳过程的主要特征。换句话说,一个随机过程<math>X</math>是一个Lévy过程,如果对非负数<math>n</math>,<math>0\leq t_1\leq \dots \leq t_n</math>,当<math>n-1</math>递增<br />
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<center><math><br />
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X_{t_2}-X_{t_1}, \dots , X_{t_{n-1}}-X_{t_n},<br />
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</math></center><br />
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are all independent of each other, and the distribution of each increment only depends on the difference in time.<ref name="Applebaum2004page1337"/><br />
它们彼此独立,每个增量的分布只取决于时间的差异。<ref name=“Applebaum2004page1337”/><br />
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A Lévy process can be defined such that its state space is some abstract mathematical space, such as a [[Banach space]], but the processes are often defined so that they take values in Euclidean space. The index set is the non-negative numbers, so <math> I= [0,\infty) </math>, which gives the interpretation of time. Important stochastic processes such as the Wiener process, the homogeneous Poisson process (in one dimension), and [[subordinator (mathematics)|subordinators]] are all Lévy processes.<ref name="Applebaum2004page1337"/><ref name="Bertoin1998pageVIII"/><br />
一个Lévy过程可以被定义为它的状态空间是一些抽象的数学空间,例如[[Banach空间]],但是过程通常被定义为在欧几里德空间中取值。索引集是非负数,因此<math>I=[0,\infty)</math>,它给出了时间的解释。重要的随机过程,如维纳过程、齐次泊松过程(一维)和[[从属(数学)|从属]]都是Lévy过程。<ref name=“Applebaum2004page1337”/><ref name=“Bertoin1998pageVIII”/><br />
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For books, use:<br />
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对于书籍,使用:<br />
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===Random field随机场===<br />
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{{Main|Random field}}<br />
{{Main |随机场域}}<br />
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A random field is a collection of random variables indexed by a <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space or some manifold. In general, a random field can be considered an example of a stochastic or random process, where the index set is not necessarily a subset of the real line.<ref name="AdlerTaylor2009page7"/> But there is a convention that an indexed collection of random variables is called a random field when the index has two or more dimensions.<ref name="GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1"/><ref name="Lamperti1977page1"/><ref name="KoralovSinai2007page171">{{cite book|author1=Leonid Koralov|author2=Yakov G. Sinai|title=Theory of Probability and Random Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tlWOphOFRgwC|year=2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-540-68829-7|page=171}}</ref> If the specific definition of a stochastic process requires the index set to be a subset of the real line, then the random field can be considered as a generalization of stochastic process.<ref name="ApplebaumBook2004page19">{{cite book|author=David Applebaum|title=Lévy Processes and Stochastic Calculus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7eDUjdJxIkC|year=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-83263-2|page=19}}</ref><br />
<br />
随机场是由一个<math>n</math>维欧几里德空间或流形索引的随机变量的集合。一般来说,随机场可以看作是随机过程的一个例子,其中,索引集不一定是实行的子集。<ref name=“adlertaylor2009 page7”/>但是有一个约定,当索引具有两个或多个维度时,随机变量的索引集合称为随机字段。<ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1”/><ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><ref name=“Lamperti1977page1”/><ref name=“GikhmanSkorokhod1969page1”/>name=“KoralovSinai2007page171”>{cite book | author1=Leonid Koralov | author2=Yakov G.Sinai | title=概率论与随机过程| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tlWOphOFRgwC | year=2007 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-540-68829-7 | page=171}</ref>如果随机过程的具体定义要求索引集是实线的子集,那么随机场可以看作是随机过程的一个推广=https://books.google.com/books?id=q7eDUjdJxIkC | year=2004 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-83263-2 | page=19}</ref><br />
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===Point process点过程===<br />
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{{Main|Point process}}<br />
{{主|点过程}}<br />
<br />
http://reftag.appspot.com/<br />
<br />
Http://reftag.appspot.com/<br />
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A point process is a collection of points randomly located on some mathematical space such as the real line, <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space, or more abstract spaces. Sometimes the term ''point process'' is not preferred, as historically the word ''process'' denoted an evolution of some system in time, so a point process is also called a '''random point field'''.<ref name="ChiuStoyan2013page109">{{cite book|author1=Sung Nok Chiu|author2=Dietrich Stoyan|author3=Wilfrid S. Kendall|author4=Joseph Mecke|title=Stochastic Geometry and Its Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=825NfM6Nc-EC|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-65825-3|page=109}}</ref> There are different interpretations of a point process, such a random counting measure or a random set.<ref name="ChiuStoyan2013page108">{{cite book|author1=Sung Nok Chiu|author2=Dietrich Stoyan|author3=Wilfrid S. Kendall|author4=Joseph Mecke|title=Stochastic Geometry and Its Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=825NfM6Nc-EC|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-65825-3|page=108}}</ref><ref name="Haenggi2013page10">{{cite book|author=Martin Haenggi|title=Stochastic Geometry for Wireless Networks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CLtDhblwWEgC|year=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-01469-5|page=10}}</ref> Some authors regard a point process and stochastic process as two different objects such that a point process is a random object that arises from or is associated with a stochastic process,<ref name="DaleyVere-Jones2006page194">{{cite book|author1=D.J. Daley|author2=D. Vere-Jones|title=An Introduction to the Theory of Point Processes: Volume I: Elementary Theory and Methods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Sv4BwAAQBAJ|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-21564-8|page=194}}</ref><ref name="CoxIsham1980page3">{{cite book|author1=D.R. Cox|author2=Valerie Isham|title=Point Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWF2xY6s3PoC|year=1980|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-412-21910-8|page=3}}</ref> though it has been remarked that the difference between point processes and stochastic processes is not clear.<ref name="CoxIsham1980page3"/><br />
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点过程是随机分布在某些数学空间(如实线、<math>n</math>维欧几里德空间或更抽象的空间)上的点的集合。有时“点过程”一词并不可取,因为历史上“过程”一词表示某个系统在时间上的演变,因此,点过程也被称为“随机点域”。<ref name=“ChiuStoyan2013page109”>{cite book | author1=Sung Nok Chiu | author2=Dietrich Stoyan | author3=Wilfrid S.Kendall | author4=Joseph Mecke | title=随机几何及其应用| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=825NfM6Nc EC | year=2013 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-65825-3 | page=109}</ref>点过程有不同的解释,这样一个随机计数度量或随机集。<ref name=“ChiuStoyan2013page108”>{cite book | author1=Sung Nok Chiu | author2=Dietrich Stoyan | author3=Wilfrid S.Kendall | author4=Joseph Mecke | title=随机几何及其应用=https://books.google.com/books?id=825NfM6Nc EC |年份=2013 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-1-118-65825-3 | page=108}</ref><ref name=“Haenggi2013page10”>{cite book |作者=Martin Haenggi | title=无线网络的随机几何| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CLtDhblwWEgC | year=2013 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-107-01469-5 | page=10}</ref>一些作者将点过程和随机过程视为两个不同的对象,因此点过程是随机过程产生或与随机过程相关联的随机对象,<ref name=“daleyviere-Jones 2006page194”>{cite book | author1=D.J.Daley | author2=D.Vere Jones | title=点过程理论导论:第一卷:基本理论与方法|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Sv4BwAAQBAJ | year=2006 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-21564-8 | page=194}</ref><ref name=“CoxIsham1980page3”>{引用图书| author1=D.R.Cox | author2=Valerie Isham | title=Point Processes | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWF2xY6s3PoC | year=1980 | publisher=CRC Press | isbn=978-0-412-21910-8 | page=3}</ref>尽管已经注意到点过程和随机过程之间的区别并不清楚。<ref name=“CoxIsham1980page3”/><br />
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or article citation details via DOI numbers:<br />
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或文章引用细节通过 DOI 编号:<br />
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Other authors consider a point process as a stochastic process, where the process is indexed by sets of the underlying space{{efn|In the context of point processes, the term "state space" can mean the space on which the point process is defined such as the real line,<ref name="Kingman1992page8">{{cite book|author=J. F. C. Kingman|title=Poisson Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEiM-OtwDHkC|year=1992|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-159124-2|page=8}}</ref><ref name="MollerWaagepetersen2003page7">{{cite book|author1=Jesper Moller|author2=Rasmus Plenge Waagepetersen|title=Statistical Inference and Simulation for Spatial Point Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dBNOHvElXZ4C|year=2003|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-203-49693-0|page=7}}</ref> which corresponds to the index set in stochastic process terminology.}} on which it is defined, such as the real line or <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref name="KarlinTaylor2012page31">{{cite book|author1=Samuel Karlin|author2=Howard E. Taylor|title=A First Course in Stochastic Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC|year=2012|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-08-057041-9|page=31}}</ref><ref name="Schmidt2014page99">{{cite book|author=Volker Schmidt|title=Stochastic Geometry, Spatial Statistics and Random Fields: Models and Algorithms|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=brsUBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR5|date= 2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-10064-7|page=99}}</ref> Other stochastic processes such as renewal and counting processes are studied in the theory of point processes.<ref name="DaleyVere-Jones200">{{cite book|author1=D.J. Daley|author2=D. Vere-Jones|title=An Introduction to the Theory of Point Processes: Volume I: Elementary Theory and Methods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Sv4BwAAQBAJ|year=2006|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-387-21564-8}}</ref><ref name="CoxIsham1980">{{cite book|author1=D.R. Cox|author2=Valerie Isham|title=Point Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWF2xY6s3PoC|year=1980|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-412-21910-8}}</ref><br />
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另一些作者认为点过程是一个随机过程,其中过程由一组底层空间{efn |索引;在点过程的上下文中,“状态空间”一词可以指定义点过程的空间,如实线,<ref name=“kingmann1992page8”>{cite book | author=J.F.C.Kingman | title=Poisson Processes |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEiM OtwDHkC | year=1992 | publisher=Clarendon Press | isbn=978-0-19-159124-2 | page=8}</ref><ref name=“MollerWaagepetersen2003page7”>{cite book | author1=Jesper Moller | author2=Rasmus-Plenge Waagepetersen | title=空间点过程的统计推断和模拟| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dBNOHvElXZ4C | year=2003 | publisher=CRCRC Press | isbn=978-0-203-49693-0 | page=7}</ref>其中与随机过程术语中的指标集相对应的指标集。}}其上定义它的地方,如实线或<数学>n</math>n</math>-维维的欧几里得空间。<ref name=“KarlintayRo2012Page31”>{本书|124;author1=Samuel Karlin | author2=Howard E Howard E.Howard E.Taylor | title=title=title=A随机过程第一课程|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSDxjX9nmmMC | year=2012 | publisher=academical Press | isbn=978-0-08-057041-9 | page=31}</ref><ref name=“Schmidt2014page99”>{cite book | author=Volker-Schmidt | title=随机几何、空间统计和随机场:模型和算法| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=brsUBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR5 | date=2014 | publisher=Springer | isbn=978-3-319-10064-7 | page=99}</ref>其他随机过程,如更新和计数过程,在点过程理论中进行了研究一、基本理论与方法|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Sv4BwAAQBAJ | year=2006 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-21564-8}</ref><ref name=“CoxIsham1980”>{cite book | author1=D.R.Cox | author2=Valerie Isham | title=Point processs|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWF2xY6s3PoC |年=1980 |发行人=CRC出版社| isbn=978-0-412-21910-8}</ref><br />
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http://reftag.appspot.com/doiweb.py<br />
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Http://reftag.appspot.com/doiweb.py<br />
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==History历史==<br />
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For other sources, see: WP:CITET<br />
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有关其他来源,请参阅: WP: CITET<br />
<br />
===Early probability theory早期概率论===<br />
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Probability theory has its origins in games of chance, which have a long history, with some games being played thousands of years ago,<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Markov Chains: From Theory to Implementation and Experimentation|last=Gagniuc|first=Paul A.|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2017|isbn=978-1-119-38755-8|location=US|pages=1–2}}</ref><ref name="David1955">{{cite journal|last1=David|first1=F. N.|title=Studies in the History of Probability and Statistics I. Dicing and Gaming (A Note on the History of Probability)|journal=Biometrika|volume=42|issue=1/2|pages=1–15|year=1955|issn=0006-3444|doi=10.2307/2333419|jstor=2333419}}</ref> but very little analysis on them was done in terms of probability.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Maistrov2014page1">{{cite book|author=L. E. Maistrov|title=Probability Theory: A Historical Sketch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZbiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9|year=2014|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-1-4832-1863-2|page=1}}</ref> The year 1654 is often considered the birth of probability theory when French mathematicians [[Pierre Fermat]] and [[Blaise Pascal]] had a written correspondence on probability, motivated by a [[Problem of points|gambling problem]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Seneta2006page1">{{cite book|last1=Seneta|first1=E.|title=Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences|chapter=Probability, History of|year=2006|doi=10.1002/0471667196.ess2065.pub2|page=1|isbn=978-0471667193}}</ref><ref name="Tabak2014page24to26">{{cite book|author=John Tabak|title=Probability and Statistics: The Science of Uncertainty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3WVqBPHboAC|year=2014|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-6873-9|pages=24–26}}</ref> But there was earlier mathematical work done on the probability of gambling games such as ''Liber de Ludo Aleae'' by [[Gerolamo Cardano]], written in the 16th century but posthumously published later in 1663.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Bellhouse2005">{{cite journal|last1=Bellhouse|first1=David|title=Decoding Cardano's Liber de Ludo Aleae|journal=Historia Mathematica|volume=32|issue=2|year=2005|pages=180–202|issn=0315-0860|doi=10.1016/j.hm.2004.04.001|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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概率论起源于机会博弈,它有着悠久的历史,有些游戏在几千年前就已经开始了,{{引文图书〈title=马尔可夫链:从理论到实施和实验| last=Gagniuc | first=Paul A.;publisher=John Wiley&Sons | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-119-38755-8 |地理位置=美国|页面=1-1–2}}</ref><ref name=“David1955”{{引用杂志| last1=David | first1=F.N.| title=在研究中的研究在研究中的研究在研究中的研究中的研究|位置=位置=美国124;位置=美国概率统计史I.划片游戏和游戏(概率历史注注)| journal=Biometrika |volume=42 | issue=1/2 | pages=1-15年;year=1955 | issn=0006-3444;doi=10.2307/2333419;jstor=2333419}}</ref>但很少从概率的角度对其进行分析。<ref name=“:1”/><ref name=“Maistorv2014Page1”>{{ci书| ci书124; author=L.E.Maistorv Maistorv Maistorv Maistorv Maistorv Maistorv Maistorv Ma|标题=概率论:A历史素描|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZbiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 | year=2014 | publisher=Elsevier Science | isbn=978-1-4832-1863-2 | page=1}</ref>当法国数学家[[Pierre Fermat]]和[[Blaise Pascal]]在概率论上有过书面通信时,1654年通常被认为是概率论的诞生,受[[点数问题|赌博问题].<ref name=“:1”/><ref name=“Seneta2006page1”>{cite book | last1=Seneta | first1=E.| title=统计科学百科全书| chapter=Probability,历史|年=2006 | doi=10.1002/0471667196.ess2065.pub2 | page=1 | isbn=978-0471667193}</ref><ref name=“Tabak2014page24to26”>{cite book | author=John Tabak | title=Probability and Statistics:不确定性科学| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3WVqBPHboAC | year=2014 | publisher=Infobase Publishing | isbn=978-0-8160-6873-9 | pages=24–26}</ref>但是早期有关于赌博游戏概率的数学研究,比如[[Gerolamo Cardano]]的“Liber de Ludo Aleae”,16世纪写于16世纪,死后于1663年发表。<ref name=“:1“/><ref name=“bellhous2005”>{〈cite journal | last1=Bellhouse | first1=David;title=解码Cardano's Liberde Ludo Aleaeaeae | journal=Historica Mathematica | volume=32;issue=2;year=2005 | Pages180–202 | issn=0315-0860 | doi=10.1016/j.hm 2004.2004.04.001 | jo180–202 | issn=10.202 doiaccess=free}}</ref><br />
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After Cardano, [[Jakob Bernoulli]]{{efn|Also known as James or Jacques Bernoulli.<ref name="Hald2005page221">{{cite book|author=Anders Hald|title=A History of Probability and Statistics and Their Applications before 1750|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pOQy6-qnVx8C|year=2005|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-72517-6|page=221}}</ref>}} wrote [[Ars Conjectandi]], which is considered a significant event in the history of probability theory.<ref name=":1" /> Bernoulli's book was published, also posthumously, in 1713 and inspired many mathematicians to study probability.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="Maistrov2014page56">{{cite book|author=L. E. Maistrov|title=Probability Theory: A Historical Sketch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZbiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9|year=2014|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-1-4832-1863-2|page=56}}</ref><ref name="Tabak2014page37">{{cite book|author=John Tabak|title=Probability and Statistics: The Science of Uncertainty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3WVqBPHboAC|year=2014|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-6873-9|page=37}}</ref> But despite some renowned mathematicians contributing to probability theory, such as [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], [[Abraham de Moivre]], [[Carl Gauss]], [[Siméon Poisson]] and [[Pafnuty Chebyshev]],<ref name="Chung1998">{{cite journal|last1=Chung|first1=Kai Lai|title=Probability and Doob|journal=The American Mathematical Monthly|volume=105|issue=1|pages=28–35|year=1998|issn=0002-9890|doi=10.2307/2589523|jstor=2589523}}</ref><ref name="Bingham2000">{{cite journal|last1=Bingham|first1=N.|title=Studies in the history of probability and statistics XLVI. Measure into probability: from Lebesgue to Kolmogorov|journal=Biometrika|volume=87|issue=1|year=2000|pages=145–156|issn=0006-3444|doi=10.1093/biomet/87.1.145}}</ref> most of the mathematical community{{efn|It has been remarked that a notable exception was the St Petersburg School in Russia, where mathematicians led by Chebyshev studied probability theory.<ref name="BenziBenzi2007">{{cite journal|last1=Benzi|first1=Margherita|last2=Benzi|first2=Michele|last3=Seneta|first3=Eugene|title=Francesco Paolo Cantelli. b. 20 December 1875 d. 21 July 1966|journal=International Statistical Review|volume=75|issue=2|year=2007|page=128|issn=0306-7734|doi=10.1111/j.1751-5823.2007.00009.x}}</ref>}} did not consider probability theory to be part of mathematics until the 20th century.<ref name="Chung1998"/><ref name="BenziBenzi2007"/><ref name="Doob1996">{{cite journal|last1=Doob|first1=Joseph L.|title=The Development of Rigor in Mathematical Probability (1900-1950)|journal=The American Mathematical Monthly|volume=103|issue=7|pages=586–595|year=1996|issn=0002-9890|doi=10.2307/2974673|jstor=2974673}}</ref><ref name="Cramer1976">{{cite journal|last1=Cramer|first1=Harald|title=Half a Century with Probability Theory: Some Personal Recollections|journal=The Annals of Probability|volume=4|issue=4|year=1976|pages=509–546|issn=0091-1798|doi=10.1214/aop/1176996025|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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继卡达诺之后,[[Jakob Bernoulli]]{{efn |也被称为杰姆斯或杰姆斯 伯努利Jacques Bernoulli<ref name=“Hald2005page221”>{cite book | author=Anders Hald | title=1750年前概率统计及其应用的历史=https://books.google.com/books?id=pOQy6-qnVx8C |年份=2005 | publisher=John Wiley&Sons | isbn=978-0-471-72517-6 | page=221}</ref>}}写了[[魔术师Ars conjuctandi]],在概率论史上被认为是重大事件。<ref name=“:1”/>伯努利的书出版于1713年,也是在他死后出版的,激发了许多数学家研究概率<ref name=“:1”/><ref name=“Maistrov2014page56”>{引用书| author=L.E.Maistrov | title=概率论:历史素描|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZbiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 |年份=2014 | publisher=Elsevier Science | isbn=978-1-4832-1863-2 | page=56}</ref><ref name=“Tabak2014page37”>{cite book | author=John Tabak | title=概率与统计学:不确定性科学|网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3WVqBPHboAC |年=2014 | publisher=Infobase Publishing | isbn=978-0-8160-6873-9 | page=37}</ref>。<br />
但尽管一些著名的数学家对概率论做出了贡献,比如[[皮埃尔-西蒙-拉普拉斯]、[[亚伯拉罕-德-莫伊夫]]、[[卡尔-高斯]]、[[西蒙-泊阿松Siméon Poisson]]和[[帕夫努蒂·切比雪夫Pafnuty Chebyshev]],<ref name=“Chung1998”>{引用期刊| last1=Chung | first1=Kai Lai | title=Probability and Doob | journal=The American Mathematic Monthly | volume=105 | isson=1 | pages=28-35 | year=1998 | issn=0002-9890 | doi=10.2307/2589523 | jstor=2589523}</ref><ref name=“Bingham2000”>{cite journal | last1=Bingham | first1=N.| title=概率统计史研究XLVI。概率度量:从Lebesgue到Kolmogorov | journal=Biometrika | volume=87 | Isse=1 | year=2000 | pages=145-156 | issn=0006-3444 | doi=10.1093/biomet/87.1.145}</ref>,大多数数学界人士都注意到,一个显著的例外是俄罗斯的圣彼得堡学派,在那里,以切比雪夫为首的数学家研究概率论,<ref name=“BenziBenzi2007”>{{引用期刊| last1=Benzi | first1=Margherita | last2=Benzi | first2=Michele | last3=Seneta | first3=Eugene | title=Francesco Paolo Cantelli。b、 1875年12月20日d.1966年7月21日|期刊=国际统计评论|卷=75 |问题=2 |年=2007 |页=128 | issn=0306-7734 | doi=10.1111/j.1751-5823.2007.00009.x}}</ref>}}直到20世纪,概率论才被认为是数学的一部分。<ref name=“Chun1998年”/><ref name=“BenziBenzi2007年”/><ref name=“DoobB1996”>{{cite journal | last1=Doob | first1=Joseph L.;title=数学概率中严谨性的发展(1900-1950年)| journal=美国数学月刊|卷=103 |问题=7 |页=586–595 |年=1996年| issn=0002-9890 | doi=10.2307/2974673 | jstor=2974673 }}</ref><ref name=“Cramer1976”>{cite journal | last1=Cramer | first1=Harald | title=半个世纪与概率论:一些个人回忆| journal=The annalls of Probability | volume=4 | issn=4 | year=1976 | pages=509-546 | issn=0091-1798 | doi=10.1214/aop/117696025 | doi access=free}</ref><br />
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===Statistical mechanics统计力学===<br />
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In the physical sciences, scientists developed in the 19th century the discipline of [[statistical mechanics]], where physical systems, such as containers filled with gases, can be regarded or treated mathematically as collections of many moving particles. Although there were attempts to incorporate randomness into statistical physics by some scientists, such as [[Rudolf Clausius]], most of the work had little or no randomness.<ref name="Truesdell1975page22">{{cite journal|last1=Truesdell|first1=C.|title=Early kinetic theories of gases|journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences|volume=15|issue=1|year=1975|pages=22–23|issn=0003-9519|doi=10.1007/BF00327232}}</ref><ref name="Brush1967page150">{{cite journal|last1=Brush|first1=Stephen G.|title=Foundations of statistical mechanics 1845?1915|journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences|volume=4|issue=3|year=1967|pages=150–151|issn=0003-9519|doi=10.1007/BF00412958}}</ref><br />
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在物理科学中,科学家们在19世纪发展了[[统计力学]]这门学科,在这个学科中,物理系统,例如装满气体的容器,可以从数学上看作或处理为许多运动粒子的集合。尽管有些科学家试图将随机性纳入统计物理学,比如[[Rudolf Clausius]],大部分工作没有或几乎没有随机性。<ref name=“Truesdell1975page22”>{cite journal | last1=Truesdell|first1=C.| title=早期气体动力学理论| journal=精确科学史档案|卷=15 |问题=1 |年份=1975 |页=22–23 | issn=0003-9519 | doi=10.1007/BF00327232}}<ref name=“Brush1967page150”>{{cite journal | last1=Brush | first1=Stephen G.| title=统计力学基础1845?1915年|期刊=精确科学史档案|卷=4 |问题=3 |年=1967 |页=150–151 | issn=0003-9519 | doi=10.1007/BF00412958}}</ref><br />
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This changed in 1859 when [[James Clerk Maxwell]] contributed significantly to the field, more specifically, to the kinetic theory of gases, by presenting work where he assumed the gas particles move in random directions at random velocities.<ref name="Truesdell1975page31">{{cite journal|last1=Truesdell|first1=C.|title=Early kinetic theories of gases|journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences|volume=15|issue=1|year=1975|pages=31–32|issn=0003-9519|doi=10.1007/BF00327232}}</ref><ref name="Brush1958">{{cite journal|last1=Brush|first1=S.G.|title=The development of the kinetic theory of gases IV. Maxwell|journal=Annals of Science|volume=14|issue=4|year=1958|pages=243–255|issn=0003-3790|doi=10.1080/00033795800200147}}</ref> The kinetic theory of gases and statistical physics continued to be developed in the second half of the 19th century, with work done chiefly by Clausius, [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] and [[Josiah Gibbs]], which would later have an influence on [[Albert Einstein]]'s mathematical model for [[Brownian movement]].<ref name="Brush1968page15">{{cite journal|last1=Brush|first1=Stephen G.|title=A history of random processes|journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences|volume=5|issue=1|year=1968|pages=15–16|issn=0003-9519|doi=10.1007/BF00328110}}</ref><br />
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这一点在1859年发生了变化,当时[[James clark Maxwell]]对该领域做出了重大贡献,更具体地说,是对气体动力学理论的贡献,通过介绍他的工作,他假设气体粒子以随机速度随机方向移动<ref name=“Truesdell1975page31”>{cite journal | last1=Truesdell|first1=C.| title=Early dynamic theory of gas | journal=精确科学史档案|卷=15 |问题=1 |年份=1975 | pages=31–32 | issn=0003-9519 | doi=10.1007/BF00327232}}<ref name=“Brush1958”>{cite journal | last1=Brush | first1=S.G.| title=气体动力学理论的发展IV.麦克斯韦期刊=科学年鉴|卷=14 |问题=4 |年份=1958 |页=243–255 | issn=0003-3790 | doi=10.1080/0003379580020147}}</ref>气体动力学理论和统计物理在19世纪后半叶继续发展,主要由克劳修斯,[[路德维希玻尔兹曼]]和[[约西亚吉布斯]]完成,这项工作后来对[[阿尔伯特爱因斯坦]]关于[[布朗运动]]的数学模型产生了影响。<ref name="Brush1968page15">{{cite journal|last1=Brush|first1=Stephen G.|title=A history of random processes|journal=Archive for History of Exact Sciences|volume=5|issue=1|year=1968|pages=15–16|issn=0003-9519|doi=10.1007/BF00328110}}</ref><br />
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===Measure theory and probability theory测度论与概率论===<br />
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At the [[International Congress of Mathematicians]] in [[Paris]] in 1900, [[David Hilbert]] presented a list of [[Hilbert's problems|mathematical problems]], where his sixth problem asked for a mathematical treatment of physics and probability involving [[axiom]]s.<ref name="Bingham2000"/> Around the start of the 20th century, mathematicians developed measure theory, a branch of mathematics for studying integrals of mathematical functions, where two of the founders were French mathematicians, [[Henri Lebesgue]] and [[Émile Borel]]. In 1925 another French mathematician [[Paul Lévy (mathematician)|Paul Lévy]] published the first probability book that used ideas from measure theory.<ref name="Bingham2000"/><br />
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1900年在巴黎举行的[[国际数学家大会]]上,[[David Hilbert]]提出了一份[[Hilbert问题|数学问题]]的清单,其中他的第六个问题要求对涉及[[公理]]的物理和概率进行数学处理。<ref name=“Bingham2000”/>大约在20世纪初,数学家发展了测量理论,这是研究数学函数积分的数学分支,其中两位创始人是法国数学家[[Henri Lebesgue]]和[[Émile Borel]]。1925年,另一位法国数学家[[Paul Lévy(数学家)| Paul Lévy]]出版了第一本使用测度论思想的概率论书籍<br />
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In 1920s fundamental contributions to probability theory were made in the Soviet Union by mathematicians such as [[Sergei Bernstein]], [[Aleksandr Khinchin]],{{efn|The name Khinchin is also written in (or transliterated into) English as Khintchine.<ref name="Doob1934">{{cite journal|last1=Doob|first1=Joseph|title=Stochastic Processes and Statistics|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=20|issue=6|year=1934|pages=376–379|doi=10.1073/pnas.20.6.376|pmid=16587907|pmc=1076423|bibcode=1934PNAS...20..376D}}</ref>}} and [[Andrei Kolmogorov]].<ref name="Cramer1976"/> Kolmogorov published in 1929 his first attempt at presenting a mathematical foundation, based on measure theory, for probability theory.<ref name="KendallBatchelor1990page33">{{cite journal|last1=Kendall|first1=D. G.|last2=Batchelor|first2=G. K.|last3=Bingham|first3=N. H.|last4=Hayman|first4=W. K.|last5=Hyland|first5=J. M. E.|last6=Lorentz|first6=G. G.|last7=Moffatt|first7=H. K.|last8=Parry|first8=W.|last9=Razborov|first9=A. A.|last10=Robinson|first10=C. A.|last11=Whittle|first11=P.|title=Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov (1903–1987)|journal=Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society|volume=22|issue=1|year=1990|page=33|issn=0024-6093|doi=10.1112/blms/22.1.31}}</ref> In the early 1930s Khinchin and Kolmogorov set up probability seminars, which were attended by researchers such as [[Eugene Slutsky]] and [[Nikolai Smirnov (mathematician)|Nikolai Smirnov]],<ref name="Vere-Jones2006page1">{{cite book|last1=Vere-Jones|first1=David|title=Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences|chapter=Khinchin, Aleksandr Yakovlevich|page=1|year=2006|doi=10.1002/0471667196.ess6027.pub2|isbn=978-0471667193}}</ref> and Khinchin gave the first mathematical definition of a stochastic process as a set of random variables indexed by the real line.<ref name="Doob1934"/><ref name="Vere-Jones2006page4">{{cite book|last1=Vere-Jones|first1=David|title=Encyclopedia of Statistical Sciences|chapter=Khinchin, Aleksandr Yakovlevich|page=4|year=2006|doi=10.1002/0471667196.ess6027.pub2|isbn=978-0471667193}}</ref>{{efn|Doob, when citing Khinchin, uses the term 'chance variable', which used to be an alternative term for 'random variable'.<ref name="Snell2005">{{cite journal|last1=Snell|first1=J. Laurie|title=Obituary: Joseph Leonard Doob|journal=Journal of Applied Probability|volume=42|issue=1|year=2005|page=251|issn=0021-9002|doi=10.1239/jap/1110381384|doi-access=free}}</ref> }}<br />
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20世纪20年代,苏联的数学家们对概率论做出了重大贡献,比如[[Sergei Bernstein]],[[Aleksandr Khinchin]],{{efn | Khinchin这个名字也用英语写成(或音译成)Khintchine。<ref name=“Doob1934”>{cite journal | last1=Doob | first1=Joseph | title=随机过程与统计| journal=美国国家科学院学报美国体积=20π=6π=376×379π=10.1073 /PNAS 20.637 6pMID=16587907πPMC=1076423 BiBCODE=1934 PNAS…20 .37 6D } </REF> }和[[Andrei Kolmogorov ] ] < 1929】命名为“CRAME1976”/Kolmogorov于1984年发表了基于测量理论的数学基础的首次尝试。概率论的概率论。<ref name=“KendallBatchelo1990 Page33”>{〈引用期刊| last1=Kendall | first1=D.G.| last2=Batchelor | first2=G.K.| last3=Bingham | first3=N.H.| last4=Hayman | first4=W.K.| last5=Hyland | first5=第一5=J.M.M.E.|124;最后6=洛伦兹|第一6=G.G.最后7=最后7=最后7=最后7=N.H.莫法特| first7=H.K.| last8=Parry | first8=W.| last9=Razborov | first9=A.A.| last10=Robinson | first10=C。A、 最后11=Whittle;first11=P.;title=AndreiNikolaevich Kolmogorov(1903-1987年)| journal=伦敦数学社会公报| volume=22 | issue=1 | year=1990年| page=33 | issn=0024-6093;doi=10.1112/blms/22.1.31}</ref>在20世纪30年代初,胡仁钦和科尔莫戈罗夫在20世纪30年代初建立了概率研讨会,这些研讨会由研究者参加,如[[Eugene Slutsky]]]等和[[尼古拉·斯米尔诺夫(数学家)|尼古拉·斯米尔诺夫]],<ref name=“Vere-Jones2006page1”>{cite book | last1=Vere Jones | first1=David | title=统计科学百科全书| chapter=Khinchin,Aleksandr Yakovlevich | page=1 | year=2006 | doi=10.1002/0471667196.ess6027.pub2 | isbn=978-0471667193}}</ref>还有金钦给出了第一个随机变量的数学定义,把随机过程作为以实数线索引的一组随机变量。<ref name=“Doob1934”/><ref name=“Vere-Jones2006page4”>{cite book | last1=Vere Jones | first1=David | title=统计科学百科全书| chapter=Khinchin,Aleksandr Yakovlevich | page=4 | year=2006 | doi=10.1002/0471667196.ess6027.pub2 | isbn=978-0471667193}}</ref>{{efn | Doob在引用Khinchin时,使用了“机会变量”这个词,它曾经是“随机变量”的替代词。<ref name=“Snell2005”>{cite journal | last1=Snell | first1=J.Laurie | title=讣告:journal Leonard Doob | journal=journal of Applied Probability | volume=42 | issue=1 | year=2005 | page=251 | issn=0021-9002 | doi=10.1239/jap/1110381384 | doi access=free}</ref>}}<br />
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===Birth of modern probability theory现代概率论的诞生===<br />
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In 1933 Andrei Kolmogorov published in German, his book on the foundations of probability theory titled ''Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung'',{{efn|Later translated into English and published in 1950 as Foundations of the Theory of Probability<ref name="Bingham2000"/>}} where Kolmogorov used measure theory to develop an axiomatic framework for probability theory. The publication of this book is now widely considered to be the birth of modern probability theory, when the theories of probability and stochastic processes became parts of mathematics.<ref name="Bingham2000"/><ref name="Cramer1976"/><br />
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1933年,Andrei Kolmogorov在德国出版了一本关于概率论基础的书,名为“概率计算的基本概念”,后来翻译成英文,1950年出版,作为概率论的基础。这本书的出版现在被广泛认为是现代概率论的诞生,当时概率论和随机过程理论成为数学的一部分。<br />
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After the publication of Kolmogorov's book, further fundamental work on probability theory and stochastic processes was done by Khinchin and Kolmogorov as well as other mathematicians such as [[Joseph Doob]], [[William Feller]], [[Maurice Fréchet]], [[Paul Lévy (mathematician)|Paul Lévy]], [[Wolfgang Doeblin]], and [[Harald Cramér]].<ref name="Bingham2000"/><ref name="Cramer1976"/><br />
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在科尔莫戈洛夫的书出版后,钦钦和科尔莫戈洛夫以及其他数学家如[[Joseph Doob]]、[[William Feller]]、[[Maurice Fréchet]]、[[Paul Lévy(数学家)| Paul Lévy]]、[[Wolfgang Doeblin]]等对概率论和随机过程进行了进一步的基础性工作,和[[Harald Cramér]]。<ref name=“Bingham2000”/><ref name=“Cramer1976”/><br />
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Decades later Cramér referred to the 1930s as the "heroic period of mathematical probability theory".<ref name="Cramer1976"/> [[World War II]] greatly interrupted the development of probability theory, causing, for example, the migration of Feller from [[Sweden]] to the [[United States|United States of America]]<ref name="Cramer1976"/> and the death of Doeblin, considered now a pioneer in stochastic processes.<ref name="Lindvall1991">{{cite journal|last1=Lindvall|first1=Torgny|title=W. Doeblin, 1915-1940|journal=The Annals of Probability|volume=19|issue=3|year=1991|pages=929–934|issn=0091-1798|doi=10.1214/aop/1176990329|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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几十年后,克莱姆把20世纪30年代称为“数学概率论的英雄时期”。<ref name=“Cramer1976”/>[[第二次世界大战]]极大地中断了概率论的发展,例如,Feller从[[瑞典]]迁移到[[美国]]<ref name=“Cramer1976”/>以及现在被认为是随机过程先驱的Doeblin之死,1915-1940;journal=The Annals of Probability | volume=19 | issue=3 | year=1991 | pages=929-934 | issn=0091-1798 | doi=10.1214/aop/1176990329 | doi access=free}</ref><br />
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[[File:Joseph Doob.jpg|thumb|right|Mathematician [[Joseph Doob]] did early work on the theory of stochastic processes, making fundamental contributions, particularly in the theory of martingales.<ref name="Getoor2009"/><ref name="Snell2005"/> His book ''Stochastic Processes'' is considered highly influential in the field of probability theory.<ref name="Bingham2005"/> ]]<br />
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[[文件:Joseph Doob.jpg|thumb |右|数学家[[Joseph Doob]]在随机过程理论方面做了早期的工作,做出了基本贡献,尤其是在鞅理论方面。<ref name=“Getoor2009”/><ref name=“Snell2005”/>他的书《随机过程》被认为在概率论领域具有很高的影响力。<refname=“Bingham2005”/>]]<br />
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===Stochastic processes after World War II二战后的随机过程===<br />
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After World War II the study of probability theory and stochastic processes gained more attention from mathematicians, with significant contributions made in many areas of probability and mathematics as well as the creation of new areas.<ref name="Cramer1976"/><ref name="Meyer2009">{{cite journal|last1=Meyer|first1=Paul-André|title=Stochastic Processes from 1950 to the Present|journal=Electronic Journal for History of Probability and Statistics|volume=5|issue=1|year=2009|pages=1–42}}</ref> Starting in the 1940s, [[Kiyosi Itô]] published papers developing the field of [[stochastic calculus]], which involves stochastic [[integrals]] and stochastic [[differential equations]] based on the Wiener or Brownian motion process.<ref name="Ito1998Prize">{{cite journal|title=Kiyosi Itô receives Kyoto Prize|journal=Notices of the AMS|volume=45|issue=8|year=1998|pages=981–982}}</ref><br />
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第二次世界大战后,概率论和随机过程的研究得到了数学家的更多关注,在概率论和数学的许多领域做出了重大贡献,并开创了新的领域统计学|卷=5 |问题=1 |年=2009 |页=1–42}</ref>从20世纪40年代开始,[[Kiyosi Itô]]发表了发展[[随机微积分]领域的论文,它包括基于维纳或布朗运动过程的随机[[积分]]和随机[[微分方程]]<br />
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Also starting in the 1940s, connections were made between stochastic processes, particularly martingales, and the mathematical field of [[potential theory]], with early ideas by [[Shizuo Kakutani]] and then later work by Joseph Doob.<ref name="Meyer2009"/> Further work, considered pioneering, was done by [[Gilbert Hunt]] in the 1950s, connecting Markov processes and potential theory, which had a significant effect on the theory of Lévy processes and led to more interest in studying Markov processes with methods developed by Itô.<ref name="JarrowProtter2004"/><ref name="Bertoin1998pageVIIIandIX">{{cite book|author=Jean Bertoin|title=Lévy Processes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ftcsQgMp5cUC&pg=PR8|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-64632-1|page=viii and ix}}</ref><ref name="Steele2012page176">{{cite book|author=J. Michael Steele|title=Stochastic Calculus and Financial Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4|page=176}}</ref><br />
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同样从20世纪40年代开始,随机过程(尤其是鞅)与[[势理论]]的数学领域之间建立了联系,[[Shizuo Kakutani]]的早期思想和Joseph Doob后来的工作。<ref name=“Meyer2009”/>在1950年代[[Gilbert Hunt]]完成了被认为是开创性的进一步工作,把马尔可夫过程和势理论联系起来,这对Lévy过程理论产生了重大影响,并使人们对用It开发的方法研究马尔可夫过程产生了更多的兴趣<ref name=“JarrowProtter2004”/><ref name=“Bertoin1998pageVIIIandIX”>{cite book | author=Jean Bertoin | title=Lévy Processes |网址=https://books.google.com/books?id=ftcsQgMp5cUC&pg=PR8 | year=1998 | publisher=剑桥大学出版社| isbn=978-0-521-64632-1 | page=viii and ix}}</ref><ref name=“Steele2012page176”{{引用图书|作者=J.Michael Steele | title=随机微积分和金融应用| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsgkbaaqbaj&pg=PR4 | year=2012 | publisher=Springer科学与商业媒体| isbn=978-1-4684-9305-4 | page=176}</ref><br />
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In 1953 Doob published his book ''Stochastic processes'', which had a strong influence on the theory of stochastic processes and stressed the importance of measure theory in probability.<ref name="Meyer2009"/><br />
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1953年,杜布出版了《随机过程》一书,这本书对随机过程理论产生了重大影响,并强调了测度理论在概率论中的重要性。<ref name=“Meyer2009”/><br />
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<ref name="Bingham2005">{{cite journal|last1=Bingham|first1=N. H.|title=Doob: a half-century on|journal=Journal of Applied Probability|volume=42|issue=1|year=2005|pages=257–266|issn=0021-9002|doi=10.1239/jap/1110381385|doi-access=free}}</ref> Doob also chiefly developed the theory of martingales, with later substantial contributions by [[Paul-André Meyer]]. Earlier work had been carried out by [[Sergei Bernstein]], [[Paul Lévy (mathematician)|Paul Lévy]] and [[Jean Ville]], the latter adopting the term martingale for the stochastic process.<ref name="HallHeyde2014page1">{{cite book|author1=P. Hall|author2=C. C. Heyde|title=Martingale Limit Theory and Its Application|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqriBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR10|year=2014|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-1-4832-6322-9|pages=1, 2}}</ref><ref name="Dynkin1989">{{cite journal|last1=Dynkin|first1=E. B.|title=Kolmogorov and the Theory of Markov Processes|journal=The Annals of Probability|volume=17|issue=3|year=1989|pages=822–832|issn=0091-1798|doi=10.1214/aop/1176991248|doi-access=free}}</ref> Methods from the theory of martingales became popular for solving various probability problems. Techniques and theory were developed to study Markov processes and then applied to martingales. Conversely, methods from the theory of martingales were established to treat Markov processes.<ref name="Meyer2009"/><br />
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<ref name="Bingham2005">{{引用期刊| last1=Bingham | first1=Bingham first1=N.H.;title=Doob:半个世纪on | journal=journal of Appl概率应用概率| volume=42 | issen=1 | year=1 124年=2005年| pages=257–266 | issn=0021-9002 | doi=10.1239/1239/jap/jap/1110381385 |doiaccess=free}}</ref>Doob还主要发展了鞅理论,后来[[保罗.安德烈.梅耶]也作出了重大贡献。早期的研究是由[[Sergei Bernstein]]、[[Paul Lévy(数学家)| Paul Lévy]]和[[Jean Ville]]进行的,后者采用了随机过程的鞅项。<ref name=“HallHeyde2014page1”>{cite book | author1=P.Hall | author2=C.C.Heyde | title=鞅极限理论及其应用| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gqriBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR10 |年份=2014 | publisher=Elsevier Science | isbn=978-1-4832-6322-9 | pages=1,2}}</ref><ref name=“dynk198989”>{〈引用期刊| last1=Dynkin | first1=E.B.| title=Kolmogorov和马尔可夫过程理论的马尔可夫过程理论| journal=概率年鉴| volume=17 | issue=3 | year=1989 | pages=822–832 | issn=0091-1798 | doi=10.1214/aop/11766991248 | doi access=free}</ref> <ref name=“Meyer2009”/>鞅理论中的方法已成为解决各种概率问题的常用方法。研究马尔可夫过程的技术和理论发展到鞅上。相反地,从鞅理论中也建立了处理Markov过程的方法。<ref name="Meyer2009"/><br />
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Other fields of probability were developed and used to study stochastic processes, with one main approach being the theory of large deviations.<ref name="Meyer2009"/> The theory has many applications in statistical physics, among other fields, and has core ideas going back to at least the 1930s. Later in the 1960s and 1970s fundamental work was done by Alexander Wentzell in the Soviet Union and [[Monroe D. Donsker]] and [[Srinivasa Varadhan]] in the United States of America,<ref name="Ellis1995page98">{{cite journal|last1=Ellis|first1=Richard S.|title=An overview of the theory of large deviations and applications to statistical mechanics|journal=Scandinavian Actuarial Journal|volume=1995|issue=1|year=1995|page=98|issn=0346-1238|doi=10.1080/03461238.1995.10413952}}</ref> which would later result in Varadhan winning the 2007 Abel Prize.<ref name="RaussenSkau2008">{{cite journal|last1=Raussen|first1=Martin|last2=Skau|first2=Christian|title=Interview with Srinivasa Varadhan|journal=Notices of the AMS|volume=55|issue=2|year=2008|pages=238–246}}</ref> In the 1990s and 2000s the theories of [[Schramm–Loewner evolution]]<ref name="HenkelKarevski2012page113">{{cite book|author1=Malte Henkel|author2=Dragi Karevski|title=Conformal Invariance: an Introduction to Loops, Interfaces and Stochastic Loewner Evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fnCQWd0GEZ8C&pg=PA113|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-27933-1|page=113}}</ref> and [[rough paths]]<ref name="FrizVictoir2010page571">{{cite book|author1=Peter K. Friz|author2=Nicolas B. Victoir|title=Multidimensional Stochastic Processes as Rough Paths: Theory and Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVgwLatxfGsC|year=2010|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-48721-4|page=571}}</ref> were introduced and developed to study stochastic processes and other mathematical objects in probability theory, which respectively resulted in [[Fields Medal]]s being awarded to [[Wendelin Werner]]<ref name="Werner2004Fields">{{cite journal|title=2006 Fields Medals Awarded|journal=Notices of the AMS|volume=53|issue=9|year=2015|pages=1041–1044}}</ref> in 2008 and to [[Martin Hairer]] in 2014.<ref name="Hairer2004Fields">{{cite journal|last1=Quastel|first1=Jeremy|title=The Work of the 2014 Fields Medalists|journal=Notices of the AMS|volume=62|issue=11|year=2015|pages=1341–1344}}</ref><br />
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概率的其他领域也被发展和用于研究随机过程,其中一个主要方法是大偏差理论。<ref name=“Meyer2009”/>该理论在统计物理等领域有许多应用,其核心思想至少可以追溯到20世纪30年代。20世纪60年代和70年代后期,苏联的亚历山大·温策尔和美利坚合众国的[[Monroe D.Donsker]]和[[Srinivasa Varadhan]]完成了基础工作,<ref name=“Ellis1995page98”>{cite journal | last1=Ellis | first1=Richard S.| title=大理论概述统计力学的偏差与应用| journal=斯堪的纳维亚精算杂志| volume=1995 | issue=1 | year=1995 | page=98 | issn=0346-1238 | doi=10.1080/03461238.1995.10413952}</ref>,这将使瓦拉丹获得2007年阿贝尔奖。<ref name=“RaussenSkau2008”>{cite journal | last1=Raussen | first1=Martin | last2=Skau | title=采访Srinivasa Varadhan | journal=AMS通知|卷=55 |问题=2 |年=2008 |页=238–246}</ref>上世纪90年代和2000年代的理论[[施拉姆–Loewner演化]]]<ref name=“HenkelkeKarevskI2012Page113”>{引用书〈引书| AuthorAuthorAuthorAuthorAuthorAuthorAuthorAuth1=马尔特-汉克尔| author2=德拉吉Karevski | title=共形不变性:循环、接口和随机Loewner演化简介| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fnCQWd0GEZ8C&pg=PA113 | year=2012 | publisher=Springer Science&Business Media | isbn=978-3-642-27933-1 | page=113}</ref>和[[粗略路径]]<ref name=“frizvictoir201page571”>{cite book | author1=Peter K.Friz | author2=Nicolas B.Victoir | title=多维随机过程作为粗糙路径:理论和应用程序| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVgwLatxfGsC | year=2010 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-1-139-48721-4 | page=571}</ref>被引入和发展来研究概率论中的随机过程和其他数学对象,分别在2008年和2014年分别授予[[Wendelin Werner]]<ref name=“Werner2004Fields”>{cite journal | title=2006菲尔兹勋章| journal=AMS通知|卷=53 |问题=9 |年=2015 |页=1041-1044}</ref>和2014年授予[[Martin Haier]]journal | last1=Quastel | first1=Jeremy | title=2014年菲尔兹奖获得者的作品| journal=AMS的通知|卷=62 |问题=11 |年=2015 |页=1341-1344}</ref><br />
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The theory of stochastic processes still continues to be a focus of research, with yearly international conferences on the topic of stochastic processes.<ref name="BlathImkeller2011"/><ref name="Applebaum2004page1336"/><br />
随机过程理论仍然是研究的焦点,每年都有关于随机过程的国际会议<br />
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Category:Stochastic models<br />
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类别: 随机模型<br />
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Category:Statistical data types<br />
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类别: 统计数据类型<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Stochastic process]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[随机过程/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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<small>此页摘自[[维基百科:英语:随机过程]]。其编辑历史记录可以在[[随efor过程/edithistory]]]</small></noinclude>查阅<br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E4%BB%8B%E6%95%B0%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83%E6%80%A7&diff=19585介数中心性2020-12-02T09:25:58Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由水流心不竞初译,未经审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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[[File:Graph betweenness.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|An [[undirected graph]] colored based on the betweenness centrality of each vertex from least (red) to greatest (blue).]]<br />
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An [[undirected graph colored based on the betweenness centrality of each vertex from least (red) to greatest (blue).]]<br />
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一个[根据每个顶点从最小(红色)到最大(蓝色)之间的中心性着色的无向图]<br />
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In [[graph theory]], '''betweenness centrality''' is a measure of [[centrality]] in a [[Graph (discrete mathematics)|graph]] based on [[Shortest path problem|shortest paths]]. For every pair of vertices in a connected graph, there exists at least one shortest path between the vertices such that either the number of edges that the path passes through (for unweighted graphs) or the sum of the weights of the edges (for weighted graphs) is minimized. The betweenness centrality for each [[Vertex (graph theory)|vertex]] is the number of these shortest paths that pass through the vertex.<br />
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In graph theory, betweenness centrality is a measure of centrality in a graph based on shortest paths. For every pair of vertices in a connected graph, there exists at least one shortest path between the vertices such that either the number of edges that the path passes through (for unweighted graphs) or the sum of the weights of the edges (for weighted graphs) is minimized. The betweenness centrality for each vertex is the number of these shortest paths that pass through the vertex.<br />
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在图论中,'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''是基于最短路径的图中中心性的一种度量。对于连通图中的每一对顶点,在顶点之间至少存在一条最短路径,使得路径通过的边数(对于未加权图)或者边权重的和(对于加权图)最小。每个顶点的中心性是通过该顶点的最短路径的数量。<br />
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Betweenness centrality was devised as a general measure of centrality:{{Sfnp|Freeman|1977|p=39}} it applies to a wide range of problems in network theory, including problems related to social [[network theory|networks]], biology, transport and scientific cooperation. Although earlier authors have intuitively described centrality as based on betweenness, {{Harvp|Freeman|1977}} gave the first formal definition of betweenness centrality.<br />
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Betweenness centrality was devised as a general measure of centrality: it applies to a wide range of problems in network theory, including problems related to social networks, biology, transport and scientific cooperation. Although earlier authors have intuitively described centrality as based on betweenness, gave the first formal definition of betweenness centrality.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''被设计为中心性的一般衡量标准: 它适用于网络理论中的广泛问题,包括与社会网络、生物学、交通和科学合作有关的问题。尽管早期的作者直观地将中心性描述为基于中间性,但给出了'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''的第一个正式定义。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''被设计为中心性的一般衡量标准: 这里不能照搬机器翻译 重新翻译<br />
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Betweenness centrality finds wide application in [[network theory]]; it represents the degree to which nodes stand between each other. For example, in a [[telecommunications network]], a node with higher betweenness centrality would have more control over the network, because more information will pass through that node.<br />
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Betweenness centrality finds wide application in network theory; it represents the degree to which nodes stand between each other. For example, in a telecommunications network, a node with higher betweenness centrality would have more control over the network, because more information will pass through that node.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''在网络理论中有着广泛的应用,它代表了节点之间相互独立的程度。例如,在电信网络中,具有较高'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''的节点将对网络有更多的控制,因为有更多的信息通过该节点。<br />
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--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])应该统一名词表达 node节点/顶点 上文出现顶点,应该全文一致 <br />
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== Definition定义 ==<br />
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The betweenness centrality of a node <math>v</math> is given by the expression:<br />
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The betweenness centrality of a node <math>v</math> is given by the expression:<br />
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一个节点 < math > v </math > 的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''通过以下表达式给出:<br />
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:<math>g(v)= \sum_{s \neq v \neq t}\frac{\sigma_{st}(v)}{\sigma_{st}}</math><br />
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<math>g(v)= \sum_{s \neq v \neq t}\frac{\sigma_{st}(v)}{\sigma_{st}}</math><br />
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< math > g (v) = sum _ { s neq v neq t } frac { sigma _ st }(v)}{ sigma _ st } </math > <br />
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where <math>\sigma_{st}</math> is the total number of shortest paths from node <math>s</math> to node <math>t</math> and <math>\sigma_{st}(v)</math> is the number of those paths that pass through <math>v</math>.<br />
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where <math>\sigma_{st}</math> is the total number of shortest paths from node <math>s</math> to node <math>t</math> and <math>\sigma_{st}(v)</math> is the number of those paths that pass through <math>v</math>.<br />
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其中 < math > sigma { st } </math > 是从节点 < math > s </math > 到节点 < math > t </math > 和 < math > sigma { st }(v) </math > 的最短路径总数。<br />
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Note that the betweenness centrality of a node scales with the number of pairs of nodes as suggested by the summation indices. Therefore, the calculation may be rescaled by dividing through by the number of pairs of nodes not including <math>v</math>, so that <math>g \in [0,1]</math>. The division is done by <math>(N-1)(N-2)</math> for directed graphs and <math>(N-1)(N-2)/2</math> for undirected graphs, where <math>N</math> is the number of nodes in the giant component. Note that this scales for the highest possible value, where one node is crossed by every single shortest path. This is often not the case, and a normalization can be performed without a loss of precision<br />
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Note that the betweenness centrality of a node scales with the number of pairs of nodes as suggested by the summation indices. Therefore, the calculation may be rescaled by dividing through by the number of pairs of nodes not including <math>v</math>, so that <math>g \in [0,1]</math>. The division is done by <math>(N-1)(N-2)</math> for directed graphs and <math>(N-1)(N-2)/2</math> for undirected graphs, where <math>N</math> is the number of nodes in the giant component. Note that this scales for the highest possible value, where one node is crossed by every single shortest path. This is often not the case, and a normalization can be performed without a loss of precision<br />
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注意,如总和索引所示,一个节点的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''与节点对的数量成比例缩放。因此,计算可以通过除以不包括 < math > v </math > 的节点对数来重新标度,以使< math > g 在[0,1] </math > 中。有向图的除法是通过 < math > (N-1)(N-2) </math > 来完成的,而 < math > (N-1)(N-2)/2 </math > 的除法是通过无向图来完成的,其中 < math > n </math > 是巨型组件中的节点数。请注意,这可以缩放最大可能值,一个节点由每个最短路径交叉。事实往往并非如此,可以在不损失精度的情况下执行规范化<br />
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--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])有向图的除法是通过 < math > (N-1)(N-2) </math > 来完成的,而 < math > (N-1)(N-2)/2 </math > 的除法是通过无向图来完成的, 两句可以采用相同的句式<br />
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:<math>\mbox{normal}(g(v)) = \frac{g(v) - \min(g)}{\max(g) - \min(g)}</math><br />
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<math>\mbox{normal}(g(v)) = \frac{g(v) - \min(g)}{\max(g) - \min(g)}</math><br />
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(g (v)) = frac { g (v)-min (g)}{ max (g)-min (g)} </math > <br />
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which results in:<br />
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which results in:<br />
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结果是:<br />
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:<math>\max(normal) = 1</math><br />
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<math>\max(normal) = 1</math><br />
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Max (正常) = 1 </math > <br />
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:<math>\min(normal) = 0</math><br />
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<math>\min(normal) = 0</math><br />
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< math > min (正常) = 0 </math > <br />
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Note that this will always be a scaling from a smaller range into a larger range, so no precision is lost.<br />
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Note that this will always be a scaling from a smaller range into a larger range, so no precision is lost.<br />
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请注意,这将始终是从较小范围到较大范围的缩放,因此不会丢失精度。<br />
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== The load distribution in real and model networks 真实网络和模型网络中的负荷分配==<br />
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=== Model networks 模型网络===<br />
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[[File:Load Dist.png|thumb|400px|Plot showing the power law distribution of load in a scale free network for various values of <math>\gamma</math>.Circles: <math>\gamma=2.2</math><br />
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[[File:Load Dist.png|thumb|400px|Plot showing the power law distribution of load in a scale free network for various values of <math>\gamma</math>.Circles: <math>\gamma=2.2</math><br />
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[文件: Load Dist.png | thumb | 400px | Plot show the power law of Load distribution of Load in a scale free network for various values of < math > gamma </math > 。圆圈: < math > gamma = 2.2 </math > <br />
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, Squares:<math>\gamma=2.5</math>,<br />
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, Squares:<math>\gamma=2.5</math>,<br />
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正方形: < math > gamma = 2.5 </math > ,<br />
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Diamonds:<math>\gamma=3.0</math>,<br />
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Diamonds:<math>\gamma=3.0</math>,<br />
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钻石: < math > gamma = 3.0 </math > ,<br />
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X's:<math>\gamma=4.0</math>,<br />
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X's:<math>\gamma=4.0</math>,<br />
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4.0 </math > ,<br />
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Triangles:<math>\gamma= \infin </math> <ref name="Goh">K.-I. Goh, B. Kahng, and D. Kim PhysRevLett.87.278701</ref>]]<br />
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Triangles:<math>\gamma= \infin </math> ]]<br />
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三角形: < math > gamma = infin </math > ]<br />
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It has been shown that the load distribution of a [[scale-free network]] follows a [[power law]] given by a load exponent <math>\delta</math>,{{Sfnp|Goh|Kahng|Kim|2001}}<br />
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It has been shown that the load distribution of a scale-free network follows a power law given by a load exponent <math>\delta</math>,<br />
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已经证明,无标度网络的负荷分布遵循一个由负荷指数给出的幂律,<br />
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:<math>P(g) \approx g^{-\delta}</math> (1)<br />
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<math>P(g) \approx g^{-\delta}</math> (1)<br />
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< math > p (g) approx g ^ {-delta } </math > (1)<br />
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this implies the scaling relation to the degree of the node,<br />
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this implies the scaling relation to the degree of the node,<br />
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这意味着与节点度的缩放关系,<br />
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:<math>g(k) \approx k^\eta</math>.<br />
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<math>g(k) \approx k^\eta</math>.<br />
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[ math ] g (k) approx k ^ eta.<br />
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Where <math>g(k)</math> is the average load of vertices with degree <math>k</math>. The exponents <math>\delta</math> and <math>\eta</math> are not independent since equation (1) implies <ref name="Bart">M. Barthélemy. Betweenness centrality in large complex networks. Eur. Phys. J. B 38, 163–168 (2004)</ref><br />
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Where <math>g(k)</math> is the average load of vertices with degree <math>k</math>. The exponents <math>\delta</math> and <math>\eta</math> are not independent since equation (1) implies <br />
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其中 < math > g (k) </math > 是度为 < math > k </math > 的顶点的平均负载。指数 < math > delta </math > 和 < math > eta </math > 不是独立的,因为方程(1)指出<br />
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:<math>P(g)= \int P(k) \delta (g-k^\eta) dk</math><br />
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<math>P(g)= \int P(k) \delta (g-k^\eta) dk</math><br />
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<math>P(g)= \int P(k) \delta (g-k^\eta) dk</math><br />
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For large g, and therefore large k, the expression becomes<br />
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For large g, and therefore large k, the expression becomes<br />
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对于大 g,也就是大 k,表达式变成<br />
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:<math>P(g\gg1)= \int k^{-\gamma} \delta (g-k^\eta) dk</math><br />
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<math>P(g\gg1)= \int k^{-\gamma} \delta (g-k^\eta) dk</math><br />
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<math>P(g\gg1)= \int k^{-\gamma} \delta (g-k^\eta) dk</math><br />
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:<math>\sim g^{-1-\frac{\gamma -1}{\eta}} </math><br />
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<math>\sim g^{-1-\frac{\gamma -1}{\eta}} </math><br />
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<math>\sim g^{-1-\frac{\gamma -1}{\eta}} </math><br />
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which proves the following equality:<br />
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which proves the following equality:<br />
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这证明了以下的平等性:<br />
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:<math>\eta=\frac{\gamma -1}{\delta -1}</math><br />
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<math>\eta=\frac{\gamma -1}{\delta -1}</math><br />
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< math > eta = frac { gamma-1}{ delta-1} </math > <br />
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The important exponent appears to be <math>\eta</math> which describes how the betweenness centrality depends on the connectivity. The situation which maximizes the betweenness centrality for a vertex is when all shortest paths are going through it, which corresponds to a tree structure (a network with no clustering). In the case of a tree network the maximum value of <math>\eta = 2</math> is reached.<ref name="Bart" /><br />
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The important exponent appears to be <math>\eta</math> which describes how the betweenness centrality depends on the connectivity. The situation which maximizes the betweenness centrality for a vertex is when all shortest paths are going through it, which corresponds to a tree structure (a network with no clustering). In the case of a tree network the maximum value of <math>\eta = 2</math> is reached.<br />
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重要的指数似乎是 < math > eta </math > ,它描述了两者之间的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''如何依赖于连通性。当所有的最短路径都经过一个顶点时,这种情况使顶点的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''最大化,这相当于一个树结构(一个没有聚类的网络)。在树形网络的情况下,达到了 < math > eta = 2 </math > 的最大值。<br />
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:<math>\eta = 2 \rarr \delta = \frac{\gamma +1}{2} </math><br />
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<math>\eta = 2 \rarr \delta = \frac{\gamma +1}{2} </math><br />
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< math > eta = 2 rarr delta = frac { gamma + 1}{2} </math > <br />
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This maximal value of <math>\eta</math> (and hence minimum of <math>\delta</math>) puts bounds on the load exponents for networks with non-vanishing clustering.<br />
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This maximal value of <math>\eta</math> (and hence minimum of <math>\delta</math>) puts bounds on the load exponents for networks with non-vanishing clustering.<br />
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这个 < math > eta </math > 的最大值(因此是 < math > delta </math > 的最小值)为具有'''<font color="#32CD32"> 非消失聚类Non-vanishing clustering</font>'''的网络的负载指数设置了界限。<br />
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:<math>\eta \le 2 \rarr \delta \ge \frac{\gamma +1}{2} </math><br />
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<math>\eta \le 2 \rarr \delta \ge \frac{\gamma +1}{2} </math><br />
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< math > eta le 2 rarr delta ge frac { gamma + 1}{2} </math > <br />
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In this case, the exponents <math>\delta , \eta </math> are not universal and depend on the different details (average connectivity, correlations, etc.)<br />
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In this case, the exponents <math>\delta , \eta </math> are not universal and depend on the different details (average connectivity, correlations, etc.)<br />
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在这种情况下,指数 < math > delta,eta </math > 并不是通用的,取决于不同的细节(平均连接性、相关性等)<br />
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=== Real networks 真实网络===<br />
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Real world scale free networks, such as the internet, also follow a power law load distribution.<ref name="Goh2">Kwang-Il Goh, Eulsik Oh, Hawoong Jeong, Byungnam Kahng, and Doochul Kim. Classification of scale-free networks. PNAS (2002) vol. 99 no. 2</ref> This is an intuitive result. Scale free networks arrange themselves to create short path lengths across the network by creating a few hub nodes with much higher connectivity than the majority of the network. These hubs will naturally experience much higher loads because of this added connectivity.<br />
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Real world scale free networks, such as the internet, also follow a power law load distribution. This is an intuitive result. Scale free networks arrange themselves to create short path lengths across the network by creating a few hub nodes with much higher connectivity than the majority of the network. These hubs will naturally experience much higher loads because of this added connectivity.<br />
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现实世界中的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 无标度网络Scale free networks</font>''',如互联网,也遵循幂律负载分布。这是一个直观的结果。无标度网络通过创建一些比大多数网络具有更高连通性的枢纽节点,自我安排以创建穿越网络的短路径。由于这种额外的连接,这些集线器自然会经历更高的负载。<br />
--~~~自我安排以创建穿越网络的短路径 可以再解释一下“自我安排”<br />
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== Weighted networks 加权网络==<br />
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In a weighted network the links connecting the nodes are no longer treated as binary interactions, but are weighted in proportion to their capacity, influence, frequency, etc., which adds another dimension of heterogeneity within the network beyond the topological effects. A node's strength in a weighted network is given by the sum of the weights of its adjacent edges.<br />
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In a weighted network the links connecting the nodes are no longer treated as binary interactions, but are weighted in proportion to their capacity, influence, frequency, etc., which adds another dimension of heterogeneity within the network beyond the topological effects. A node's strength in a weighted network is given by the sum of the weights of its adjacent edges.<br />
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在加权网络中,连接节点的链路不再被视为二元相互作用,而是根据其容量、影响力、频率等按比例加权,这在拓扑效应之外增加了网络内异质性的另一个维度。一个加权网络中的节点的强度是由其相邻边的权重之和来表示的。<br />
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:<math>s_{i} = \sum_{j=1}^{N} a_{ij}w_{ij}</math><br />
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<math>s_{i} = \sum_{j=1}^{N} a_{ij}w_{ij}</math><br />
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[数学][数学][数学]<br />
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With <math>a_{ij}</math> and <math>w_{ij}</math> being adjacency and weight matrices between nodes <math>i</math> and <math>j</math>, respectively.<br />
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With <math>a_{ij}</math> and <math>w_{ij}</math> being adjacency and weight matrices between nodes <math>i</math> and <math>j</math>, respectively.<br />
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用 < math > a { ij } </math > 和 < math > w { ij } </math > 分别作为 < math > i </math > 和 < math > < j </math > 节点之间的邻接矩阵和权矩阵。<br />
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Analogous to the power law distribution of degree found in scale free networks, the strength of a given node follows a power law distribution as well.<br />
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Analogous to the power law distribution of degree found in scale free networks, the strength of a given node follows a power law distribution as well.<br />
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类似于'''<font color="#ff8000"> 无标度网络Scale free networks</font>'''中度的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 幂律分布Power law distribution</font>''',给定节点的强度也服从'''<font color="#ff8000"> 幂律分布Power law distribution</font>'''。<br />
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:<math>s(k) \approx k^\beta </math><br />
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<math>s(k) \approx k^\beta </math><br />
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[ math ] s (k) approx k ^ beta [ math ]<br />
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A study of the average value <math>s(b)</math> of the strength for vertices with betweenness <math>b</math> shows that the functional behavior can be approximated by a scaling form <ref name="Barrat">A. Barrat, M. Barthelemy, R. Pastor-Satorras, and A. Vespignani. The architecture of complex weighted networks. PNAS (2004) vol. 101 no. 11</ref><br />
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A study of the average value <math>s(b)</math> of the strength for vertices with betweenness <math>b</math> shows that the functional behavior can be approximated by a scaling form <br />
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一项对具有介数<math>s(b)</math>的顶点强度的平均值<math>s(b)</math>的研究表明,函数行为可以用缩放形式来近似<br />
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:<math>s(b)\approx b^{\alpha} </math><br />
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<math>s(b)\approx b^{\alpha} </math><br />
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S (b) approx b ^ { alpha } </math > <br />
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=='''<font color="#ff8000"> Percolation centrality渗滤中心性</font>'''==<br />
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Percolation centrality is a version of weighted betweenness centrality, but it considers the 'state' of the source and target nodes of each shortest path in calculating this weight. Percolation of a ‘contagion’ occurs in complex networks in a number of scenarios. For example, viral or bacterial infection can spread over social networks of people, known as contact networks. The spread of disease can also be considered at a higher level of abstraction, by contemplating a network of towns or population centres, connected by road, rail or air links. Computer viruses can spread over computer networks. Rumours or news about business offers and deals can also spread via social networks of people. In all of these scenarios, a ‘contagion’ spreads over the links of a complex network, altering the ‘states’ of the nodes as it spreads, either recoverably or otherwise. For example, in an epidemiological scenario, individuals go from ‘susceptible’ to ‘infected’ state as the infection spreads. The states the individual nodes can take in the above examples could be binary (such as received/not received a piece of news), discrete (susceptible/infected/recovered), or even continuous (such as the proportion of infected people in a town), as the contagion spreads. The common feature in all these scenarios is that the spread of contagion results in the change of node states in networks. Percolation centrality (PC) was proposed with this in mind, which specifically measures the importance of nodes in terms of aiding the percolation through the network. This measure was proposed by Piraveenan et al.<ref name="piraveenan2013">{{cite journal |last1 = Piraveenan |first1 = Mahendra | year=2013| title = Percolation Centrality: Quantifying Graph-Theoretic Impact of Nodes during Percolation in Networks | journal = PLOS ONE | volume=8 | issue=1 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0053095 | pages=e53095 | pmid=23349699 | pmc=3551907| bibcode=2013PLoSO...853095P }}</ref><br />
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Percolation centrality is a version of weighted betweenness centrality, but it considers the 'state' of the source and target nodes of each shortest path in calculating this weight. Percolation of a ‘contagion’ occurs in complex networks in a number of scenarios. For example, viral or bacterial infection can spread over social networks of people, known as contact networks. The spread of disease can also be considered at a higher level of abstraction, by contemplating a network of towns or population centres, connected by road, rail or air links. Computer viruses can spread over computer networks. Rumours or news about business offers and deals can also spread via social networks of people. In all of these scenarios, a ‘contagion’ spreads over the links of a complex network, altering the ‘states’ of the nodes as it spreads, either recoverably or otherwise. For example, in an epidemiological scenario, individuals go from ‘susceptible’ to ‘infected’ state as the infection spreads. The states the individual nodes can take in the above examples could be binary (such as received/not received a piece of news), discrete (susceptible/infected/recovered), or even continuous (such as the proportion of infected people in a town), as the contagion spreads. The common feature in all these scenarios is that the spread of contagion results in the change of node states in networks. Percolation centrality (PC) was proposed with this in mind, which specifically measures the importance of nodes in terms of aiding the percolation through the network. This measure was proposed by Piraveenan et al.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> Percolation centrality渗滤中心性</font>'''是一种加权的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>''',但它在计算这个权重时考虑了每条最短路径的源节点和目标节点的状态。在许多情况下,复杂网络中都会出现“传染”现象。例如,病毒或细菌感染可以通过人们的社交网络传播,也就是所谓的接触网络。还可以在更高的抽象层次上考虑疾病的传播问题,设想通过公路、铁路或空中连接起来的城镇或人口中心网络。计算机病毒可以通过计算机网络传播。关于商业活动和交易的谣言或新闻也可以通过人们的社交网络传播。在所有这些情况下,一种“传染病”在一个复杂网络的链接上传播,随着它的传播,无论是可恢复的还是不可恢复的,都会改变节点的“状态”。例如,在流行病学方案中,随着感染扩散,个人从”易感”状态转变为”受感染”状态。在上面的例子中,每个节点可以采取的状态可以是二进制的(例如接收/没有接收到一条新闻)、离散的(易感/受感染/康复) ,甚至是连续的(例如一个城镇中受感染的人的比例) ,随着传染的扩散。这些情景的共同特点是,传染的扩散导致网络中节点状态的改变。'''<font color="#ff8000"> Percolation centrality渗滤中心性</font>'''(PC)就是基于这个思想而提出的,它特别地衡量了节点在协助网络渗滤方面的重要性。这项措施是由 piraveanan 等人提出的。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])在所有这些情况下,一种“传染病”在一个复杂网络的链接上传播,随着它的传播,无论是可恢复的还是不可恢复的,都会改变节点的“状态”。例如,在流行病学方案中,随着感染扩散,个人从”易感”状态转变为”受感染”状态。 在上面的例子中,每个节点可以采取的状态可以是二进制的(例如接收/没有接收到一条新闻)、离散的(易感/受感染/康复) ,甚至是连续的(例如一个城镇中受感染的人的比例) ,随着传染的扩散。这些情景的共同特点是,传染的扩散导致网络中节点状态的改变。 该段还可以再精简优化一下。<br />
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Percolation centrality is defined for a given node, at a given time, as the proportion of ‘percolated paths’ that go through that node. A ‘percolated path’ is a shortest path between a pair of nodes, where the source node is percolated (e.g., infected). The target node can be percolated or non-percolated, or in a partially percolated state.<br />
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Percolation centrality is defined for a given node, at a given time, as the proportion of ‘percolated paths’ that go through that node. A ‘percolated path’ is a shortest path between a pair of nodes, where the source node is percolated (e.g., infected). The target node can be percolated or non-percolated, or in a partially percolated state.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> Percolation centrality渗滤中心性</font>'''定义为在给定时间内一个给定节点的过滤路径的比例。“渗滤路径”是一对节点之间的最短路径,其中源节点被渗滤(例如,被感染)。目标节点可以是过滤的或非过滤的,或处于部分过滤状态。<br />
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:<math>PC^t(v)= \frac{1}{N-2}\sum_{s \neq v \neq r}\frac{\sigma_{sr}(v)}{\sigma_{sr}}\frac{{x^t}_s}{{\sum {[{x^t}_i}]}-{x^t}_v}</math><br />
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<math>PC^t(v)= \frac{1}{N-2}\sum_{s \neq v \neq r}\frac{\sigma_{sr}(v)}{\sigma_{sr}}\frac{{x^t}_s}{{\sum {[{x^t}_i}]}-{x^t}_v}</math><br />
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< math > PC ^ t (v) = frac {1}{ N-2} sum { s neq v neq r } frac { sigma { sr }(v)}{ sigma { sr }} frac { x ^ t }{ sum {[{ x ^ t } i }}}]}}-{ x ^ t }{ v } </math ><br />
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where <math>\sigma_{sr}</math> is total number of shortest paths from node <math>s</math> to node <math>r</math> and <math>\sigma_{sr}(v)</math> is the number of those paths that pass through <math>v</math>. The percolation state of the node <math>i</math> at time <math>t</math> is denoted by <math>{x^t}_i</math> and two special cases are when <math>{x^t}_i=0</math> which indicates a non-percolated state at time <math>t</math> whereas when <math>{x^t}_i=1</math> which indicates a fully percolated state at time <math>t</math>. The values in between indicate partially percolated states ( e.g., in a network of townships, this would be the percentage of people infected in that town).<br />
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where <math>\sigma_{sr}</math> is total number of shortest paths from node <math>s</math> to node <math>r</math> and <math>\sigma_{sr}(v)</math> is the number of those paths that pass through <math>v</math>. The percolation state of the node <math>i</math> at time <math>t</math> is denoted by <math>{x^t}_i</math> and two special cases are when <math>{x^t}_i=0</math> which indicates a non-percolated state at time <math>t</math> whereas when <math>{x^t}_i=1</math> which indicates a fully percolated state at time <math>t</math>. The values in between indicate partially percolated states ( e.g., in a network of townships, this would be the percentage of people infected in that town).<br />
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其中 < math > σ { sr } </math > 是从节点 < math > s </math > 到节点 < math > r </math > 和 < math > sigma { sr }(v) </math > 是通过 < math > v </math > 的路径的总数。在时间 < math > t </math > 时,节点的过滤状态用 < math > { x ^ t } _ i </math > 表示,两个特殊情况是当 < math > { x ^ t } _ i = 0 </math > 表示在时间上是非过滤状态,而当 < math > < x ^ t </math > i = 1 </math > 表示在时间上是完全过滤状态。两者之间的值表示部分过滤状态(例如,在一个城镇网络中,这是该城镇感染者的百分比)。<br />
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The attached weights to the percolation paths depend on the percolation levels assigned to the source nodes, based on the premise that the higher the percolation level of a source node is, the more important are the paths that originate from that node. Nodes which lie on shortest paths originating from highly percolated nodes are therefore potentially more important to the percolation. The definition of PC may also be extended to include target node weights as well. Percolation centrality calculations run in [[Big O notation|<math>O(NM)</math>]] time with an efficient implementation adopted from Brandes' fast algorithm and if the calculation needs to consider target nodes weights, the worst case time is [[Big O notation|<math>O(N^3)</math>]].<br />
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The attached weights to the percolation paths depend on the percolation levels assigned to the source nodes, based on the premise that the higher the percolation level of a source node is, the more important are the paths that originate from that node. Nodes which lie on shortest paths originating from highly percolated nodes are therefore potentially more important to the percolation. The definition of PC may also be extended to include target node weights as well. Percolation centrality calculations run in <math>O(NM)</math> time with an efficient implementation adopted from Brandes' fast algorithm and if the calculation needs to consider target nodes weights, the worst case time is <math>O(N^3)</math>.<br />
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渗流路径的权重取决于分配给源节点的渗流水平,前提是源节点的渗流水平越高,源节点的路径就越重要。因此,位于源自高渗滤节点的最短路径上的节点可能对渗滤更为重要。PC 的定义也可以扩展到包括目标节点的权重。'''<font color="#ff8000"> Percolation centrality渗滤中心性</font>'''计算运行在 < math > o (NM) </math > 时间,采用了 Brandes 快速算法的有效实现,如果计算需要考虑目标节点的权重,最坏情况下时间为 < math > o (n ^ 3) </math > 。<br />
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== Algorithms 算法==<br />
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Calculating the betweenness and closeness centralities of all the [[Vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] in a graph involves calculating the shortest paths between all pairs of vertices on a graph, which takes [[big theta|<math>\Theta(|V|^3)</math>]] time with the [[Floyd–Warshall algorithm]], modified to not only find one but count all shortest paths between two nodes. On a sparse graph, [[Johnson's algorithm]] or Brandes' algorithm may be more efficient, both taking [[Big O notation|<math>O(|V|^2 \log |V| + |V| |E|)</math>]] time. On unweighted graphs, calculating betweenness centrality takes [[Big O notation|<math>O(|V| |E|)</math>]] time using Brandes' algorithm.{{Sfnp|Brandes|2001|p=1}}<br />
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Calculating the betweenness and closeness centralities of all the vertices in a graph involves calculating the shortest paths between all pairs of vertices on a graph, which takes ^3)</math> time with the Floyd–Warshall algorithm, modified to not only find one but count all shortest paths between two nodes. On a sparse graph, Johnson's algorithm or Brandes' algorithm may be more efficient, both taking )</math> time. On unweighted graphs, calculating betweenness centrality takes )</math> time using Brandes' algorithm.<br />
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计算一个图中所有顶点的中间性和'''<font color="#ff8000"> 紧密中心性Closeness centralities</font>'''涉及到计算一个图中所有顶点对之间的最短路径,这需要 ^ 3) </math > 时间,使用 Floyd-Warshall 算法,修改后不仅可以找到一个,而且可以计算两个节点之间的所有最短路径。在稀疏图上,约翰逊算法或布兰德斯算法可能更有效率,两者都占用时间。在未加权图上,使用 Brandes 算法计算'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''需要 </math > 时间。<br />
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In calculating betweenness and closeness centralities of all vertices in a graph, it is assumed that graphs are undirected and connected with the allowance of loops and multiple edges. When specifically dealing with network graphs, often graphs are without loops or multiple edges to maintain simple relationships (where edges represent connections between two people or vertices). In this case, using Brandes' algorithm will divide final centrality scores by 2 to account for each shortest path being counted twice.{{Sfnp|Brandes|2001|p=9}}<br />
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In calculating betweenness and closeness centralities of all vertices in a graph, it is assumed that graphs are undirected and connected with the allowance of loops and multiple edges. When specifically dealing with network graphs, often graphs are without loops or multiple edges to maintain simple relationships (where edges represent connections between two people or vertices). In this case, using Brandes' algorithm will divide final centrality scores by 2 to account for each shortest path being counted twice.<br />
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在计算一个图的所有顶点的中间性和'''<font color="#ff8000"> 紧密中心性Closeness centralities</font>'''时,假定图是无向的,并且图是连通的。当专门处理网络图时,图通常没有环或多条边来维持简单的关系(其中的边表示两个人或顶点之间的联系)。在这种情况下,使用 Brandes 的算法将最终的中心性分数除以2来计算每条被重复计算的最短路径。<br />
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Another algorithm generalizes the Freeman's betweenness computed on geodesics and Newman's betweenness computed on all paths, by introducing a hyper-parameter controlling the trade-off between exploration and exploitation. The time complexity is the number of edges times the number of nodes in the graph.{{Sfnp|Mantrach|2010}}<br />
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Another algorithm generalizes the Freeman's betweenness computed on geodesics and Newman's betweenness computed on all paths, by introducing a hyper-parameter controlling the trade-off between exploration and exploitation. The time complexity is the number of edges times the number of nodes in the graph.<br />
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另一个算法通过引入一个超参数来控制勘探和开发之间的平衡,将大地测量学上计算的 Freeman(弗里曼) 介数和所有路径上纽曼介数的计算结果进行了推广。时间复杂度是图中的边数乘以节点数。<br />
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The concept of centrality was extended to a group level as well.<ref name=group>Puzis, R., Yagil, D., Elovici, Y., Braha, D. (2009)[http://necsi.edu/affiliates/braha/Internet_Research_Anonimity.pdf Collaborative attack on Internet users’ anonymity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207133417/http://necsi.edu/affiliates/braha/Internet_Research_Anonimity.pdf |date=2013-12-07 }}, ''Internet Research'' '''19'''(1)</ref> Group betweenness centrality shows the proportion of geodesics connecting pairs of non-group members that pass through a group of nodes. Brandes' algorithm for computing the betweenness centrality of all vertices was modified to compute the group betweenness centrality of one group of nodes with the same asymptotic running time.<ref name="group"/><br />
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The concept of centrality was extended to a group level as well. Group betweenness centrality shows the proportion of geodesics connecting pairs of non-group members that pass through a group of nodes. Brandes' algorithm for computing the betweenness centrality of all vertices was modified to compute the group betweenness centrality of one group of nodes with the same asymptotic running time.<br />
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中心性的概念也扩展到了群体层次。组间中心性反映了连接一组节点的非组成员对的测地线所占的比例。修正了布兰德斯计算所有顶点之间的中心性的算法,以计算具有相同渐近运行时间的一组节点之间的中心性。<br />
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== Related concepts相关概念 ==<br />
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''Betweenness centrality'' is related to a network's [[Connectivity (graph theory)|connectivity]], in so much as high betweenness vertices have the potential to disconnect graphs if removed (see [[Cut (graph theory)|cut set]]) .<br />
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Betweenness centrality is related to a network's connectivity, in so much as high betweenness vertices have the potential to disconnect graphs if removed (see cut set) .<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 介数中心性Betweenness centrality</font>'''与网络的连通性有关,在如此多的高中间性顶点中,如果移除了中断图(见割集)的可能性。<br />
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== See also 又及==<br />
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* [[Centrality]]<br />
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*[[中心性]]<br />
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== Notes 备注==<br />
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{{Reflist}}<br />
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== References 参考文献==<br />
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{{Refbegin|40em}}<br />
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*{{cite journal<br />
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*{{cite journal|last1=Dolev|first1=Shlomi|last2=Elovici|first2=Yuval|last3=Puzis|first3=Rami|title=Routing betweenness centrality|journal=J. ACM|date=2010|volume=57|issue=4|pages=25:1&ndash;25:27|doi=10.1145/1734213.1734219}}<br />
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{{Refend}}<br />
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<br />
[[Category:Network theory]]<br />
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Category:Network theory<br />
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范畴: 网络理论<br />
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Category:Graph invariants<br />
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类别: 图形不变量<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Betweenness centrality]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[介数中心性/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E9%9B%86%E6%99%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E5%9B%A2%E9%98%9F&diff=19055集智百科团队2020-11-23T00:17:32Z<p>小趣木木:/* 内容生产团队 */</p>
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<div>== 集智百科团队 ==<br />
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集智百科是集智俱乐部社区的一个知识性产品,主要的目的是为了打造复杂性科学领域最全面、科学、客观的百科全书。<br />
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集智百科的生产依然采用集智俱乐部传统且高效的模式:众包生产。希望依靠社区的力量,吸引一批对知识本身,知识分享,知识整理感兴趣的朋友,一同完成这项万古长青的事业。<br />
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目前集智百科的生产,打造了一个初步的内容生产闭环,按照内容生产的需求,分为了内容翻译团队、内容审校团队、审校团队、专家团队、内容编辑团队。<br />
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=== 内容生产团队 ===<br />
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* 信息收集团队的要求:<br />
:*对复杂性科学感兴趣,能轻松阅读外网资源<br />
:*具备良好的英语翻译和写作能力<br />
:*每周至少5个小时左右的时间可以投入到内容<br />
:*可以科学上网,具备较强的信息检索能力<br />
:*对复杂性科学感兴趣,能轻松阅读外网资源,对复杂性科学这个领域比较了解<br />
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* 内容生产团队的职责:<br />
:*根据内容框架扩充词条内容<br />
:*借助外网维基百科中的词条内容,翻译词条,并对文字进行处理,翻译成符合中文语法表达,添加自己思考,确保专业性的词条。<br />
新手入门手册:[[集智百科翻译团队工作指南]]<br />
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=== 内容审校团队 ===<br />
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* 内容审校团队的要求:<br />
:*精通复杂性科学,能轻松阅读外网资源<br />
:*具备良好的中英双语阅读和写作能力<br />
:*每周至少5个小时左右的时间投入到内容审校<br />
:*可以科学上网,具备较强的信息检索能力<br />
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* 内容审核团队的主要职责:<br />
:*根据内容审核清单,为词条质量把关,针对发现的知识性、语言性问题,及时与内容生产者沟通解决<br />
:*为问题建档,每周分享,帮助内容生产者迅速成长<br />
:*为审校团队培养新成员<br />
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=== 专家团队 ===<br />
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* 信息收集团队的要求:<br />
:*复杂性科学领域某个细分领域的相关专家或者研究员<br />
:*认可集智百科的理念和价值观<br />
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* 信息收集团队的主要职责:<br />
:*对相关专业的词条进行终审,确保内容的专业性和科学性<br />
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* 团队主要成员:张江、陈关荣、吴令飞、王成军<br />
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=== [[内容编辑团队]] ===<br />
*内容编辑团队的要求:<br />
:*对复杂性科学感兴趣,认真负责,有细心有耐心<br />
:*每周至少5个小时左右的时间可以投入到内容编辑过程中<br />
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*内容编辑团队的主要职责:<br />
:*已审内容排版、并上线到集智百科上,完成词条闭环<br />
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*内容编辑团队的目标:<br />
:*提升词条内容可读性,让读者学习知识的同时感受集智百科团队的用心<br />
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*内容编辑团队的工作内容:<br />
:*内容再审:查看内容是否存在重要内容缺失、错别字等情况<br />
:*补充内容:上传相关图片;引入参考文献;添加作者推荐<br />
:*词条排版:统一各级标题格式、调整图片位置等<br />
:*词条上线:添加SEO、重定向、规范协议、分类信息等<br />
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* 词条编辑教程:[[新手上路——词条编辑]]<br />
* 词条编辑自查:[[词条编辑自查]]<br />
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* 团队主要成员:[[用户:薄荷|李媛翯]]、[[用户:Meng莫|孟婕]]、[[用户:Yiri|Yiri]]、[[用户:费米子|王淑慧]]、[[用户:乐多多|宋多琪]]、[[用户:许许|许许]]、[[用户:不是海绵宝宝|李洁欣]]、[[用户:打豆豆|马宇杰]]<br />
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=== 内容加工团队 ===<br />
*内容加工团队的要求:<br />
:*有较好的中文写作和英文笔译能力<br />
:*对人工智能、复杂系统等前沿科学感兴趣<br />
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*内容加工团队的工作内容:<br />
:*针对编辑好的词条,重新整理润色作为公众号推文,在集智俱乐部公众号进行推送。<br />
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=== 内容运营团队 ===<br />
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* 具备要求:<br />
:* 良好的沟通、统筹协调能力<br />
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* 运营团队的主要职责:<br />
:*根据词条所处阶段,对接不同的项目组,负责词条生产的整个流程,使得内容高效生产<br />
:*对接对集智百科词条编辑感兴趣的朋友,帮助他们快速的上手词条内容的编辑<br />
:*运营管理集智百科的兴趣群<br />
:*对集智百科团队生产过程中遇到的问题,及时协调解决<br />
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[[File:集智百科团队工作流程.png|1200px]]<br />
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== [https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?from=&to=&namespace=2&title=特殊%3A所有页面 百科团队贡献者]主页 ==<br />
这个页面记录了参与百科的内容生产工作的志愿者,感谢他们的辛苦付出,才有我们阅读起来体验感非常好的百科词条。如果想要了解这些有趣的朋友,可以点击他们的个人主页查看更多信息。:[https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?from=&to=&namespace=2&title=特殊%3A所有页面 百科团队贡献者]<br />
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[[File:屏幕快照 2020-08-12 17.07.59.png|1200px]]<br />
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查看[[百科荣誉榜]],看每周的贡献之星都有哪些朋友吧!</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E8%87%AA%E5%8F%91%E7%A7%A9%E5%BA%8F&diff=18325自发秩序2020-11-14T03:51:33Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
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<div>本词条由11初步翻译<br />
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https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B9%B3%E8%A1%A1%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA#:~:text=%E6%9C%AC%E8%AF%8D%E6%9D%A1%E7%94%B1,11%E5%88%9D%E6%AD%A5%E7%BF%BB%E8%AF%91<br />
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{{short description|Spontaneous emergence of order out of seeming chaos}}<br />
{{简述|从看似混乱中自发出现的秩序}}<br />
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{{Refimprove|date=January 2017}}<br />
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{{Inadequate lead|date=October 2020}}<br />
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'''Spontaneous order''', also named [[self-organization]] in the [[Hard and soft science|hard sciences]], is the spontaneous [[emergence]] of order out of seeming chaos. It is a process in [[social network]]s including [[economics]], though the term "self-organization" is more often used for [[physical change]]s and [[biological process]]es, while "spontaneous order" is typically used to describe the emergence of various kinds of social orders from a combination of self-interested individuals who are not intentionally trying to create order through [[planning]]. The [[Evolutionary history of life|evolution of life on Earth]], [[language]], [[crystal structure]], the [[Internet]] and a [[free market]] [[economy]] have all been proposed as examples of systems which evolved through spontaneous order.<ref name=Barry1982>{{cite journal |last=Barry |first=Norman |authorlink=Norman P. Barry |title=The Tradition of Spontaneous Order |journal=Literature of Liberty |year=1982 |volume=5 |issue=2}}</ref> <br />
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Spontaneous order, also named self-organization in the hard sciences, is the spontaneous emergence of order out of seeming chaos. It is a process in social networks including economics, though the term "self-organization" is more often used for physical changes and biological processes, while "spontaneous order" is typically used to describe the emergence of various kinds of social orders from a combination of self-interested individuals who are not intentionally trying to create order through planning. The evolution of life on Earth, language, crystal structure, the Internet and a free market economy have all been proposed as examples of systems which evolved through spontaneous order. Thus in this view by acting on information with greater detail and accuracy than possible for any centralized authority, a more efficient economy is created to the benefit of a whole society.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自发秩序spontaneous order</font>''',在自然科学中也被称为自我组织,是从表面上的混乱中自发出现的秩序。这是包括经济学在内的社会网络中的一个过程,不过“自我组织”一词更多地用于物理变化和生物过程,而“自发秩序”通常用于描述由一群自利的个体组合而产生的各种社会秩序,这些个体并不是有意地试图通过计划来创造秩序。地球上生命的进化、语言、晶体结构、互联网和自由市场经济都被认为是通过自发秩序进化而来的系统的例子。因此,按照这种观点,通过以比任何中央权威机构更详细、更准确的信息采取行动,就能创造出更高效的经济,使整个社会受益。<br />
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Spontaneous orders are to be distinguished from organizations. Spontaneous orders are distinguished by being [[scale-free networks]], while organizations are hierarchical networks. Further, organizations can be and often are a part of spontaneous social orders, but the reverse is not true. Further, while organizations are created and controlled by humans, spontaneous orders are created, controlled, ''and controllable'' by no one.{{citation needed|date=January 2012}} In economics and the social sciences, spontaneous order is defined as "the result of human actions, not of human design".<ref>{{Cite book|title=Studies in Philosophy, Politics and Economics|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich A.|publisher=Touchstone|year=1969|isbn=978-0671202460|location=|page=97|quote=}}</ref><br />
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自发的秩序要与组织区分开来。自发秩序的区别在于它是[[无规模的网络]],而组织是等级网络。此外,组织可以是而且往往是自发的社会秩序的一部分,但反之则不然。此外,组织是由人类创造和控制的,而自发的秩序则是由任何人创造、控制、''和可控的''。在经济学和社会科学中,自发秩序被定义为 “人类行动的结果,而非人类设计的结果”。<br />
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Lawrence Reed, president of the Foundation for Economic Education, describes spontaneous order as follows:<br />
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经济教育基金会主席劳伦斯•里德Lawrence Reed对自发秩序的描述如下:<br />
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Spontaneous order is an equilibrium behavior between self-interested individuals, which is most likely to evolve and survive, obeying the natural selection process "survival of the likeliest".<ref name="springer1"> Yong Tao, Spontaneous economic order, Journal of Evolutionary Economics (2016) 26 (3): 467-500 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00191-015-0432-6</ref><br />
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< 封锁报价 ><br />
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Spontaneous order is what happens when you leave people alone—when entrepreneurs... see the desires of people... and then provide for them.<br />
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自发秩序就是当你不去管别人的时候——当企业家......看到别人的欲望......然后提供给他们的时候。<br />
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==History==<br />
历史<br />
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According to [[Murray Rothbard]], [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]] (369–286 BCE) was the first to work out the idea of spontaneous order. The philosopher rejected the authoritarianism of [[Confucianism]], writing that there "has been such a thing as letting mankind alone; there has never been such a thing as governing mankind [with success]." He articulated an early form of spontaneous order, asserting that "good order results spontaneously when things are let alone", a concept later "developed particularly by [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]] in the nineteenth [century]".<ref>Rothbard, Murray. [https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf ''Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire''], The Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol. IX No. 2 (Fall 1990)</ref><br />
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根据[[默里罗斯·巴德Murray Rothbard]],[[庄周|庄子]]公元前369-286年)是第一个提出自发秩序思想的人。这位哲学家反对[[儒家]]的专制主义,他写道:“从来没有过让人类独善其身的事情;从来没有过治理人类[成功]的事情”。他阐述了一种早期的自发秩序形式,断言 "当事物被放任自流时,良好的秩序就会自发地产生",这一概念后来 “由[[皮埃尔·约瑟夫·蒲鲁东Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon|蒲鲁东]]在19[世纪]特别发展起来”。<br />
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They respond to market signals, to prices. Prices tell them what's needed and how urgently and where. And it's infinitely better and more productive than relying on a handful of elites in some distant bureaucracy.<br />
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它们对市场信号、价格作出反应。价格告诉他们需要什么,有多紧迫,在哪里。这比依靠遥远的官僚机构中的少数精英要好得多,也更有成效。<br />
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By analyzing datasets of household income from 66 countries and Hong Kong SAR, ranging from Europe to Latin America, North America and Asia, Tao et al found that, for all of these countries, the income distribution for the great majority of populations (low and middle income classes) follows an exponential income distribution.<br />
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通过分析来自66个国家和香港特别行政区的家庭收入数据,从欧洲到拉丁美洲、北美和亚洲,陶Tao等人发现,在所有这些国家中,绝大多数人口(中低收入阶层)的收入分配都遵循指数型收入分配。<br />
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The thinkers of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]] developed and inquired into the idea of the market as a spontaneous order. In 1767, the sociologist and historian [[Adam Ferguson]] described society as the "result of human action, but not the execution of any human design".<ref>[http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/ferguson.htm Adam Ferguson] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509054323/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/ferguson.htm |date=2007-05-09 }} on The History of Economic Thought Website</ref><ref name="Ferguson1767">{{cite book<br />
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[[苏格兰启蒙运动]]的思想家们发展并探讨了市场作为一种自发秩序的思想。1767年,社会学家和历史学家[[亚当·弗格森Adam Ferguson]]将社会描述为 “人类行动的结果,但不是任何人类设计的执行”。<br />
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One commentator states that (Hayek's) theory of spontaneous order, “the foundations of Hayek’s liberalism are so incoherent” because the “idea of spontaneous order lacks distinctness and internal structure.”. The three components: lack of intentionality, the “primacy of tacit or practical knowledge,” and the “natural selection of competitive traditions.”. While the first feature, that social institutions may arise in some unintended fashion, is indeed an essential element of spontaneous order, the second two are only implications, not essential elements.<br />
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一位评论家评论(哈耶克Hayek的)自发秩序理论:“哈耶克自由主义的基础是如此不连贯” ,因为“自发秩序的理念缺乏明确性和内在结构”。三个组成部分: 缺乏意向性,“隐性或实用性知识的首要地位” ,以及“竞争传统的自然选择”。虽然第一个特征,即社会制度可能以某种意想不到的方式出现的确是自发秩序的一个基本要素,但后两个特征只是影响,而不是基本要素。<br />
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| publisher = T. Cadell, London<br />
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| year = 1767<br />
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Hayek's theory has also been criticized for not offering a moral argument, and his overall outlook contains “incompatible strands that he never seeks to reconcile in a systematic manner.” . <br />
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哈耶克的理论也因为没有提供道德论证而受到批评,他的整体观点包含了“他从未寻求以系统的方式调和的不兼容的部分”。<br />
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| location = The Online Library of Liberty<br />
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| page = 205<br />
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| url = http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1428&Itemid=28<br />
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However, the term “spontaneous order” seems to have been coined by Michael Polanyi in his essay, “The Growth of Thought in Society,” Economica 8 (November 1941): 428–456.<ref>Straun Jacobs, “Michael Polanyi’s Theory of Spontaneous Orders,” Review of Austrian Economics 11, nos. 1–2 (1999): 111–127</ref>.<br />
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然而,“自发秩序 ”一词似乎是由迈克尔·波兰尼Michael Polanyi在他的文章《社会中思想的增长》中创造的,《经济学》8期(1941年11月):428-456.<ref>Straun Jacobs,"迈克尔-波兰尼的自发秩序理论",《奥地利经济学评论》11期1-2号(1999年):111-127</ref>。<br />
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The [[Austrian School of Economics]], led by [[Carl Menger]], [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Friedrich Hayek]] made it a centerpiece in its social and economic thought. Hayek's theory of spontaneous order is the product of two related but distinct influences that do not always tend in the same direction. As an economic theorist, his explanations can be given a rational explanation. But as a legal and social theorist, he leans, by contrast, very heavily on a conservative and traditionalist approach which instructs us to submit blindly to a flow of events over which we can have little control.<ref>Barry, Norman (University of Buckingham) - Literature of Liberty; Vol. v, no. 2, pp. 7-58. Arlington, VA: Institute for Humane Studies Pub. Date 1982</ref><br />
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以[[卡尔·门格尔Carl Menger]]、[[路德维希·冯·米塞斯Ludwig von Mises]]和[[弗里德里希·哈耶克Friedrich Hayek]]为首的[[奥地利经济学派]]把它作为其社会和经济思想的核心。哈耶克的自发秩序理论是两种相关而又不同的影响的产物,这些影响并不总是倾向于同一个方向。作为一个经济理论家,他的解释可以得到合理的解释。但作为一个法律和社会理论家,他却非常倾向于一种保守和传统主义的方法,这种方法指示我们盲目地服从于我们几乎无法控制的事件流。<br />
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==Examples==<br />
案例<br />
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===Markets===<br />
市场<br />
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Many conservative theorists<ref>MACCORMICK, D.N. (1989), Spontaneous Order and the Rule of Law: Some Problems. Ratio Juris, 2: 41-54. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9337.1989.tb00025.x</ref>, such as Hayek, have argued that [[Market economy|market economies]] are a spontaneous order, "a more efficient allocation of societal resources than any design could achieve."<ref>Hayek cited. Petsoulas, Christian. Hayek's Liberalism and Its Origins: His Idea of Spontaneous Order and the Scottish Enlightenment. Routledge. 2001. p. 2</ref> They claim this spontaneous order (referred to as the [[extended order]] in Hayek's ''[[The Fatal Conceit]]'') is superior to any order a human mind can design due to the specifics of the information required.<ref>Hayek, F.A. ''The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism''. The University of Chicago Press. 1991. p. 6.</ref> Centralized statistical data, they suppose, cannot convey this information because the statistics are created by abstracting away from the particulars of the situation.<ref>Hayek cited. Boaz, David. ''The Libertarian Reader''. The Free Press. 1997. p. 220</ref><br />
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许多保守的理论家如哈耶克,认为[[市场经济|市场经济]]是一种自发的秩序,“比任何设计都能实现的社会资源更有效的配置。”他们声称这种自发秩序(在哈耶克的[[致命的自负]]中被称为[[扩展的秩序]])由于所需信息的特殊性而优于人类头脑所能设计的任何秩序。他们认为,集中的统计数据无法传达这种信息,因为统计数据是通过抽象地脱离具体的情况而产生的。<br />
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For Hayek, prices in a market economy are the aggregation of information acquired when the people who own resources are free to use their [[dispersed knowledge|individual knowledge]]. Price then allows everyone dealing in a commodity or its substitutes to make decisions based on more information than he or she could personally acquire, information not statistically conveyable to a centralized authority. Interference from a central authority which affects price will have consequences they could not foresee because they do not know all of the particulars involved.<br />
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哈耶克认为,市场经济中的价格是拥有资源的人自由使用其[[分散知识|个人知识]]时获得的信息的集合。价格就可以让每一个从事商品或其替代品交易的人根据更多的信息做出决策,而这些信息是他或她个人无法获得的,这些信息无法通过统计传达给中央权威机构。来自中央当局的干预如果影响到价格,将会产生他们无法预见的后果,因为他们不知道所有相关的细节。<br />
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According to Barry this is illustrated in the concept of the [[invisible hand]] proposed by [[Adam Smith]] in ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]''.<ref name=Barry1982 /> Thus in this view by acting on information with greater detail and accuracy than possible for any centralized authority, a more efficient economy is created to the benefit of a whole society.<br />
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根据巴里的观点,[[亚当·斯密Adam Smith]]在''[[国富论]]中提出的[[看不见的手]]的概念就说明了这一点。因此,在这种观点中,通过比任何中央集权机构更详细、更准确地对信息采取行动,就能创造出更有效率的经济,使整个社会受益。<br />
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[[Lawrence Reed]], president of the [[Foundation for Economic Education]], describes spontaneous order as follows:<br />
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Spontaneous order is what happens when you leave people alone—when entrepreneurs... see the desires of people... and then provide for them.<br />
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They respond to market signals, to prices. Prices tell them what's needed and how urgently and where. And it's infinitely better and more productive than relying on a handful of elites in some distant bureaucracy.<ref>[[John Stossel|Stossel, John]] (2011-02-10) [http://reason.com/archives/2011/02/10/spontaneous-order/singlepage Spontaneous Order], ''[[Reason magazine|Reason]]''</ref><br />
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Category:Anarcho-capitalism<br />
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类别: 无政府资本主义<br />
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Hayek, or at least his followers on the contemporary British and American political scene ‐ have wrongly inferred strong conclusions from these theories which are inimical to the welfare state by failing to reconcile the rule of law to social justice.<ref>MACCORMICK, D.N. (1989), Spontaneous Order and the Rule of Law: Some Problems. Ratio Juris, 2: 41-54. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9337.1989.tb00025.x</ref><br />
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哈耶克,或者至少是他在当代英美政治舞台上的追随者--从这些理论中错误地推断出了强烈的结论,这些结论因未能调和法治与社会正义而与福利国家相悖。<br />
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Category:Systems theory<br />
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范畴: 系统论<br />
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Category:Self-organization<br />
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类别: 自我组织<br />
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===Game studies===<br />
游戏研究<br />
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The concept of spontaneous order is closely related with modern [[game studies]]. As early as the 1940s, historian [[Johan Huizinga]] wrote that "in myth and ritual the great instinctive forces of civilized life have their origin: law and order, commerce and profit, craft and art, poetry, wisdom and science. All are rooted in the primeval soil of play." Following on this in his book ''[[The Fatal Conceit]]'', Hayek notably wrote that "a game is indeed a clear instance of a process wherein obedience to common rules by elements pursuing different and even conflicting purposes results in overall order."<br />
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Category:Anarchist theory<br />
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类别: 无政府主义理论<br />
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Category:Libertarian theory<br />
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范畴: 自由意志主义理论<br />
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===Anarchism===<br />
无政府主义<br />
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Category:Pattern formation<br />
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类别: 模式形成<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Spontaneous order]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[自发秩序/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E6%B6%8C%E7%8E%B0&diff=18210涌现2020-11-13T01:40:02Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由趣木木、厚朴、嘉树、思无涯咿呀咿呀翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。{{Complex systems}}<br />
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{{See also|Emergent (disambiguation)|Spontaneous order|Self-organization}}<br />
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{{short description|Phenomenon in complex systems where interactions produce effects not directly predictable from the subsystems}}<br />
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[[File:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.20|The formation of complex symmetrical and [[fractal]] [[patterns in nature|patterns]] in [[snowflake]]s exemplifies emergence in a physical system.]]<br />
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The formation of complex symmetrical and [[fractal patterns in snowflakes exemplifies emergence in a physical system.]]<br />
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复杂对称的形成以及[科赫雪花中的分形图案说明了物理系统的涌现]<br />
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[[File:Termite Cathedral DSC03570.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.10|A [[termite]] "cathedral" mound produced by a [[termites|termite colony]] offers a classic example of emergence in [[nature]]]]<br />
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A [[termite "cathedral" mound produced by a termite colony offers a classic example of emergence in nature]]<br />
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一个由[白蚁聚居地制造的白蚁“大教堂”建筑高地为我们提供了一个涌现的经典例子]<br />
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In [[philosophy]], [[systems theory]], [[science]], and [[art]], '''emergence''' occurs when an entity is observed to have properties its parts do not have on their own. These properties or behaviors emerge only when the parts interact in a wider whole. For example, smooth forward motion emerges when a bicycle and its rider interoperate, but neither part can produce the behavior on their own.<br />
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In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence occurs when an entity is observed to have properties its parts do not have on their own. These properties or behaviors emerge only when the parts interact in a wider whole. For example, smooth forward motion emerges when a bicycle and its rider interoperate, but neither part can produce the behavior on their own.<br />
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在哲学、系统论、科学和艺术中,当一个实体被观察到具有其组成部分本身没有的属性时,涌现就出现了。这些属性或行为只有当各个部分在一个更广泛的整体中相互作用时才会涌现。例如,当一辆自行车和骑手互动时,平稳的向前运动就出现了,但是两个部分都不能独自产生这种行为。<br />
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Emergence plays a central role in theories of [[integrative level]]s and of [[complex system]]s. For instance, the phenomenon of ''[[life]]'' as studied in [[biology]] is an emergent property of [[chemistry]], and [[psychology|psychological]] phenomena emerge from the [[neurobiology|neurobiological]] phenomena of living things.<br />
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Emergence plays a central role in theories of integrative levels and of complex systems. For instance, the phenomenon of life as studied in biology is an emergent property of chemistry, and psychological phenomena emerge from the neurobiological phenomena of living things.<br />
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涌现在整合层次理论和复杂系统理论中起着核心作用。例如,生物学所研究的生命现象是化学的一个涌现特性,而心理现象是从生物的神经生物学现象中涌现出的。<br />
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In philosophy, theories that emphasize emergent properties have been called [[emergentism]]. Almost all accounts of emergentism include a form of [[epistemic]] or [[ontological]] irreducibility to the lower levels.<ref name=Wong/><br />
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In philosophy, theories that emphasize emergent properties have been called emergentism. Almost all accounts of emergentism include a form of epistemic or ontological irreducibility to the lower levels.<br />
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在哲学中,强调涌现特性的理论被称为涌现论。几乎所有涌现主义的叙述都包括一种认识论或本体论不可还原到较低层次的形式。<br />
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== In philosophy在哲学上 == <br />
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Philosophers often understand emergence as a claim about the [[etiology]] of a [[system]]'s properties. An emergent property of a system, in this context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system, but is still a feature of the system as a whole. [[Nicolai Hartmann]] (1882-1950), one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence, termed this a ''categorial novum'' (new category).<br />
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Philosophers often understand emergence as a claim about the etiology of a system's properties. An emergent property of a system, in this context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system, but is still a feature of the system as a whole. Nicolai Hartmann (1882-1950), one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence, termed this a categorial novum (new category).<br />
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哲学家通常把涌现理解为一种对系统特性的发生学的主张。在这个上下文中,系统的涌现特性不是系统的任何组件的属性,但仍然是整个系统的一个特征。尼古拉·哈特曼(1882-1950) ,首批写出涌现论的现代哲学家之一,把这种现象称为范畴新见习(新范畴)。<br />
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===Definitions定义===<br />
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This idea of emergence has been around since at least the time of [[Aristotle]].<ref name="Meta">Aristotle, ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)]]'', Book Η 1045a 8–10: "... the totality is not, as it were, a mere heap, but the whole is something besides the parts ...", i.e., the whole is other than the sum of the parts.</ref> The many scientists and philosophers<ref>Being Emergence vs. Pattern Emergence: Complexity, Control, and Goal-Directedness in Biological Systems<br />
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This idea of emergence has been around since at least the time of Aristotle. The many scientists and philosophers<ref>Being Emergence vs. Pattern Emergence: Complexity, Control, and Goal-Directedness in Biological Systems<br />
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这个涌现的概念至少在亚里士多德时代就已经存在了。许多科学家和哲学家写过关于这个概念的文章,其中包括《约翰·斯图尔特·密尔《原因的构成》和《朱利安 · 赫胥黎》。同样的提出存在涌现 vs. 模式涌现: 生物系统中的复杂性、控制性和目标导向性等议题。<br />
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Jason Winning & William Bechtel<br />
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Jason Winning & William Bechtel<br />
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杰森 · 温宁和威廉 · 贝克特尔<br />
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In Sophie Gibb, Robin Hendry & Tom Lancaster (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Emergence. London: pp. 134-144 (2019)<br />
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In Sophie Gibb, Robin Hendry & Tom Lancaster (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Emergence. London: pp. 134-144 (2019)<br />
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在索菲 · 吉布,罗宾 · 亨德利和汤姆 · 兰开斯特(ed。) ,《劳特利奇出现手册》。伦敦: pp。134-144 (2019)<br />
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Jason Winning<br />
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Jason Winning<br />
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杰森 · 温宁<br />
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University of California, San Diego<br />
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University of California, San Diego<br />
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加州大学圣地亚哥分校<br />
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William Bechtel<br />
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William Bechtel<br />
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威廉 · 贝克特尔<br />
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University of California, San Diego</ref> who have written on the concept include [[John Stuart Mill]] (''[[Composition of Causes]]'' (1843))<ref>"The chemical combination of two substances produces, as is well known, a third substance with properties entirely different from those of either of the two substances separately, or of both of them taken together."</ref> and [[Julian Huxley]]<ref>Julian Huxley: "now and again there is a sudden rapid passage to a totally new and more comprehensive type of order or organization, with quite new emergent properties, and involving quite new methods of further evolution" {{Harv|Huxley|Huxley|1947}}</ref> (1887-1975).<br />
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University of California, San Diego</ref> who have written on the concept include John Stuart Mill (Composition of Causes (1843)) and Julian Huxley (1887-1975).<br />
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加利福尼亚大学圣地亚哥分校教员,他们写过关于这个概念的文章,其中包括《约翰·斯图尔特·密尔(1843年)和 Julian Huxley (1887-1975年)。<br />
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The philosopher [[George Henry Lewes|G. H. Lewes]] coined the term "emergent", writing in 1875:<br />
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The philosopher G. H. Lewes coined the term "emergent", writing in 1875:<br />
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哲学家 g· h·刘易斯(g. h. Lewes)在1875年创造了“涌现”(emergent)一词<br />
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<blockquote>Every resultant is either a sum or a difference of the co-operant forces; their sum, when their directions are the same – their difference, when their directions are contrary. Further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are [[homogeneous]] and [[Commensurability (philosophy of science)|commensurable]]. It is otherwise with emergents, when, instead of adding measurable motion to measurable motion, or things of one kind to other individuals of their kind, there is a co-operation of things of unlike kinds. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, and it cannot be reduced to their sum or their difference.<ref><br />
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<blockquote>Every resultant is either a sum or a difference of the co-operant forces; their sum, when their directions are the same – their difference, when their directions are contrary. Further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are homogeneous and commensurable. It is otherwise with emergents, when, instead of adding measurable motion to measurable motion, or things of one kind to other individuals of their kind, there is a co-operation of things of unlike kinds. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, and it cannot be reduced to their sum or their difference.<ref><br />
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每个合力要么是合作力的叠加,要么是合作力的相消; 当它们的方向相同时,是它们的和——当它们的方向相反时,则是它们的差。此外,每个成果在其组成部分中都可以清楚地朔源,因为这些组成部分是同质的和'''有公度的 Commensurable'''。与涌现情况不同的是,物,它们不是在可测量的运动中再增加可测量的运动,也不是在同类个体中增加一种事物,而是在不同种类的事物之间进行合作。涌现不同于其组成部分,因为这些部分是不可通约的(有共同因子),不能仅仅简化为它们的总和或差。 <br />
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第一名: 乔治 · 亨利<br />
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| 作者链接1乔治·亨利·刘易斯<br />
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| title = Problems of Life and Mind<br />
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| title = Problems of Life and Mind<br />
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题目: 生活与思想的问题<br />
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| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0J8RAAAAYAAJ<br />
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| series = First Series: The Foundations of a Creed<br />
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系列第一集: 信条的基础<br />
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| publisher = Osgood<br />
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| date = 1875<br />
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In 1999, economist Jeffrey Goldstein provided a current definition of emergence in the journal ''Emergence''.<ref name="Goldstein1999">{{cite journal|last1= Goldstein|first1= Jeffrey|title= Emergence as a Construct: History and Issues|journal= Emergence|date= March 1999|volume= 1|issue= 1|pages= 49–72|doi= 10.1207/s15327000em0101_4}}</ref> Goldstein initially defined emergence as: "the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns and properties during the process of [[self-organization]] in complex systems".<br />
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In 1999, economist Jeffrey Goldstein provided a current definition of emergence in the journal Emergence. Goldstein initially defined emergence as: "the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns and properties during the process of self-organization in complex systems".<br />
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1999年,经济学家杰弗里•戈尔茨坦 Jeffrey Goldstein 在《涌现》(Emergence)杂志上提出了现有的对“涌现”的定义。Goldstein 最初将涌现定义为: “在和性质复杂系统自组织过程中产生的新颖而连贯的结构、模式和性质”。<br />
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In 2002 systems scientist [[Peter Corning]] described the qualities of Goldstein's definition in more detail:<br />
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In 2002 systems scientist Peter Corning described the qualities of Goldstein's definition in more detail:<br />
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2002年,系统科学家 Peter Corning 更详细地描述了 Goldstein 的定义:<br />
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<blockquote>The common characteristics are: (1) radical novelty (features not previously observed in systems); (2) coherence or correlation (meaning integrated wholes that maintain themselves over some period of time); (3) A global or macro "level" (i.e. there is some property of "wholeness"); (4) it is the product of a dynamical process (it evolves); and (5) it is "ostensive" (it can be perceived).<ref name="Corning">{{Citation | doi = 10.1002/cplx.10043 | last = Corning | first = Peter A. | authorlink = Peter Corning | title = The Re-Emergence of "Emergence": A Venerable Concept in Search of a Theory | year = 2002 | journal = Complexity | volume = 7 | pages = 18–30 | issue = 6 | bibcode = 2002Cmplx...7f..18C | df = | citeseerx = 10.1.1.114.1724 }}</ref></blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>The common characteristics are: (1) radical novelty (features not previously observed in systems); (2) coherence or correlation (meaning integrated wholes that maintain themselves over some period of time); (3) A global or macro "level" (i.e. there is some property of "wholeness"); (4) it is the product of a dynamical process (it evolves); and (5) it is "ostensive" (it can be perceived).</blockquote><br />
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它们的共同特征是: (1)根本的新颖性(以前在系统中没有观察到的特征) ; (2)连贯性或相关性(意味着在一段时间内维持自身的整体) ; (3)全局或宏观的“层次”(即:。它是一个动力学过程的产物(进化状态中) ,它是一个明示的过程(它可以被感知)。 / blockquote<br />
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Corning suggests a narrower definition, requiring that the components be unlike in kind (following Lewes), and that they involve [[division of labor]] between these components. He also says that living systems (like the game of [[chess]]), while emergent, cannot be reduced to underlying laws of emergence:<br />
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Corning suggests a narrower definition, requiring that the components be unlike in kind (following Lewes), and that they involve division of labor between these components. He also says that living systems (like the game of chess), while emergent, cannot be reduced to underlying laws of emergence:<br />
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康宁公司提出了一个狭义的定义,要求组成部件不同于实体(跟从刘易斯的观点) ,并且它们涉及这些组成部件之间的劳动分工。他还表示,生命系统(如国际象棋)虽然是涌现的,但不能简化为涌现的基本规律:<br />
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<blockquote><span id="CorningDefn" class="citation">Rules, or laws, have no causal efficacy; they do not in fact 'generate' anything. They serve merely to describe regularities and consistent relationships in nature. These patterns may be very illuminating and important, but the underlying causal agencies must be separately specified (though often they are not). But that aside, the game of chess illustrates ... why any laws or rules of emergence and evolution are insufficient. Even in a chess game, you cannot use the rules to predict 'history' – i.e., the course of any given game. Indeed, you cannot even reliably predict the next move in a chess game. Why? Because the 'system' involves more than the rules of the game. It also includes the players and their unfolding, moment-by-moment decisions among a very large number of available options at each choice point. The game of chess is inescapably historical, even though it is also constrained and shaped by a set of rules, not to mention the laws of physics. Moreover, and this is a key point, the game of chess is also shaped by [[teleonomic]], [[cybernetic]], feedback-driven influences. It is not simply a self-ordered process; it involves an organized, 'purposeful' activity.</span><ref name = Corning/></blockquote><br />
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<blockquote><span id="CorningDefn" class="citation">Rules, or laws, have no causal efficacy; they do not in fact 'generate' anything. They serve merely to describe regularities and consistent relationships in nature. These patterns may be very illuminating and important, but the underlying causal agencies must be separately specified (though often they are not). But that aside, the game of chess illustrates ... why any laws or rules of emergence and evolution are insufficient. Even in a chess game, you cannot use the rules to predict 'history' – i.e., the course of any given game. Indeed, you cannot even reliably predict the next move in a chess game. Why? Because the 'system' involves more than the rules of the game. It also includes the players and their unfolding, moment-by-moment decisions among a very large number of available options at each choice point. The game of chess is inescapably historical, even though it is also constrained and shaped by a set of rules, not to mention the laws of physics. Moreover, and this is a key point, the game of chess is also shaped by teleonomic, cybernetic, feedback-driven influences. It is not simply a self-ordered process; it involves an organized, 'purposeful' activity.</span></blockquote><br />
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这些规则,或者说定律,没有其因果效力; 因为它们实际上并不‘产生’任何东西。它们只是用来描述自然界中的规律性和一致性关系。这些模式可能非常重要且给人以启发,但必须分别说明潜在的因果关系(尽管通常不是这样)。但是除此之外,国际象棋游戏说明了为什么任何关于出现和进化的法则和规则都是不足自证的。即使在国际象棋游戏中,你也不能用这些规则来预测发生的“历史”——也就是说,任何给定游戏的过程都不能被预测。事实上,你甚至无法可靠地预测下一步棋的走法。为什么?因为系统不仅仅包含游戏规则。它还包括球员和他们的自我展现,每时每刻的决定归于一个可用的大数量选择集内,在每个选择点中。国际象棋是不可避免地具有历史性的博弈,尽管它也受到一系列规则的约束和塑造,在此之上更不用说物理定律了。此外,着重点也在这,国际象棋的游戏也塑形于目的性,控制论,反馈驱动的影响。它不仅仅是一个自我有序的过程,它还包括一个有组织的、“有目的的”活动<br />
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===Strong and weak emergence强涌现和弱涌现===<br />
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Usage of the notion "emergence" may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of "weak emergence" and "strong emergence". One paper discussing this division is ''Weak Emergence'', by philosopher [[Mark Bedau]]. In terms of physical systems, weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation or similar forms of after-the-fact analysis (for example, the formation of a traffic jam, the structure of a flight of starlings or a school of fishes, or the formation of galaxies). Crucial in these simulations is that the interacting members retain their independence. If not (for example in a chemical reaction), a new entity is formed with new, emergent properties: this is called strong emergence, which it is argued cannot be simulated or analysed.<br />
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Usage of the notion "emergence" may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of "weak emergence" and "strong emergence". One paper discussing this division is Weak Emergence, by philosopher Mark Bedau. In terms of physical systems, weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation or similar forms of after-the-fact analysis (for example, the formation of a traffic jam, the structure of a flight of starlings or a school of fishes, or the formation of galaxies). Crucial in these simulations is that the interacting members retain their independence. If not (for example in a chemical reaction), a new entity is formed with new, emergent properties: this is called strong emergence, which it is argued cannot be simulated or analysed.<br />
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“涌现”概念的用法一般可分为”弱涌现”和”强涌现”两种观点。一篇论述这种概念区分的文章来源于哲学家马克 · 贝道的《弱涌现》。就物理系统而言,弱涌现是一种涌现类型,在这种涌现类型中,适合进行计算机模拟或类似形式的事后分析(例如,交通堵塞的形成,椋鸟飞行结构或鱼群结构,又或星系的形成)。在这些模拟中至关重要的是相互作用的成员保持他们的独立性。如果没有(例如在化学反应中) ,一个新的实体就形成了,具有新颖的、涌现的特性: 这就是所谓的强涌现,它被认为是不能被模拟或分析的。<br />
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Some common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states. Also, it is assumed that the properties are [[supervenient]] rather than metaphysically primitive {{Harv|Bedau|1997}}.<br />
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Some common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states. Also, it is assumed that the properties are supervenient rather than metaphysically primitive .<br />
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这两个概念之间的一些共同点是,涌现关系到随着系统生长而生成的新特性,也就是说,那些不与其组件或先前状态共享的特性。另外,假设这些属性是附生的,而不是形而上学上的原初的。<br />
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Weak emergence describes new properties arising in systems as a result of the interactions at an elemental level. However, Bedau stipulates that the properties can be determined only by observing or simulating the system, and not by any process of a [[Reductionism|reductionist]] analysis. As a consequence the emerging properties are '''scale dependent''': they are only observable if the system is large enough to exhibit the phenomenon. Chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can be seen as an emergent phenomenon, while at a microscopic scale the behaviour of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.<br />
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Weak emergence describes new properties arising in systems as a result of the interactions at an elemental level. However, Bedau stipulates that the properties can be determined only by observing or simulating the system, and not by any process of a reductionist analysis. As a consequence the emerging properties are scale dependent: they are only observable if the system is large enough to exhibit the phenomenon. Chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can be seen as an emergent phenomenon, while at a microscopic scale the behaviour of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.<br />
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弱涌现描述了由于元素层次上的相互作用而在系统中产生的新特性。然而,Mark Bedau规定,只有通过观察或模拟系统才能确定系统的性质,而不是通过任何还原分析的过程。因此,新出现的属性是与规模相关的: 它们只有在系统足够大能够展现这种现象时才能观察到。混乱、不可预知的行为可以看作是一种涌现现象,而在微观尺度上,组成部分的行为可以是完全确定的。<br />
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[[Mark Bedau|Bedau]] notes that weak emergence is not a universal metaphysical solvent, as the hypothesis that consciousness is weakly emergent would not resolve the traditional philosophical questions about the physicality of consciousness. However, Bedau concludes that adopting this view would provide a precise notion that emergence is involved in consciousness, and second, the notion of weak emergence is metaphysically benign. {{Harv|Bedau|1997}}<br />
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Bedau notes that weak emergence is not a universal metaphysical solvent, as the hypothesis that consciousness is weakly emergent would not resolve the traditional philosophical questions about the physicality of consciousness. However, Bedau concludes that adopting this view would provide a precise notion that emergence is involved in consciousness, and second, the notion of weak emergence is metaphysically benign. <br />
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Mark Bedau指出,弱涌现不是一种普遍的形而上学的solvent,因为意识是弱涌现的假设不能解决关于意识的物质性的传统哲学问题。然而,Bedau 的结论是,采用这种观点将提供一个精确的概念,即涌现是包含在意识中的,其次,弱涌现的概念在形而上学上是良性的。<br />
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Strong emergence describes the direct causal action of a high-level system upon its components; qualities produced this way are [[irreducible (philosophy)|irreducible]] to the system's constituent parts {{Harv|Laughlin|2005}}. The whole is other than the sum of its parts. An example from physics of such emergence is water, which appears unpredictable even after an exhaustive study of the properties of its constituent atoms of hydrogen and oxygen.<ref>{{cite book|last= Luisi|first= Pier L.|title= The Emergence of Life: From Chemical Origins to Synthetic Biology|year= 2006|publisher= Cambridge University Press|location= Cambridge, England|isbn= 978-0521821179|page= 119|url= http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/chemistry/organic-chemistry/emergence-life-chemical-origins-synthetic-biology|url-status=live|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20151117023700/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/chemistry/organic-chemistry/emergence-life-chemical-origins-synthetic-biology|archivedate= 2015-11-17}}</ref> It follows then that no simulation of the system can exist, for such a simulation would itself constitute a reduction of the system to its constituent parts. {{Harv|Bedau|1997}}.<br />
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Strong emergence describes the direct causal action of a high-level system upon its components; qualities produced this way are irreducible to the system's constituent parts . The whole is other than the sum of its parts. An example from physics of such emergence is water, which appears unpredictable even after an exhaustive study of the properties of its constituent atoms of hydrogen and oxygen. It follows then that no simulation of the system can exist, for such a simulation would itself constitute a reduction of the system to its constituent parts. .<br />
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强涌现描述了一个高级系统对其组成部分的直接因果作用; 这种方式产生的质量不可能还原为系统的组成部分。<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])质量/品质 存疑<br />
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整体不是各部分的总和。从物理学角度来看,这种现象的一个例子是水,即使对其组成原子氢和氧的性质进行了详尽的研究,水的形成也显得不可预测。因此,不可能存在任何对系统的模拟,因为这种模拟本身将构成对系统组成部分的简化。.<br />
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====Rejecting the distinction拒绝区分====<br />
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However, biologist Peter Corning has asserted that "the debate about whether or not the whole can be predicted from the properties of the parts misses the point. Wholes produce unique combined effects, but many of these effects may be co-determined by the context and the interactions between the whole and its environment(s)" {{Harv|Corning|2002}}. In accordance with his '''Synergism Hypothesis''' {{Harv|Corning 1983|2005}}, Corning also stated: "It is the [[synergistic]] effects produced by wholes that are the very cause of the evolution of complexity in nature." Novelist [[Arthur Koestler]] used the metaphor of [[Janus]] (a symbol of the unity underlying complements like open/shut, peace/war) to illustrate how the two perspectives (strong vs. weak or [[holistic]] vs. [[reductionistic]]) should be treated as non-exclusive, and should work together to address the issues of emergence {{Harv|Koestler|1969}}. Theoretical physicist PW Anderson states it this way:<br />
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However, biologist Peter Corning has asserted that "the debate about whether or not the whole can be predicted from the properties of the parts misses the point. Wholes produce unique combined effects, but many of these effects may be co-determined by the context and the interactions between the whole and its environment(s)" . In accordance with his Synergism Hypothesis , Corning also stated: "It is the synergistic effects produced by wholes that are the very cause of the evolution of complexity in nature." Novelist Arthur Koestler used the metaphor of Janus (a symbol of the unity underlying complements like open/shut, peace/war) to illustrate how the two perspectives (strong vs. weak or holistic vs. reductionistic) should be treated as non-exclusive, and should work together to address the issues of emergence . Theoretical physicist PW Anderson states it this way:<br />
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然而,生物学家彼得 · 康宁声称,“关于是否可以从部分特性来预测整体特性的争论并没有抓住要点。整体产生独特的综合效应,但其中许多效应可能由环境和整体及其环境之间的相互作用共同决定”。根据他的协同论假说,康宁还指出: “正是整体产生的协同效应才是自然界复杂性进化的根本原因。”小说家'''亚瑟 · 凯斯特勒 Arthur Koestler''' 用“两面神” Janus 这个隐喻(两面神是开 / 关、和平 / 战争等潜在补充的统一的象征)来说明两种观点(强与弱、整体与简化论)应该如何被视为非排他性的,并且应该一起解决涌现的问题。理论物理学家 PW Anderson 是这样说的:<br />
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<blockquote>The ability to reduce everything to simple fundamental laws does not imply the ability to start from those laws and reconstruct the universe. The constructionist hypothesis breaks down when confronted with the twin difficulties of scale and complexity. At each level of complexity entirely new properties appear. Psychology is not applied biology, nor is biology applied chemistry. We can now see that the whole becomes not merely more, but very different from the sum of its parts {{Harv|Anderson|1972}}.</blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>The ability to reduce everything to simple fundamental laws does not imply the ability to start from those laws and reconstruct the universe. The constructionist hypothesis breaks down when confronted with the twin difficulties of scale and complexity. At each level of complexity entirely new properties appear. Psychology is not applied biology, nor is biology applied chemistry. We can now see that the whole becomes not merely more, but very different from the sum of its parts .</blockquote><br />
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把一切都简化为简单的基本定律的能力并不意味着从这些定律出发并重建宇宙的能力。当面对规模和复杂性的双重困难时,建构主义假设就失败了。在复杂性的每个层级上,都会出现全新的属性。心理学不是应用生物学,生物学也不是应用化学。我们现在可以看到,整体不仅变得更多,而且与各部分的总和大不相同。 / blockquote<br />
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====Viability of strong emergence====<br />
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强烈涌现的可行性<br />
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Some thinkers question the plausibility of strong emergence as contravening our usual understanding of physics. Mark A. Bedau observes:<br />
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Some thinkers question the plausibility of strong emergence as contravening our usual understanding of physics. Mark A. Bedau observes:<br />
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一些思想家质疑强涌现的可能性,因为它违背了我们对物理学的通常理解。马克 · 贝道观察到:<br />
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<blockquote>Although strong emergence is logically possible, it is uncomfortably like magic. How does an irreducible but supervenient downward causal power arise, since by definition it cannot be due to the aggregation of the micro-level potentialities? Such causal powers would be quite unlike anything within our scientific ken. This not only indicates how they will discomfort reasonable forms of materialism. Their mysteriousness will only heighten the traditional worry that emergence entails illegitimately getting something from nothing.<ref name = Bedau>(Bedau 1997)</ref></blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>Although strong emergence is logically possible, it is uncomfortably like magic. How does an irreducible but supervenient downward causal power arise, since by definition it cannot be due to the aggregation of the micro-level potentialities? Such causal powers would be quite unlike anything within our scientific ken. This not only indicates how they will discomfort reasonable forms of materialism. Their mysteriousness will only heighten the traditional worry that emergence entails illegitimately getting something from nothing.</blockquote><br />
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尽管强烈的涌现在逻辑上是可能的,但它就像魔术一样令人不安。既然根据定义它不可能是由于微观层面潜力的聚集,那么一种不可还原但随时间而来的向下因果力是如何产生的呢?这种因果关系的力量与我们科学知识范围内的任何东西都完全不同。这不仅表明他们将如何不适应物质主义的合理形式。他们的神秘只会加剧传统的担忧,即出现意味着非法地从无到有。<br />
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Strong emergence can be criticized for being causally [[Overdetermination|overdetermined]]. The canonical example concerns emergent mental states (M and M∗) that supervene on physical states (P and P∗) respectively. Let M and M∗ be emergent properties. Let M∗ supervene on base property P∗. What happens when M causes M∗? [[Jaegwon Kim]] says:<br />
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Strong emergence can be criticized for being causally overdetermined. The canonical example concerns emergent mental states (M and M∗) that supervene on physical states (P and P∗) respectively. Let M and M∗ be emergent properties. Let M∗ supervene on base property P∗. What happens when M causes M∗? Jaegwon Kim says:<br />
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强涌现可以被批评为因果过度决定。典型的例子是关于涌现的心理状态(m 和 m *) ,它们分别在物理状态(p 和 p *)上叠加。设 m 和 m * 是涌现性质。乘以 m 的立方乘以基数 p * 。当 m 导致 m * 时会发生什么?Jaegwon Kim 表示:<br />
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<blockquote>In our schematic example above, we concluded that M causes M∗ by causing P∗. So M causes P∗. Now, M, as an emergent, must itself have an emergence base property, say P. Now we face a critical question: if an emergent, M, emerges from basal condition P, why cannot P displace M as a cause of any putative effect of M? Why cannot P do all the work in explaining why any alleged effect of M occurred? If causation is understood as nomological (law-based) sufficiency, P, as M's emergence base, is nomologically sufficient for it, and M, as P∗'s cause, is nomologically sufficient for P∗. It follows that P is nomologically sufficient for P∗ and hence qualifies as its cause…If M is somehow retained as a cause, we are faced with the highly implausible consequence that every case of downward causation involves overdetermination (since P remains a cause of P∗ as well). Moreover, this goes against the spirit of emergentism in any case: emergents are supposed to make distinctive and novel causal contributions.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kim | first1 = Jaegwon | year = 2016 | title = Emergence: Core ideas and issues | url = | journal = Synthese | volume = 151 | issue = 3| pages = 547–59 | doi = 10.1007/s11229-006-9025-0 }}</ref></blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>In our schematic example above, we concluded that M causes M∗ by causing P∗. So M causes P∗. Now, M, as an emergent, must itself have an emergence base property, say P. Now we face a critical question: if an emergent, M, emerges from basal condition P, why cannot P displace M as a cause of any putative effect of M? Why cannot P do all the work in explaining why any alleged effect of M occurred? If causation is understood as nomological (law-based) sufficiency, P, as M's emergence base, is nomologically sufficient for it, and M, as P∗'s cause, is nomologically sufficient for P∗. It follows that P is nomologically sufficient for P∗ and hence qualifies as its cause…If M is somehow retained as a cause, we are faced with the highly implausible consequence that every case of downward causation involves overdetermination (since P remains a cause of P∗ as well). Moreover, this goes against the spirit of emergentism in any case: emergents are supposed to make distinctive and novel causal contributions.</blockquote><br />
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在我们上面的示意图中,我们得出结论,m 引起 m * 是由 p * 引起的。所以 M 引起 P∗.现在,m,作为一个涌现,本身必须有一个涌现基本性质,比如 p。 现在我们面临一个关键的问题: 如果一个涌现m,出现在基础条件 p下,为什么不能 p 置换 m 作为任何假定的影响的原因?为什么 p 不能做所有的工作来解释为什么会发生所谓的 m 效应?如果因果关系被理解为定律上的充分性,那么 p,作为 m 的涌现基础,在定律上就足够了,m,作为 p * 的原因,在定律上就足够了。如果 m 以某种方式作为原因被保留下来,我们就会面临一个非常难以置信的结果,那就是每一个向下的因果关系都牵涉到过度决定(因为 p 也是 p * 的原因)。此外,这在任何情况下都与涌现主义的精神背道而驰: 涌现主义者应该做出独特而新颖的因果贡献。 / blockquote<br />
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If M is the cause of M∗, then M∗ is overdetermined because M∗ can also be thought of as being determined by P. One escape-route that a strong emergentist could take would be to deny [[downward causation]]. However, this would remove the proposed reason that emergent mental states must supervene on physical states, which in turn would call [[physicalism]] into question, and thus be unpalatable for some philosophers and physicists.<br />
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If M is the cause of M∗, then M∗ is overdetermined because M∗ can also be thought of as being determined by P. One escape-route that a strong emergentist could take would be to deny downward causation. However, this would remove the proposed reason that emergent mental states must supervene on physical states, which in turn would call physicalism into question, and thus be unpalatable for some philosophers and physicists.<br />
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如果 m 是 m * 的原因,那么 m * 就被过分确定了,因为 m * 也可以被认为是由 p 决定的。 一个强涌现论者强大的紧急事件者可能采取的逃避途径是否认向下的因果关系。然而,这将消除涌现的精神状态必须附加在物理状态上的理由,这反过来会使物理主义受到质疑,因此对于一些哲学家和物理学家来说是难以接受的。<br />
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Meanwhile, others have worked towards developing analytical evidence of strong emergence. In 2009, Gu ''et al.'' presented a class of physical systems that exhibits non-computable macroscopic properties.<ref name="morereally">{{cite journal | last1 = Gu | first1 = Mile | display-authors = etal | year = 2009 | title = More really is different | url =| journal = Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena | volume = 238 | issue = 9| pages = 835–39 | doi=10.1016/j.physd.2008.12.016| arxiv = 0809.0151 | bibcode = 2009PhyD..238..835G }}</ref><ref name="binder">{{cite journal | last1 = Binder | first1 = P-M | year = 2009 | title = Computation: The edge of reductionism | url = | journal = Nature | volume = 459 | issue = 7245| pages = 332–34 | doi=10.1038/459332a| pmid = 19458701 | bibcode = 2009Natur.459..332B}}</ref> More precisely, if one could compute certain macroscopic properties of these systems from the microscopic description of these systems, then one would be able to solve computational problems known to be undecidable in computer science. Gu ''et al.'' concluded that<br />
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Meanwhile, others have worked towards developing analytical evidence of strong emergence. In 2009, Gu et al. presented a class of physical systems that exhibits non-computable macroscopic properties. More precisely, if one could compute certain macroscopic properties of these systems from the microscopic description of these systems, then one would be able to solve computational problems known to be undecidable in computer science. Gu et al. concluded that<br />
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与此同时,其他人则致力于发掘强涌现的分析证据。2009年,顾等人。提出了一类具有不可计算的宏观属性的物理系统。更准确地说,如果一个人能够从这些系统的微观描述计算出这些系统的某些宏观性质,那么他就能够解决计算机科学中已知的无法判定的计算问题。谷等人。得出结论<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])探究一下是Gu 是谷还是顾<br />
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<blockquote>Although macroscopic concepts are essential for understanding our world, much of fundamental physics has been devoted to the search for a 'theory of everything', a set of equations that perfectly describe the behavior of all fundamental particles. The view that this is the goal of science rests in part on the rationale that such a theory would allow us to derive the behavior of all macroscopic concepts, at least in principle. The evidence we have presented suggests that this view may be overly optimistic. A 'theory of everything' is one of many components necessary for complete understanding of the universe, but is not necessarily the only one. The development of macroscopic laws from first principles may involve more than just systematic logic, and could require conjectures suggested by experiments, simulations or insight.<ref name="morereally" /></blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>Although macroscopic concepts are essential for understanding our world, much of fundamental physics has been devoted to the search for a 'theory of everything', a set of equations that perfectly describe the behavior of all fundamental particles. The view that this is the goal of science rests in part on the rationale that such a theory would allow us to derive the behavior of all macroscopic concepts, at least in principle. The evidence we have presented suggests that this view may be overly optimistic. A 'theory of everything' is one of many components necessary for complete understanding of the universe, but is not necessarily the only one. The development of macroscopic laws from first principles may involve more than just systematic logic, and could require conjectures suggested by experiments, simulations or insight.</blockquote><br />
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尽管宏观概念对于理解我们的世界来说是必不可少的,大部分的基础物理学已经致力于寻找一个万有理论,一个完美描述所有基本粒子行为的方程组。这种认为这是科学目标的观点,部分依赖于这样一个理论的基本原理,即这样一个理论将允许我们得出所有宏观概念的行为,至少在原则上是这样的。我们提供的证据表明,这种观点可能过于乐观。“万有理论”是完全理解宇宙所必需的许多要素之一,但不一定是唯一的要素。从第一原理发展宏观定律可能不仅仅涉及系统的逻辑,而且可能需要实验、模拟或洞察力的推测。 / blockquote<br />
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===Emergence and interaction涌现和相互作用===<br />
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Emergent structures are patterns that emerge via the collective actions of many individual entities. To explain such patterns, one might conclude, per [[Aristotle]],<ref name="Meta" /> that emergent structures are other than the sum of their parts on the assumption that the emergent order will not arise if the various parts simply interact independently of one another. However, there are those who [[A New Kind of Science#Simple programs|disagree]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.physlink.com/Education/essay_weinberg.cfm|title= A Designer Universe?|author= Steven Weinberg|accessdate= 2008-07-14|quote= A version of the original quote from address at the Conference on Cosmic Design, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. in April 1999|url-status= live|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100519145647/http://www.physlink.com/education/essay_weinberg.cfm|archivedate= 2010-05-19}}</ref> According to this argument, the interaction of each part with its immediate surroundings causes a complex chain of processes that can lead to order in some form. In fact, some systems in nature are observed to exhibit emergence based upon the interactions of autonomous parts, and some others exhibit emergence that at least at present cannot be reduced in this way. In particular [[Renormalization group|renormalization]] methods in theoretical physics enable scientists to study systems that are not tractable as the combination of their parts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last= Longo|first= Giuseppe|last2= Montévil|first2= Maël|last3= Pocheville|first3= Arnaud|date= 2012-01-01|title= From bottom-up approaches to levels of organization and extended critical transitions|journal= Frontiers in Physiology|volume= 3|page= 232|doi= 10.3389/fphys.2012.00232|pmc= 3429021|pmid= 22934001}}</ref><br />
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Emergent structures are patterns that emerge via the collective actions of many individual entities. To explain such patterns, one might conclude, per Aristotle, According to this argument, the interaction of each part with its immediate surroundings causes a complex chain of processes that can lead to order in some form. In fact, some systems in nature are observed to exhibit emergence based upon the interactions of autonomous parts, and some others exhibit emergence that at least at present cannot be reduced in this way. In particular renormalization methods in theoretical physics enable scientists to study systems that are not tractable as the combination of their parts.<br />
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涌现结构是通过许多单个实体的集体行动而出现的模式。为了解释这种模式,人们可能会得出结论,按照亚里士多德的说法,每个部分与其周围环境的相互作用导致了一系列复杂的过程,这些过程可以导致某种形式的秩序。事实上,我们观察到自然界中的一些系统是基于自治部分的相互作用而呈现出涌现的,而另一些系统则呈现出涌现,至少目前不能以这种方式进行简化。特别是理论物理学中的重整化方法使得科学家们能够研究那些不能作为各部分组合而易于处理的系统。<br />
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===客观或主观的品质Objective or subjective quality===<br />
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Crutchfield regards the properties of complexity and organization of any system as [[Subjectivity|subjective]] [[Quality (philosophy)|qualities]] determined by the observer.<br />
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Crutchfield regards the properties of complexity and organization of any system as subjective qualities determined by the observer.<br />
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克拉奇菲尔德认为任何系统的复杂性和组织性都是由观察者的主观品质所决定的。<br />
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<blockquote>Defining structure and detecting the emergence of complexity in nature are inherently subjective, though essential, scientific activities. Despite the difficulties, these problems can be analysed in terms of how model-building observers infer from measurements the computational capabilities embedded in non-linear processes. An observer’s notion of what is ordered, what is random, and what is complex in its environment depends directly on its computational resources: the amount of raw measurement data, of memory, and of time available for estimation and inference. The discovery of structure in an environment depends more critically and subtly, though, on how those resources are organized. The descriptive power of the observer’s chosen (or implicit) computational model class, for example, can be an overwhelming determinant in finding regularity in data.<ref><br />
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<blockquote>Defining structure and detecting the emergence of complexity in nature are inherently subjective, though essential, scientific activities. Despite the difficulties, these problems can be analysed in terms of how model-building observers infer from measurements the computational capabilities embedded in non-linear processes. An observer’s notion of what is ordered, what is random, and what is complex in its environment depends directly on its computational resources: the amount of raw measurement data, of memory, and of time available for estimation and inference. The discovery of structure in an environment depends more critically and subtly, though, on how those resources are organized. The descriptive power of the observer’s chosen (or implicit) computational model class, for example, can be an overwhelming determinant in finding regularity in data.<ref><br />
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尽管是必不可少的科学活动,定义结构和探测自然界复杂性的出现本质上是主观的。尽管存在这些困难,这些问题可以从建模观察者如何从测量中推断出嵌入在非线性过程中的计算能力的角度进行分析。观察者对于什么是有序的,什么是随机的,什么是复杂的环境的概念直接取决于它的计算资源: 原始测量数据的数量,内存,以及可用于估计和推断的时间。发现环境中的结构更加关键性的和微妙地取决于这些资源是如何组织的。例如,观察者选择的(或隐含的)计算模型类的描述能力,可以是在数据中找到规律性的一个压倒性的决定因素。 <br />
{{cite journal<br />
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{{cite journal<br />
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{引用期刊<br />
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| last1 = Crutchfield<br />
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| last1 = Crutchfield<br />
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1 Crutchfield<br />
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| first1 = James P.<br />
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| first1 = James P.<br />
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第一名: 詹姆斯 · p。<br />
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| author-link1 = James P. Crutchfield<br />
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| author-link1 = James P. Crutchfield<br />
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1 James p. Crutchfield<br />
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| year = 1993<br />
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| year = 1993<br />
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1993年<br />
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| title = The Calculi of Emergence: Computation, Dynamics, and Induction<br />
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| title = The Calculi of Emergence: Computation, Dynamics, and Induction<br />
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浮现的计算: 计算、动力学和归纳<br />
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| url = http://csc.ucdavis.edu/~cmg/compmech/pubs/CalcEmergTitlePage.htm<br />
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| url = http://csc.ucdavis.edu/~cmg/compmech/pubs/CalcEmergTitlePage.htm<br />
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Http://csc.ucdavis.edu/~cmg/compmech/pubs/calcemergtitlepage.htm<br />
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| journal = Physica<br />
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| journal = Physica<br />
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物理学杂志<br />
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| series = D<br />
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| series = D<br />
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系列 d<br />
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| location = Utrecht<br />
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| location = Utrecht<br />
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| 地点: 乌得勒支<br />
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| publication-date = 1994<br />
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| publication-date = 1994<br />
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1994年出版<br />
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| volume = 75<br />
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| volume = 75<br />
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第75卷<br />
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第一季第三集<br />
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| pages = 11–54<br />
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| pages = 11–54<br />
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第11-54页<br />
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| issn = <br />
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不会有事的<br />
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| access-date = 24 Mar 2019<br />
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| access-date = 24 Mar 2019<br />
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| 存取日期: 2019年3月24日<br />
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| bibcode = 1994PhyD...75...11C<br />
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| bibcode = 1994PhyD...75...11C<br />
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1994 / phyd... 75... 11C<br />
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| doi = 10.1016/0167-2789(94)90273-9<br />
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| doi = 10.1016/0167-2789(94)90273-9<br />
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| doi 10.1016 / 0167-2789(94)90273-9<br />
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/ 参考<br />
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On the other hand, [[Peter Corning]] argues: "Must the synergies be perceived/observed in order to qualify as emergent effects, as some theorists claim? Most emphatically not. The synergies associated with emergence are real and measurable, even if nobody is there to observe them."{{Harv|Corning|2002}}<br />
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On the other hand, Peter Corning argues: "Must the synergies be perceived/observed in order to qualify as emergent effects, as some theorists claim? Most emphatically not. The synergies associated with emergence are real and measurable, even if nobody is there to observe them."<br />
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另一方面,彼得·康宁认为: “难道协同作用必须被感知 / 观察,才能像某些理论家所说的那样,被称为涌现效应吗?最明显的不是。与涌现相关的协同效应是真实的、可衡量的,即使没有人在那里观察它们。”<br />
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The low [[entropy]] of an ordered system can be viewed as an example of subjective emergence: the observer sees an ordered system by ignoring the underlying microstructure (i.e. movement of molecules or elementary particles) and concludes that the system has a low entropy.<ref><br />
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The low entropy of an ordered system can be viewed as an example of subjective emergence: the observer sees an ordered system by ignoring the underlying microstructure (i.e. movement of molecules or elementary particles) and concludes that the system has a low entropy.<ref><br />
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有序系统的低熵可以看作是主观涌现的一个例子: 观察者通过忽略基本的微观结构(例如:。分子或基本粒子的运动) ,并得出结论,该系统有一个低熵<br />
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See f.i. Carlo Rovelli: The mystery of time, 2017, part 10: Perspective, p.105-110<br />
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See f.i. Carlo Rovelli: The mystery of time, 2017, part 10: Perspective, p.105-110<br />
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请参阅详细资料。卡洛 · 罗维利: 时间之谜,2017年,第10部分: 透视,第105-110页(这本书有中文资料)<br />
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On the other hand, chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can also be seen as subjective emergent, while at a microscopic scale the movement of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.<br />
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On the other hand, chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can also be seen as subjective emergent, while at a microscopic scale the movement of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.<br />
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另一方面,混乱、不可预知的行为也可以被视为主观涌现,而在微观尺度上,组成部分的运动可以是完全确定的。<br />
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==In religion, art and humanities==<br />
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在宗教、艺术和人文学科<br />
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In religion, emergence grounds expressions of [[religious naturalism]] and [[syntheism]] in which a sense of the [[sacred]] is perceived in the workings of entirely naturalistic processes by which more [[Complexity|complex]] forms arise or evolve from simpler forms. Examples are detailed in ''The Sacred Emergence of Nature'' by [[Ursula Goodenough]] & [[Terrence Deacon]] and [http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/kauffman06/kauffman06_index.html ''Beyond Reductionism: Reinventing the Sacred''] by [[Stuart Kauffman]], both from 2006, and in ''Syntheism – Creating God in The Internet Age'' by [[Alexander Bard]] & [[Jan Söderqvist]] from 2014. An early argument (1904–05) for the emergence of social formations, in part stemming from religion, can be found in [[Max Weber]]'s most famous work, ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]''.<ref>McKinnon, AM. (2010). 'Elective affinities of the Protestant ethic: Weber and the chemistry of capitalism'. Sociological Theory, vol 28, no. 1, pp. 108–26.{{cite web |url=http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3035/1/McKinnon_Elective_Affinities_final_non_format.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-10-26 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818023547/http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3035/1/McKinnon_Elective_Affinities_final_non_format.pdf |archivedate=2014-08-18 }}</ref> Recently, the emergence of a new social system is linked with the emergence of order from nonlinear relationships among multiple interacting units, where multiple interacting units are individual thoughts, consciousness, and actions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Complexification: Explaining a paradoxical world through the science of surprise|last=Casti, J. L.|publisher=Harper Collins|year=1994|isbn=|location=New York|pages=}}</ref><br />
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In religion, emergence grounds expressions of religious naturalism and syntheism in which a sense of the sacred is perceived in the workings of entirely naturalistic processes by which more complex forms arise or evolve from simpler forms. Examples are detailed in The Sacred Emergence of Nature by Ursula Goodenough & Terrence Deacon and [http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/kauffman06/kauffman06_index.html Beyond Reductionism: Reinventing the Sacred] by Stuart Kauffman, both from 2006, and in Syntheism – Creating God in The Internet Age by Alexander Bard & Jan Söderqvist from 2014. An early argument (1904–05) for the emergence of social formations, in part stemming from religion, can be found in Max Weber's most famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Recently, the emergence of a new social system is linked with the emergence of order from nonlinear relationships among multiple interacting units, where multiple interacting units are individual thoughts, consciousness, and actions.<br />
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在宗教中,涌现是宗教自然主义和综合主义的表现形式,给人一种神圣的感觉,通常认为在完全自然主义的过程中,复杂形式是从更简单形式中产生或演化出来的。例如,2006年出版的 Ursula Goodenough 和 Terrence Deacon的《[https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/bio_facpubs/67/ 自然的神圣涌现]》和 Stuart Kauffman的《[http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/kauffman06/kauffman06_index.html] 超越还原论的:重塑神圣]》,以及2014年出版的Alexander Bard和Jan Söderqvist的《综合主义: 在互联网时代创造上帝》,这个也被拍成电影:Futurica Trilogy 未来三部曲。关于社会形态出现的早期论证(1904-05),部分源于宗教,可以在 Max Weber最著名的作品《新教伦理与资本主义精神》找到。到近代以来,一个新的社会系统的涌现和多个相互作用的单元之间的非线性关系所导致的秩序的涌现是联系在一起的,其中多个相互作用的单元可以是个人的思想、意识和行动。<br />
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In art, emergence is used to explore the origins of novelty, creativity, and authorship. Some art/literary theorists (Wheeler, 2006;<ref>{{cite book|last=Wheeler|first=Wendy|title=The Whole Creature: Complexity, Biosemiotics and the Evolution of Culture|year=2006|publisher=Lawrence & Wishart|location=London|isbn=978-1-905007-30-1|page=192}}</ref> Alexander, 2011<ref>{{cite book|last=Alexander|first=Victoria N.|title=The Biologist's Mistress: Rethinking Self-Organization in Art, Literature, and Nature|year=2011|publisher=Emergent Publications|location=Litchfield Park, AZ|isbn=978-0-9842165-5-0|url=http://emergentpublications.com/catalog_detail.aspx?Value=82|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208050459/http://emergentpublications.com/catalog_detail.aspx?Value=82|archivedate=2014-12-08}}</ref>) have proposed alternatives to postmodern understandings of "authorship" using the complexity sciences and emergence theory. They contend that artistic selfhood and meaning are emergent, relatively objective phenomena. [[Michael Pearce (artist)|Michael J. Pearce]] has used emergence to describe the experience of works of art in relation to contemporary neuroscience.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pearce|first=Michael J.|title=Art in the Age of Emergence|year=2015|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|location=Manchester, England|isbn=978-1443870573|url=http://www.cambridgescholars.com/art-in-the-age-of-emergence|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522021953/http://www.cambridgescholars.com/art-in-the-age-of-emergence|archivedate=2015-05-22}}</ref> Practicing artist [[Leonel Moura]], in turn, attributes to his "artbots" a real, if nonetheless rudimentary, creativity based on emergent principles.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Leonel Moura|date=16 July 2018|title=Robot Art: An Interview with Leonel Moura|journal=Arts|volume=7|issue=3|pages=28|doi=10.3390/arts7030028|doi-access=free}}</ref> In literature and linguistics, the concept of emergence has been applied in the domain of stylometry to explain the interrelation between the syntactical structures of the text and the author style (Slautina, Marusenko, 2014).<ref>Slautina, Maria & Marusenko, Mikhail (2014), [https://www.academia.edu/9466688/Lémergence_du_style._Les_méthodes_stylométriques_pour_la_recherche_de_paternité_des_textes_médiévaux "L'émergence du style. Les méthodes stylométriques pour la recherche de paternité des textes médiévaux"] (in French), in ''Les Cahiers du Numérique'' , vol. 10, pp. 179-215.</ref><br />
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In art, emergence is used to explore the origins of novelty, creativity, and authorship. Some art/literary theorists (Wheeler, 2006; Alexander, 2011) have proposed alternatives to postmodern understandings of "authorship" using the complexity sciences and emergence theory. They contend that artistic selfhood and meaning are emergent, relatively objective phenomena. Michael J. Pearce has used emergence to describe the experience of works of art in relation to contemporary neuroscience. Practicing artist Leonel Moura, in turn, attributes to his "artbots" a real, if nonetheless rudimentary, creativity based on emergent principles. In literature and linguistics, the concept of emergence has been applied in the domain of stylometry to explain the interrelation between the syntactical structures of the text and the author style (Slautina, Marusenko, 2014).<br />
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在艺术中,涌现被用来探索创新、创造和作者身份的起源。一些艺术 / 文学理论家(Wheeler,2006; Alexande,2011)利用复杂性科学和涌现理论提出了替代后现代理解的“作者身份”。他们认为艺术的自我和意义是涌现的、相对客观的现象。Michael J. Pearce用涌现现象来描述与当代神经科学相关艺术作品的经验。实践艺术家Leonel Moura则认为他的“机器人艺术”具有真正的创造力,尽管这种创造力还很初级,这种创造力基于涌现原理。在文学和语言学中,涌现的概念被应用于文体学领域,以解释文本的句法结构和作者风格之间的相互关系(Slautina,Marusenko,2014)。<br />
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In international development, concepts of emergence have been used within a theory of social change termed [[SEED-SCALE]] to show how standard principles interact to bring forward socio-economic development fitted to cultural values, community economics, and natural environment (local solutions emerging from the larger socio-econo-biosphere). These principles can be implemented utilizing a sequence of standardized tasks that [[self-assemble]] in individually specific ways utilizing recursive evaluative criteria.<ref>Daniel C. Taylor, Carl E. Taylor, Jesse O. Taylor, ''Empowerment on an Unstable Planet: From Seeds of Human Energy to a Scale of Global Change'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012)</ref><br />
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In international development, concepts of emergence have been used within a theory of social change termed SEED-SCALE to show how standard principles interact to bring forward socio-economic development fitted to cultural values, community economics, and natural environment (local solutions emerging from the larger socio-econo-biosphere). These principles can be implemented utilizing a sequence of standardized tasks that self-assemble in individually specific ways utilizing recursive evaluative criteria.<br />
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在国际发展中,涌现的概念被用于一种称为 SEED-SCALE 的社会变革理论中,以显示标准原则是如何相互作用的,从而推动符合文化价值观、社区经济和自然环境的社会经济发展(来自更大的社会经济生物圈的当地解决办法)。这些原则可以利用一系列标准化的任务来实现,这些任务可以利用递归评估标准以各自特定的方式进行自组装。<br />
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In postcolonial studies, the term "Emerging Literature" refers to a contemporary body of texts that is gaining momentum in the global literary landscape (v. esp.: J.M. Grassin, ed. ''Emerging Literatures'', Bern, Berlin, etc. : Peter Lang, 1996). By opposition, "emergent literature" is rather a concept used in the theory of literature.<br />
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In postcolonial studies, the term "Emerging Literature" refers to a contemporary body of texts that is gaining momentum in the global literary landscape (v. esp.: J.M. Grassin, ed. Emerging Literatures, Bern, Berlin, etc. : Peter Lang, 1996). By opposition, "emergent literature" is rather a concept used in the theory of literature.<br />
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在20世纪90年代后殖民主义理论,“新兴文学”一词指的是在全球文学景观中获得势头的当代文本主体。(v. esp.: J.M. Grassin, ed. Emerging Literatures, Bern, Berlin, etc. : Peter Lang, 1996)。从反面看,“涌现文学”更像是文学理论中使用的一个概念。<br />
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==涌现的特性和过程 ==<br />
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An emergent behavior or emergent property can appear when a number of simple [[wikt:entity|entities]] (agents) operate in an environment, forming more complex behaviors as a collective. If emergence happens over disparate size scales, then the reason is usually a causal relation across different scales. In other words, there is often a form of top-down feedback in systems with emergent properties. The processes causing emergent properties may occur in either the observed or observing system, and are commonly identifiable by their patterns of accumulating change, generally called 'growth'. Emergent behaviours can occur because of intricate causal relations across different scales and feedback, known as [[interconnectivity]]. The emergent property itself may be either very predictable or unpredictable and unprecedented, and represent a new level of the system's evolution. The complex behaviour or properties are not a property of any single such entity, nor can they easily be predicted or deduced from behaviour in the lower-level entities, and might in fact be irreducible to such behavior.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flying in V-formation gives best view for least effort |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn11679-flying-in-v-formation-gives-best-view-for-least-effort/ |website=New Scientist |date=21 April 2007}}</ref> The shape and behaviour of a flock of birds or school of fish are good examples of emergent properties.<br />
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An emergent behavior or emergent property can appear when a number of simple entities (agents) operate in an environment, forming more complex behaviors as a collective. If emergence happens over disparate size scales, then the reason is usually a causal relation across different scales. In other words, there is often a form of top-down feedback in systems with emergent properties. The processes causing emergent properties may occur in either the observed or observing system, and are commonly identifiable by their patterns of accumulating change, generally called 'growth'. Emergent behaviours can occur because of intricate causal relations across different scales and feedback, known as interconnectivity. The emergent property itself may be either very predictable or unpredictable and unprecedented, and represent a new level of the system's evolution. The complex behaviour or properties are not a property of any single such entity, nor can they easily be predicted or deduced from behaviour in the lower-level entities, and might in fact be irreducible to such behavior. The shape and behaviour of a flock of birds or school of fish are good examples of emergent properties.<br />
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当一些简单的个体(主体)在一个环境中运动时,可能会出现涌现的行为或涌现特性,形成整体层面更复杂的行为。如果涌现发生在不同的尺度上,那么原因通常是不同尺度之间的因果关系。换句话说,涌现特性通常意味着在系统中通常存在一种自上而下的反馈形式。出现涌现特性的过程可能发生在观察系统之后或观察系统之时,并且通常可以通过变化累积所形成的模式来识别,这个过程一般称为“增长”。涌现行为之所以会出现,是因为不同尺度之间存在复杂的因果关系和反馈,这种关系被称为互联性。涌现特性本身既不是可预测的或不可预测的,或者说前所未有的,而是代表系统进化的新层次。复杂的行为或者特性不是任何单一类实体的特性,也不能轻易地从较低级别个体行为中预测或推断出来,事实上复杂行为不能简化为个体层面的行为。<br />
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鸟群或鱼群的集体行为展现出的整体形状就可以看成是涌现特性的很好例子。<br />
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One reason emergent behaviour is hard to predict is that the number of [[interaction]]s between a system's components increases exponentially with the number of components, thus allowing for many new and subtle types of behaviour to emerge. Emergence is often a product of particular patterns of interaction. [[Negative feedback]] introduces constraints that serve to fix structures or behaviours. In contrast, [[positive feedback]] promotes change, allowing local variations to grow into global patterns. Another way in which interactions leads to emergent properties is [[dual-phase evolution]]. This occurs where interactions are applied intermittently, leading to two phases: one in which patterns form or grow, the other in which they are refined or removed.<br />
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One reason emergent behaviour is hard to predict is that the number of interactions between a system's components increases exponentially with the number of components, thus allowing for many new and subtle types of behaviour to emerge. Emergence is often a product of particular patterns of interaction. Negative feedback introduces constraints that serve to fix structures or behaviours. In contrast, positive feedback promotes change, allowing local variations to grow into global patterns. Another way in which interactions leads to emergent properties is dual-phase evolution. This occurs where interactions are applied intermittently, leading to two phases: one in which patterns form or grow, the other in which they are refined or removed.<br />
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涌现行为难以预测的一个原因是,系统个体之间的相互作用的数量随个体的数量呈指数增长,从而允许许多新的微妙行为类型涌现出来。涌现通常是特定交互模式的产物。负反馈引入了有助于修复结构或行为的约束。相比之下,正反馈促进改变,允许局部变化发展成为全局模式。相互作用产生涌现特性的另一种方式是[[双相演化]]。这发生在相互作用是间歇地出现,导致两个阶段: 一个是模式的形成或增长,另一个是他们被提炼或移除。<br />
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On the other hand, merely having a large number of interactions is not enough by itself to guarantee emergent behaviour; many of the interactions may be negligible or irrelevant, or may cancel each other out. In some cases, a large number of interactions can in fact hinder the emergence of interesting behaviour, by creating a lot of "noise" to drown out any emerging "signal"; the emergent behaviour may need to be temporarily isolated from other interactions before it reaches enough critical mass to self-support. Thus it is not just the sheer number of connections between components which encourages emergence; it is also how these connections are organised. A hierarchical organisation is one example that can generate emergent behaviour (a bureaucracy may behave in a way quite different from the individual departments of that bureaucracy); but emergent behaviour can also arise from more decentralized organisational structures, such as a marketplace. In some cases, the system has to reach a combined threshold of diversity, organisation, and connectivity before emergent behaviour appears.<br />
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On the other hand, merely having a large number of interactions is not enough by itself to guarantee emergent behaviour; many of the interactions may be negligible or irrelevant, or may cancel each other out. In some cases, a large number of interactions can in fact hinder the emergence of interesting behaviour, by creating a lot of "noise" to drown out any emerging "signal"; the emergent behaviour may need to be temporarily isolated from other interactions before it reaches enough critical mass to self-support. Thus it is not just the sheer number of connections between components which encourages emergence; it is also how these connections are organised. A hierarchical organisation is one example that can generate emergent behaviour (a bureaucracy may behave in a way quite different from the individual departments of that bureaucracy); but emergent behaviour can also arise from more decentralized organisational structures, such as a marketplace. In some cases, the system has to reach a combined threshold of diversity, organisation, and connectivity before emergent behaviour appears.<br />
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另一方面,个体之间仅仅有大量的相互作用本身并不足以保证出现涌现行为; 许多相互作用可能是微不足道或无关紧要的,或者可能相互抵消。在某些情况下,大量的相互作用实际上可能阻碍有趣行为的涌现,因为它们制造了大量的”噪音”来干扰新涌现出现的”信号” ; 在达到足够的临界质量以自立之前,这种涌现行为可能需要暂时与其他相互作用隔离。因此,促进涌现的的不仅仅是个体之间连接的绝对数量,还有连接的方式。等级组织就是能够产生涌现行为的例子(政府机构的行为方式可能与政府机构的单个部门大不相同) ; 但涌现行为也可能产生于更为分散的组织结构,如市场。在某些情况下,在涌现行为出现之前,系统必须达到多样性、组织性和连通性的组合阈值。<br />
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[[Unintended consequence]]s and side effects are closely related to emergent properties. [[Luc Steels]] writes: "A component has a particular functionality but this is not recognizable as a subfunction of the global functionality. Instead a component implements a behaviour whose side effect contributes to the global functionality [...] Each behaviour has a side effect and the sum of the side effects gives the desired functionality".{{Harv|Steels|1990}} In other words, the global or macroscopic functionality of a system with "emergent functionality" is the sum of all "side effects", of all emergent properties and functionalities.<br />
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Unintended consequences and side effects are closely related to emergent properties. Luc Steels writes: "A component has a particular functionality but this is not recognizable as a subfunction of the global functionality. Instead a component implements a behaviour whose side effect contributes to the global functionality [...] Each behaviour has a side effect and the sum of the side effects gives the desired functionality". In other words, the global or macroscopic functionality of a system with "emergent functionality" is the sum of all "side effects", of all emergent properties and functionalities.<br />
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意外后果和子作用与涌现特性密切相关。Luc Steels写道: “一个组件有一个特定的功能,但这不能识别为全局功能的子功能。相反,一个组件实现了一种行为,其子作用有助于实现全局功能[ ... ]每种行为都有子作用,子作用的总和就是整体的功能”。换句话说,具有“涌现功能”系统的全局或宏观功能是所有“子作用”的总和,即所有涌现特性和功能的总和。<br />
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Systems with emergent properties or emergent structures may appear to defy [[entropy|entropic]] principles and the second law of [[thermodynamics]], because they form and increase order despite the lack of command and central control. This is possible because open systems can extract information and order out of the environment.<br />
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Systems with emergent properties or emergent structures may appear to defy entropic principles and the second law of thermodynamics, because they form and increase order despite the lack of command and central control. This is possible because open systems can extract information and order out of the environment.<br />
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具有涌现特性或涌现结构的系统可能看起来可能抵抗熵原理和热力学第二定律,因为他们形成并增加秩序,尽管缺乏中央的指挥和控制,这是可能的,因为开放系统可以从环境中获取信息和秩序。<br />
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Emergence helps to explain why the [[fallacy of division]] is a fallacy.<br />
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Emergence helps to explain why the fallacy of division is a fallacy.<br />
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涌现有助于解释分割谬误是一个谬论。<br />
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==Emergent structures in nature 自然界中的涌现结构 ==<br />
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{{main|Patterns in nature}}<br />
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{{More citations needed section|date=November 2008}}<br />
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[[File:Sand dune ripples.jpg|thumb|280px|right|Ripple patterns in a [[sand dune]] created by wind or water is an example of an emergent structure in nature.]]<br />
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Ripple patterns in a [[sand dune created by wind or water is an example of an emergent structure in nature.]]<br />
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由风或水形成的沙丘的波纹模式是自然界涌现结构的一个例子。<br />
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[[File:Causeway-code poet-4.jpg|thumb|right|280px|[[Giant's Causeway]] in Northern Ireland is an example of a complex emergent structure.]]<br />
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[[Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland is an example of a complex emergent structure.]]<br />
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北爱尔兰的巨人堤道是复杂新兴结构的一个例子。<br />
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Emergent structures can be found in many natural phenomena, from the physical to the biological domain. For example, the shape of weather phenomena such as [[hurricane]]s are emergent structures. The development and growth of complex, orderly [[crystal]]s, as driven by the [[random motion]] of water molecules within a conducive natural environment, is another example of an emergent process, where [[randomness]] can give rise to complex and deeply attractive, orderly structures.<br />
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Emergent structures can be found in many natural phenomena, from the physical to the biological domain. For example, the shape of weather phenomena such as hurricanes are emergent structures. The development and growth of complex, orderly crystals, as driven by the random motion of water molecules within a conducive natural environment, is another example of an emergent process, where randomness can give rise to complex and deeply attractive, orderly structures.<br />
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涌现结构可以在从物理到生物的许多自然现象中找到。例如,气象(比如飓风)的形状就是涌现结构。在导电的环境中(--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]([[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]) conducive natural environment 导电的环境),由水分子的随机运动驱动的复杂有序晶体的发展和生长,是涌现过程的另一个例子,在这种突发过程中,随机性可以产生复杂而具吸引力的有序结构。<br />
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[[File:Water Crystals on Mercury 20Feb2010 CU1.jpg|thumb|280px|right|Water crystals forming on glass demonstrate an emergent, [[fractal]] process occurring under appropriate conditions of temperature and humidity.]] However, crystalline structure and hurricanes are said to have a self-organizing phase.<br />
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Water crystals forming on glass demonstrate an emergent, [[fractal process occurring under appropriate conditions of temperature and humidity.]] However, crystalline structure and hurricanes are said to have a self-organizing phase.<br />
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在玻璃上形成的水的晶体是一个涌现现象,这是一个在适当的温度和湿度条件下发生的分形过程。然而,据说水的晶体结构和飓风有一个'''自组织的阶段 Self-organizing Phase'''。<br />
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It is useful to distinguish three forms of emergent structures. A ''first-order'' emergent structure occurs as a result of shape interactions (for example, [[hydrogen bond]]s in water molecules lead to [[surface tension]]). A ''second-order'' emergent structure involves shape interactions played out sequentially over time (for example, changing atmospheric conditions as a snowflake falls to the ground build upon and alter its form). Finally, a ''third-order'' emergent structure is a consequence of shape, time, and heritable instructions. For example, an organism's [[genetic code]] affects the form of the organism's systems in space and time.<br />
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It is useful to distinguish three forms of emergent structures. A first-order emergent structure occurs as a result of shape interactions (for example, hydrogen bonds in water molecules lead to surface tension). A second-order emergent structure involves shape interactions played out sequentially over time (for example, changing atmospheric conditions as a snowflake falls to the ground build upon and alter its form). Finally, a third-order emergent structure is a consequence of shape, time, and heritable instructions. For example, an organism's genetic code affects the form of the organism's systems in space and time.<br />
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区分涌现结构的三种形式是有必要的。一级涌现结构是空间相互作用的结果(例如,水分子中的氢键导致表面张力)。二级涌现结构涉及随时间变化的空间的相互作用(例如,当雪花落到地面时,大气环境的变化,会影响雪花的形态)。三级涌现结构是空间、时间和可遗传指令的结果。例如,有机体的遗传密码影响着有机体在空间和时间上的形式。<br />
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===Nonliving, physical systems 无生命的物理系统===<br />
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In [[physics]], emergence is used to describe a property, law, or phenomenon which occurs at macroscopic scales (in space or time) but not at microscopic scales, despite the fact that a macroscopic system can be viewed as a very large ensemble of microscopic systems.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Philip W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HhQDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Basic Notions Of Condensed Matter Physics|date=2018-03-09|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-97374-1|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Girvin|first=Steven M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ESIDwAAQBAJ&hl=en|title=Modern Condensed Matter Physics|last2=Yang|first2=Kun|date=2019-02-28|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-57347-4|language=en}}</ref><br />
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In physics, emergence is used to describe a property, law, or phenomenon which occurs at macroscopic scales (in space or time) but not at microscopic scales, despite the fact that a macroscopic system can be viewed as a very large ensemble of microscopic systems.<br />
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在物理学中,涌现被用来描述在宏观尺度(空间或时间)上的性质、规律或现象,尽管一个宏观系统可以被看作是一个非常庞大的微观系统的集合。<br />
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An emergent property need not be more complicated than the underlying non-emergent properties which generate it. For instance, the laws of [[thermodynamics]] are remarkably simple, even if the laws which govern the interactions between component particles are complex. The term emergence in physics is thus used not to signify complexity, but rather to distinguish which laws and concepts apply to macroscopic scales, and which ones apply to microscopic scales.<br />
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An emergent property need not be more complicated than the underlying non-emergent properties which generate it. For instance, the laws of thermodynamics are remarkably simple, even if the laws which govern the interactions between component particles are complex. The term emergence in physics is thus used not to signify complexity, but rather to distinguish which laws and concepts apply to macroscopic scales, and which ones apply to microscopic scales.<br />
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涌现属性不必比生成它的底层非涌现属性更复杂。例如,热力学定律是非常简单的,即使粒子之间相互作用的法则是复杂的。因此,物理学中的涌现一词不是用来表示复杂性,而是用来区分哪些定律和概念适用于宏观尺度,哪些定律和概念适用于微观尺度。<br />
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However, another, perhaps more broadly applicable way to conceive of the emergent divide does involve a dose of complexity insofar as the computational feasibility of going from the microscopic to the macroscopic property tells the 'strength' of the emergence. This is better understood given the following definition of emergence that comes from physics:<br />
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However, another, perhaps more broadly applicable way to conceive of the emergent divide does involve a dose of complexity insofar as the computational feasibility of going from the microscopic to the macroscopic property tells the 'strength' of the emergence. This is better understood given the following definition of emergence that comes from physics:<br />
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然而,另一种也许更广泛适用的方式来设想涌现的方法涉及到一定程度的复杂性,因为从微观到宏观上,计算的可行性告诉我们涌现的力量。如果考虑到以下来自物理学的涌现的定义,这一点可以更好地理解:<br />
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"An emergent behavior of a physical system is a qualitative property that can only occur in the limit that the number of microscopic constituents tends to infinity."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kivelson |first1=Sophia |last2=Kivelson |first2=Steve |title=Defining Emergence in Physics |journal=NPJ Quantum Materials |volume=1 |publisher=Nature Research |doi=10.1038/npjquantmats.2016.24 |year=2016 |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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"An emergent behavior of a physical system is a qualitative property that can only occur in the limit that the number of microscopic constituents tends to infinity."<br />
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物理系统的涌现是一种定性性质,只有在微观成分的数量趋于无穷大的情况下才能发生。<br />
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Since there are no actually infinite systems in the real world, there is no obvious naturally occurring notion of a hard separation between the properties of the constituents of a system and those of the emergent whole. As discussed below, classical mechanics is thought to be emergent from quantum mechanics, though in principle, quantum dynamics fully describes everything happening at a classical level. However, it would take a computer larger than the size of the universe with more computing time than life time of the universe to describe the motion of a falling apple in terms of the locations of its electrons {{citation needed|date=November 2018}}; thus we can take this to be a "strong" emergent divide.<br />
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Since there are no actually infinite systems in the real world, there is no obvious naturally occurring notion of a hard separation between the properties of the constituents of a system and those of the emergent whole. As discussed below, classical mechanics is thought to be emergent from quantum mechanics, though in principle, quantum dynamics fully describes everything happening at a classical level. However, it would take a computer larger than the size of the universe with more computing time than life time of the universe to describe the motion of a falling apple in terms of the locations of its electrons ; thus we can take this to be a "strong" emergent divide.<br />
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因为在现实世界中不存在无限的系统,所以一个系统的组成部分的属性和涌现的整体的属性之间,并不存在自然产生的明显的区分。正如下面所讨论的,经典力学被认为是从量子力学中涌现出来的,尽管在原则上,量子力学完全描述了在经典水平上发生的一切。然而,需要一台比宇宙更大的计算机,计算比宇宙的生命时间更长的时间,才能根据电子的位置来描述一个下落的苹果的运动,因此我们可以把这看作一个“强的”涌现在宏观和微观世界的区分。<br />
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Some examples include:<br />
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一些例子包括:<br />
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* [[Classical mechanics]]: The laws of classical mechanics can be said to emerge as a limiting case from the rules of [[quantum mechanics]] applied to large enough masses. This is particularly strange since quantum mechanics is generally thought of as ''more'' complicated than classical mechanics.<br />
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[[经典力学] : 可以说经典力学的法律是从量子力学规则中涌现的,适用于足够大的物质的一个有限的例子。这一点特别奇怪,因为人们通常认为量子力学比经典力学更复杂。<br />
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* [[Friction]]: Forces between elementary particles are conservative. However, friction emerges when considering more complex structures of matter, whose surfaces can convert mechanical energy into heat energy when rubbed against each other. Similar considerations apply to other emergent concepts in [[continuum mechanics]] such as [[viscosity]], [[Elasticity (physics)|elasticity]], [[tensile strength]], etc.<br />
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Friction: Forces between elementary particles are conservative. However, friction emerges when considering more complex structures of matter, whose surfaces can convert mechanical energy into heat energy when rubbed against each other. Similar considerations apply to other emergent concepts in continuum mechanics such as viscosity, Elasticity (physics)|elasticity, tensile strength, etc.<br />
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摩擦力: 基本粒子之间的力是'''保守的 Conservative'''。然而,当考虑到物质更复杂的结构时,摩擦就涌现了。物质表面相互摩擦时,机械能转化为热能。类似的涌现现象也适用于连续介质力学中的概念,如粘度、弹性、抗拉强度等。<br />
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* [[Patterned ground]]: the distinct, and often symmetrical geometric shapes formed by ground material in periglacial regions.<br />
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Patterned ground: the distinct, and often symmetrical geometric shapes formed by ground material in periglacial regions.<br />
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'''有图案的地面 Patterned Ground''': 有图案的地面是在冰缘地区由地面材料形成的明显的,通常是对称的几何图形。<br />
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* [[Statistical mechanics]] was initially derived using the concept of a large enough [[statistical ensemble (mathematical physics)|ensemble]] that fluctuations about the most likely distribution can be all but ignored. However, small clusters do not exhibit sharp first order [[phase transition]]s such as melting, and at the boundary it is not possible to completely categorize the cluster as a liquid or solid, since these concepts are (without extra definitions) only applicable to macroscopic systems. Describing a system using statistical mechanics methods is much simpler than using a low-level atomistic approach.<br />
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Statistical mechanics was initially derived using the concept of a large enough statistical ensemble (mathematical physics)|ensemble that fluctuations about the most likely distribution can be all but ignored. However, small clusters do not exhibit sharp first order phase transitions such as melting, and at the boundary it is not possible to completely categorize the cluster as a liquid or solid, since these concepts are (without extra definitions) only applicable to macroscopic systems. Describing a system using statistical mechanics methods is much simpler than using a low-level atomistic approach.<br />
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统计力学最初是用一个足够大的数学和物理学集合的概念推导出来的,最有可能分布的波动可以是任何事情,但是不可以忽略不计。然而,小的团簇不表现出明显的一级相变,例如熔化,而且在边界上不可能完全将团簇归类为液体或固体,因为这些概念(没有额外的定义)只适用于宏观系统。使用统计力学方法描述一个系统要比使用低层次的原子论方法简单得多。<br />
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* [[Electrical networks]]: The bulk conductive response of binary (RC) electrical networks with random arrangements, known as the [[Universal dielectric response|Universal Dielectric Response (UDR)]], can be seen as emergent properties of such physical systems. Such arrangements can be used as simple physical prototypes for deriving mathematical formulae for the emergent responses of complex systems.<ref>{{cite journal|url = | doi=10.1016/j.physa.2012.10.035 | volume=392 | issue=4 | title=The origin of power-law emergent scaling in large binary networks | year=2013 | journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications | pages=1004–1027 | last1 = Almond | first1 = D.P. | last2 = Budd | first2 = C.J. | last3 = Freitag | first3 = M.A. | last4 = Hunt | first4 = G.W. | last5 = McCullen | first5 = N.J. | last6 = Smith | first6 = N.D.| arxiv=1204.5601 | bibcode=2013PhyA..392.1004A }}</ref><br />
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Electrical networks: The bulk conductive response of binary (RC) electrical networks with random arrangements, known as the Universal Dielectric Response (UDR), can be seen as emergent properties of such physical systems. Such arrangements can be used as simple physical prototypes for deriving mathematical formulae for the emergent responses of complex systems.<ref><br />
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电网络: 具有随机排列的'''二元电网络的体传导响应 bulk conductive response of binary (RC)''',称为'''通用介电响应 Universal Dielectric Response (UDR)''' ,可以看作是这种物理系统的涌现特性。这样的排列可以被用作简单的,用于推导复杂系统涌现的数学公式的物理原型。引用《The origin of power-law emergent scaling in large binary networks》<br />
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* [[Weather]]<br />
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气象<br />
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[[Temperature]] is sometimes used as an example of an emergent macroscopic behaviour. In classical dynamics, a ''snapshot'' of the instantaneous momenta of a large number of particles at equilibrium is sufficient to find the average kinetic energy per degree of freedom which is proportional to the temperature. For a small number of particles the instantaneous momenta at a given time are not statistically sufficient to determine the temperature of the system. However, using the [[ergodic hypothesis]], the temperature can still be obtained to arbitrary precision by further averaging the momenta over a long enough time.<br />
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Temperature is sometimes used as an example of an emergent macroscopic behaviour. In classical dynamics, a snapshot of the instantaneous momenta of a large number of particles at equilibrium is sufficient to find the average kinetic energy per degree of freedom which is proportional to the temperature. For a small number of particles the instantaneous momenta at a given time are not statistically sufficient to determine the temperature of the system. However, using the ergodic hypothesis, the temperature can still be obtained to arbitrary precision by further averaging the momenta over a long enough time.<br />
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温度有时被用来作为一个涌现的宏观行为的例子。在经典动力学中,对处于平衡状态的大量粒子的瞬时动量足以求出每个自由度的平均动能,而平均动能与温度成正比。对于少数粒子,在给定时间的瞬时动量不足以计算出系统的温度。然而,使用'''遍历假设 Ergodic Hypothesis''',任意精度的温度仍然可以通过在足够长的时间内进行动量的平均而得到。<br />
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[[Convection]] in a liquid or gas is another example of emergent macroscopic behaviour that makes sense only when considering differentials of temperature. [[Convection cells]], particularly [[Bénard cells]], are an example of a [[self-organizing]] system (more specifically, a [[dissipative system]]) whose structure is determined both by the constraints of the system and by random perturbations: the possible realizations of the shape and size of the cells depends on the temperature gradient as well as the nature of the fluid and shape of the container, but which configurations are actually realized is due to random perturbations (thus these systems exhibit a form of [[symmetry breaking]]).<br />
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Convection in a liquid or gas is another example of emergent macroscopic behaviour that makes sense only when considering differentials of temperature. Convection cells, particularly Bénard cells, are an example of a self-organizing system (more specifically, a dissipative system) whose structure is determined both by the constraints of the system and by random perturbations: the possible realizations of the shape and size of the cells depends on the temperature gradient as well as the nature of the fluid and shape of the container, but which configurations are actually realized is due to random perturbations (thus these systems exhibit a form of symmetry breaking).<br />
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液体或气体中的'''对流 Convection'''是另一个涌现宏观行为的例子,只有在考虑温差时才有意义。'''对流细胞 Convection Cells''',特别是 Bénard 细胞,是一个自组织系统(更具体地说,是一个'''耗散系统 Dissipative System''')的例子,其结构既由系统的约束和随机扰动决定: 细胞的形状和大小的可能实现取决于温度梯度以及流体的性质和容器的形状,但实际上实现的配置是由于随机扰动(因此这些系统呈现一种'''对称破缺 Symmetry Breaking'''形式)。<br />
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In some theories of particle physics, even such basic structures as [[mass]], [[space]], and [[time]] are viewed as emergent phenomena, arising from more fundamental concepts such as the [[Higgs boson]] or [[string theory|strings]]. In some interpretations of [[quantum mechanics]], the perception of a [[deterministic]] reality, in which all objects have a definite position, momentum, and so forth, is actually an emergent phenomenon, with the true state of matter being described instead by a [[wavefunction]] which need not have a single position or momentum.<br />
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In some theories of particle physics, even such basic structures as mass, space, and time are viewed as emergent phenomena, arising from more fundamental concepts such as the Higgs boson or strings. In some interpretations of quantum mechanics, the perception of a deterministic reality, in which all objects have a definite position, momentum, and so forth, is actually an emergent phenomenon, with the true state of matter being described instead by a wavefunction which need not have a single position or momentum.<br />
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在一些粒子物理学理论中,甚至像质量、空间和时间这样的基本结构都被视为来自于更基本的概念(比如'''希格斯玻色子Higgs Boson'''或者'''弦 Strings''')的涌现现象。在某些量子力学诠释中,对所有物体都具有确定的位置、动量等等的确定性的感知,实际上是一种涌现现象,因为物质的真实状态是被不需要单一位置或动量的波函数所描述的。<br />
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Most of the laws of [[physics]] themselves as we experience them today appear to have emerged during the course of time making emergence the most fundamental principle in the universe{{According to whom|date=September 2016}} and raising the question of what might be the most fundamental law of physics from which all others emerged. [[Chemistry]] can in turn be viewed as an emergent property of the laws of physics. [[Biology]] (including biological [[evolution]]) can be viewed as an emergent property of the laws of chemistry. Similarly, [[psychology]] could be understood as an emergent property of neurobiological laws. Finally, free-market theories understand [[economy]] as an emergent feature of psychology.<br />
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Most of the laws of physics themselves as we experience them today appear to have emerged during the course of time making emergence the most fundamental principle in the universe and raising the question of what might be the most fundamental law of physics from which all others emerged. Chemistry can in turn be viewed as an emergent property of the laws of physics. Biology (including biological evolution) can be viewed as an emergent property of the laws of chemistry. Similarly, psychology could be understood as an emergent property of neurobiological laws. Finally, free-market theories understand economy as an emergent feature of psychology.<br />
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我们今天所经历的大多数物理定律,似乎都是在时间的推移中出现的,这使得涌现成为宇宙中最基本的定律,并提出了一个问题: 什么可能是物理学中最基本的定律,而其他所有定律都是从这个定律中涌现而来的。化学可以被看作是物理定律的一种涌现。生物学(包括生物进化)可以看作是化学定律的涌现。同样,心理学也可以被理解为神经生物学定律的一种涌现。最后,经济学中的自由市场理论是心理学的一个涌现。<br />
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According to Laughlin (2005), for many particle systems, nothing can be calculated exactly from the microscopic equations, and macroscopic systems are characterised by broken symmetry: the symmetry present in the microscopic equations is not present in the macroscopic system, due to phase transitions. As a result, these macroscopic systems are described in their own terminology, and have properties that do not depend on many microscopic details. This does not mean that the microscopic interactions are irrelevant, but simply that you do not see them anymore&nbsp;— you only see a renormalized effect of them. Laughlin is a pragmatic theoretical physicist: if you cannot, possibly ever, calculate the broken symmetry macroscopic properties from the microscopic equations, then what is the point of talking about reducibility?<br />
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According to Laughlin (2005), for many particle systems, nothing can be calculated exactly from the microscopic equations, and macroscopic systems are characterised by broken symmetry: the symmetry present in the microscopic equations is not present in the macroscopic system, due to phase transitions. As a result, these macroscopic systems are described in their own terminology, and have properties that do not depend on many microscopic details. This does not mean that the microscopic interactions are irrelevant, but simply that you do not see them anymore&nbsp;— you only see a renormalized effect of them. Laughlin is a pragmatic theoretical physicist: if you cannot, possibly ever, calculate the broken symmetry macroscopic properties from the microscopic equations, then what is the point of talking about reducibility?<br />
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Laughlin(2005)认为,对于许多粒子系统来说,从微观方程中无法精确地计算出任何东西,而宏观系统的特征是破缺的对称性: 由于相变,微观方程中存在的对称性无法在宏观系统中存在。因此,这些宏观系统需要用它们自己的术语来描述,并且具有许多不依赖微观细节的性质。这并不意味着宏观性质和微观的相互作用无关,只是你不再看到它们了,你只看到它们的'''重整化效应 Renormalized Effect'''。Laughlin是一个务实的理论物理学家: 如果你不能从微观尺度的方程中计算出对称性破缺的宏观性质,那么谈论'''还原性 Reducibility'''还有什么意义?<br />
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===Living, biological systems===<br />
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生命,生物系统<br />
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====Emergence and evolution 涌现与进化====<br />
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{{see also|Abiogenesis}}<br />
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[[Life]] is a major source of complexity, and [[evolution]] is the major process behind the varying forms of life. In this view, evolution is the process describing the growth of complexity in the natural world and in speaking of the emergence of complex living beings and life-forms, this view refers therefore to processes of sudden changes in evolution.<br />
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Life is a major source of complexity, and evolution is the major process behind the varying forms of life. In this view, evolution is the process describing the growth of complexity in the natural world and in speaking of the emergence of complex living beings and life-forms, this view refers therefore to processes of sudden changes in evolution.<br />
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生命是复杂性的主要来源,进化是不同生命形式背后的主要过程。这种观点认为,进化是描述自然界中复杂性增长的过程,在谈到复杂生物和生命形式的涌现时,这种观点是指进化中的突然变化的过程。<br />
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[[Life]] is thought to have emerged in the early [[RNA world hypothesis|RNA world]] when [[RNA]] chains began to express the basic conditions necessary for natural selection to operate as conceived by [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources. [[Fitness (biology)|Fitness]] of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely be a function of adaptive capacities that were intrinsic (in the sense that they were determined by the nucleotide sequence) and the availability of resources.<ref name="Bernstein">{{cite journal | last1 = Bernstein | first1 = H | last2 = Byerly | first2 = HC | last3 = Hopf | first3 = FA | last4 = Michod | first4 = RA | last5 = Vemulapalli | first5 = GK | year = 1983 | title = The Darwinian Dynamic | journal = Quarterly Review of Biology | volume = 58 | issue = 2| pages = 185–207 | doi=10.1086/413216| jstor = 2828805 }}</ref><ref name="Michod">Michod RE. (2000) Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey {{ISBN|0691050112}}</ref> The three primary adaptive capacities may have been (1) the capacity to replicate with moderate fidelity (giving rise to both heritability and variation of type); (2) the capacity to avoid decay; and (3) the capacity to acquire and process resources.<ref name=Bernstein /><ref name =Michod /> These capacities would have been determined initially by the folded configurations of the RNA replicators (see “[[Ribozyme]]”) that, in turn, would be encoded in their individual nucleotide sequences. Competitive success among different replicators would have depended on the relative values of these adaptive capacities.<br />
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Life is thought to have emerged in the early RNA world when RNA chains began to express the basic conditions necessary for natural selection to operate as conceived by Darwin: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources. Fitness of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely be a function of adaptive capacities that were intrinsic (in the sense that they were determined by the nucleotide sequence) and the availability of resources. The three primary adaptive capacities may have been (1) the capacity to replicate with moderate fidelity (giving rise to both heritability and variation of type); (2) the capacity to avoid decay; and (3) the capacity to acquire and process resources. These capacities would have been determined initially by the folded configurations of the RNA replicators (see “Ribozyme”) that, in turn, would be encoded in their individual nucleotide sequences. Competitive success among different replicators would have depended on the relative values of these adaptive capacities.<br />
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生命被认为是在早期的 RNA 世界中出现的,那时 RNA 链开始出现达尔文所构想的自然选择运作的基本条件: 遗传性、类型变异和对有限资源的竞争。'''RNA 复制器 RNA Replicators'''的适应性(其人均增长率)可能是适应能力的函数,这种适应能力是内在的(在某种意义上说,它们是由核酸序列决定的)和资源的可用性。<br />
--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]([[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]) 觉得原文是个半截句 the availability of resources。。。?<br />
三种主要的适应能力可能是: (1)具有中等保真度的复制能力(同时具有遗传和变异的能力) ; (2)避免衰变的能力; (3)获取和加工资源的能力。这些能力最初是由 RNA 复制器(见'''“核酶 Ribozyme”''')的折叠结构决定的,而这些结构又反过来编码在各自的核酸序列中。不同复制器之间的竞争成功将取决于这些适应能力的相对价值。<br />
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Regarding [[causality]] in evolution [[Peter Corning]] observes:<br />
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Regarding causality in evolution Peter Corning observes:<br />
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关于进化中的因果关系,Peter Corning 观察到:<br />
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<blockquote>Synergistic effects of various kinds have played a major causal role in the evolutionary process generally and in the evolution of cooperation and complexity in particular... Natural selection is often portrayed as a “mechanism”, or is personified as a causal agency... In reality, the differential “selection” of a trait, or an adaptation, is a consequence of the functional effects it produces in relation to the survival and reproductive success of a given organism in a given environment. It is these functional effects that are ultimately responsible for the trans-generational continuities and changes in nature.{{nowrap|{{Harv|Corning|2002}}}}</blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>Synergistic effects of various kinds have played a major causal role in the evolutionary process generally and in the evolution of cooperation and complexity in particular... Natural selection is often portrayed as a “mechanism”, or is personified as a causal agency... In reality, the differential “selection” of a trait, or an adaptation, is a consequence of the functional effects it produces in relation to the survival and reproductive success of a given organism in a given environment. It is these functional effects that are ultimately responsible for the trans-generational continuities and changes in nature.}}</blockquote><br />
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一般来说,各种协同作用在进化过程中,特别是在合作和复杂性的进化中起着重要的因果作用... ... 自然选择通常被描述为一种“机制”,或者被人格化为一种因果... ..。实际上,对某一特性的差异化“选择”,或适应性,是它对特定生物体在特定环境中的生存和繁殖成功所产生的功能性影响的结果。正是这些功能性效应最终导致了'''跨代连续性 Trans-generational Continuities'''和自然界的变化。[} / blockquote<br />
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Per his [[#CorningDefn|definition of emergence]], Corning also addresses emergence and evolution:<br />
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Per his definition of emergence, Corning also addresses emergence and evolution:<br />
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根据 Corning 对涌现的定义,Corning 还提到了“涌现”和“进化” :<br />
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<blockquote>[In] evolutionary processes, causation is iterative; effects are also causes. And this is equally true of the synergistic effects produced by emergent systems. In other words, emergence itself... has been the underlying cause of the evolution of emergent phenomena in biological evolution; it is the synergies produced by organized systems that are the key.{{nowrap|{{Harv|Corning|2002}}}}</blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>[In] evolutionary processes, causation is iterative; effects are also causes. And this is equally true of the synergistic effects produced by emergent systems. In other words, emergence itself... has been the underlying cause of the evolution of emergent phenomena in biological evolution; it is the synergies produced by organized systems that are the key.}}</blockquote><br />
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在进化过程中,因果关系是迭代的; 结果也是原因。这同样适用于由涌现系统产生的'''协同效应 Synergistic Effects'''。换句话说,涌现本身... ... 是生物进化中涌现现象的根本原因; 有组织的系统产生的协同作用才是进化的关键。<br />
--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]([[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]) (进化的)是自己加的不知是否合适<br />
[} / blockquote<br />
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[[Swarming]] is a well-known behaviour in many animal species from [[marching locusts]] to [[Shoaling and schooling|schooling fish]] to [[Flocking (behaviour)|flocking birds]]. Emergent structures are a common strategy found in many animal groups: colonies of ants, mounds built by termites, swarms of bees, shoals/schools of fish, flocks of birds, and herds/packs of mammals.<br />
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Swarming is a well-known behaviour in many animal species from marching locusts to schooling fish to flocking birds. Emergent structures are a common strategy found in many animal groups: colonies of ants, mounds built by termites, swarms of bees, shoals/schools of fish, flocks of birds, and herds/packs of mammals.<br />
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'''群集 Swarming''' 在许多动物物种中是一种普遍的行为,从蝗虫群到鱼群,再到鸟群。涌现结构是许多动物群体中常见的策略: 蚁群,白蚁筑成的蚁丘、蜜蜂群、浅滩或鱼群、鸟群和哺乳动物群落。<br />
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An example to consider in detail is an [[ant colony]]. The queen does not give direct orders and does not tell the ants what to do. Instead, each ant reacts to stimuli in the form of chemical scent from larvae, other ants, intruders, food and buildup of waste, and leaves behind a chemical trail, which, in turn, provides a stimulus to other ants. Here each ant is an autonomous unit that reacts depending only on its local environment and the genetically encoded rules for its variety of ant. Despite the lack of centralized decision making, ant colonies exhibit complex behavior and have even demonstrated the ability to solve geometric problems. For example, colonies routinely find the maximum distance from all colony entrances to dispose of dead bodies.<ref>Steven Johnson. 2001. [[Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software]]</ref><br />
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An example to consider in detail is an ant colony. The queen does not give direct orders and does not tell the ants what to do. Instead, each ant reacts to stimuli in the form of chemical scent from larvae, other ants, intruders, food and buildup of waste, and leaves behind a chemical trail, which, in turn, provides a stimulus to other ants. Here each ant is an autonomous unit that reacts depending only on its local environment and the genetically encoded rules for its variety of ant. Despite the lack of centralized decision making, ant colonies exhibit complex behavior and have even demonstrated the ability to solve geometric problems. For example, colonies routinely find the maximum distance from all colony entrances to dispose of dead bodies.<br />
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需要详细考虑的一个例子是蚁群。蚁后不会直接下达命令,也不会告诉蚂蚁该做什么。相反,每只蚂蚁对来自幼虫、其他蚂蚁、入侵者、食物和排泄物的化学气味的刺激作出反应,并留下化学痕迹,这反过来刺激其他蚂蚁。在这里,每只蚂蚁都是一个自主的单元,它们的反应仅仅取决于它们所处的局部环境和它们的蚂蚁种类的遗传编码规则。尽管缺乏集中化的决策,蚁群仍能表现出复杂的行为,甚至被证明具有解决几何问题的能力。例如,蚁群会按照一定的例行规则找到距离所有蚁群入口的最大距离来处理尸体。<br />
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It appears that environmental factors may play a role in influencing emergence. Research suggests induced emergence of the bee species [[Macrotera portalis]]. In this species, the bees emerge in a pattern consistent with rainfall. Specifically, the pattern of emergence is consistent with southwestern deserts' late summer rains and lack of activity in the spring.<ref name="Danforth2">{{cite journal|last1=Danforth|first1=Bryan|title=Female Foraging and Intranest Behavior of a Communal Bee, Perdita portalis (Hymenoptera: Andrenidae)|journal=Annals of the Entomological Society of America|date=1991|volume=84|issue=5|pages=537–48|doi= 10.1093/aesa/84.5.537}}</ref><br />
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It appears that environmental factors may play a role in influencing emergence. Research suggests induced emergence of the bee species Macrotera portalis. In this species, the bees emerge in a pattern consistent with rainfall. Specifically, the pattern of emergence is consistent with southwestern deserts' late summer rains and lack of activity in the spring.<br />
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似乎环境因素可能在影响涌现方面发挥作用,比如'''大翅目 Macrotera Portalis '''的蜜蜂。在这个物种中,蜜蜂以与降雨量一致的模式出现。具体来说,出现的模式与西南部沙漠春季和夏末的降雨情况相一致。<br />
--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]([[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]) late summer rains and lack of activity in the spring 翻译为 春季和夏末的降雨情况<br />
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====Organization of life 生命的组织====<br />
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A broader example of emergent properties in biology is viewed in the [[biological organisation]] of life, ranging from the [[subatomic]] level to the entire [[biosphere]]. For example, individual [[atom]]s can be combined to form [[molecule]]s such as [[polypeptide]] chains, which in turn [[Protein folding|fold]] and refold to form [[protein]]s, which in turn create even more complex structures. These proteins, assuming their functional status from their spatial conformation, interact together and with other molecules to achieve higher biological functions and eventually create an [[organism]]. Another example is how cascade [[phenotype]] reactions, as detailed in [[chaos theory]], arise from individual genes mutating respective positioning.<ref>[[Neil Campbell (scientist)|Campbell]], Neil A., and Jane B. Reece. ''Biology''. 6th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002.</ref> At the highest level, all the [[biocoenosis|biological communities]] in the world form the biosphere, where its human participants form societies, and the complex interactions of meta-social systems such as the stock market.<br />
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A broader example of emergent properties in biology is viewed in the biological organisation of life, ranging from the subatomic level to the entire biosphere. For example, individual atoms can be combined to form molecules such as polypeptide chains, which in turn fold and refold to form proteins, which in turn create even more complex structures. These proteins, assuming their functional status from their spatial conformation, interact together and with other molecules to achieve higher biological functions and eventually create an organism. Another example is how cascade phenotype reactions, as detailed in chaos theory, arise from individual genes mutating respective positioning. At the highest level, all the biological communities in the world form the biosphere, where its human participants form societies, and the complex interactions of meta-social systems such as the stock market.<br />
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从生命的生物组织,从亚原子水平到整个生物圈,我们可以看到生物涌现特性的一个更广泛的例子。例如,单个原子可以结合形成多肽链之类的分子,多肽链再折叠形成蛋白质,而蛋白质又形成更复杂的结构。这些蛋白质,从它们的空间构象中获得它们的功能状态,并与其他分子相互作用,实现更高的生物功能,最终创造出一个生物体。另一个例子是'''级联表型反应 Cascade Phenotype Reactions''',如混沌理论中详细描述的,级联表型反应产生于个体基因在特定位置的变异。在最高层次上,世界上所有的生物群落形成了生物圈,其中,人类形成了人类社会,并形成了诸如股票市场等元社会系统的复杂相互作用。<br />
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====Emergence of mind 思想的出现====<br />
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Among the considered phenomena in the evolutionary account of life, as a continuous history, marked by stages at which fundamentally new forms have appeared - the origin of sapiens intelligence.<ref>[https://global.britannica.com/science/emergence-science Emergence // Encyclopædia Britannica, 2017]</ref> The emergence of mind and its evolution is researched and considered as a separate phenomenon in a special system knowledge called [[noogenesis]].<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259390703_Eryomin_A.L._Noogenesis_and_Theory_of_Intellect._Krasnodar_2005.__356_p.__._.____.___2005.__356_ Eryomin A.L. '''Noogenesis and Theory of Intellect'''. Krasnodar, 2005. 356 pp.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031233209/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/259390703_Eryomin_A.L._Noogenesis_and_Theory_of_Intellect._Krasnodar_2005.__356_p.__._.____.___2005.__356_ |date=2014-10-31 }}</ref><br />
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Among the considered phenomena in the evolutionary account of life, as a continuous history, marked by stages at which fundamentally new forms have appeared - the origin of sapiens intelligence. The emergence of mind and its evolution is researched and considered as a separate phenomenon in a special system knowledge called noogenesis.<br />
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智人智力的起源在进化论所考虑的现象中很重要,它是一个连续的历史,以出现新形式为标志。<br />
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--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]([[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]) 第一句增加(很重要)<br />
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心智的涌现及其演化被认为是一个独立的现象,这一特殊的知识系统被称为'''人脑发生 Noogenesis'''。<br />
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==In humanity在人类学中 ==<br />
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===Spontaneous order 自发秩序===<br />
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{{see also|Spontaneous order|Self-organization}}<br />
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Groups of human beings, left free to each regulate themselves, tend to produce [[spontaneous order]], rather than the meaningless chaos often feared. This has been observed in society at least since [[Zhuang Zhou|Chuang Tzu]] in ancient China. Human beings are the basic elements of social systems, which perpetually interact and create, maintain, or untangle mutual social bonds. Social bonds in social systems are perpetually changing in the sense of the ongoing reconfiguration of their structure.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Social systems|last=Luhmann, N.|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1995|isbn=|location=Stanford|pages=}}</ref> A classic [[traffic]] [[roundabout]] is also a good example, with cars moving in and out with such effective organization that some modern cities have begun replacing stoplights at problem intersections with traffic circles [http://www.terrain.org/articles/2/siegman.htm], and getting better results. [[Open-source software]] and [[Wiki]] projects form an even more compelling illustration.<br />
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Groups of human beings, left free to each regulate themselves, tend to produce spontaneous order, rather than the meaningless chaos often feared. This has been observed in society at least since Chuang Tzu in ancient China. Human beings are the basic elements of social systems, which perpetually interact and create, maintain, or untangle mutual social bonds. Social bonds in social systems are perpetually changing in the sense of the ongoing reconfiguration of their structure. A classic traffic roundabout is also a good example, with cars moving in and out with such effective organization that some modern cities have begun replacing stoplights at problem intersections with traffic circles [http://www.terrain.org/articles/2/siegman.htm], and getting better results. Open-source software and Wiki projects form an even more compelling illustration.<br />
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群居生活的人,会由市场产生一种自发的秩序,任其自由地调节自己,在“看不见的手”的引导下自发地实现个人利益的极大化,而不是人们常常害怕的那种毫无意义的混乱。至少从中国古代的庄子以来,这种现象就已经存在于社会中了。人类是社会系统的基本要素,社会系统不断地相互作用:创造、维持或割断相互之间的社会联系。社会系统中的社会纽带随着其结构的不断重构而不断变化。一个经典的环形交叉路口也是一个很好的例子,十分有效的组织汽车进进出出,以至于一些现代城市已经开始用环形交叉路口的红绿灯取代在交通圈中的问题十字路口的红绿灯,并取得了更好的结果。<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])with cars moving in and out with such effective organization that some modern cities have begun replacing stoplights at problem intersections with traffic circles 没有搜到 problem intersections对应的专有名词 问题十字路口暂时直译;交通圈是指各种中心地的交通吸引范围。以各条交通线路上的交通流分界点所包围的范围来表示。无论客流、货流或车流等都具有向各种量级中心地汇集的特征,通过寻找各个交通线上下行方向发生明显变化的交通流变流点,将这些点相连所划定的范围即构成一级交通圈,圈内各条线路上的交通流共同指向一个中心地。 是不是可以换为“十字路口问题”?<br />
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开源软件和 Wiki 项目提供了一个更加引人注目的例子。<br />
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--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])补充解释:自发秩序原理指市场控制是不必要的,因为市场本身能够产生一种自发的秩序——每个人都在“看不见的手”的引导下自发地实现个人利益的极大化。<br />
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Emergent processes or behaviors can be seen in many other places, such as cities, [[cabal]] and [[market-dominant minority]] phenomena in economics, organizational phenomena in [[computer simulation]]s and [[cellular automata]]. Whenever there is a multitude of individuals interacting, an order emerges from disorder; a pattern, a decision, a structure, or a change in direction occurs.<ref>Miller, Peter. 2010. The Smart Swarm: How understanding flocks, schools, and colonies can make us better at communicating, decision making, and getting things done. New York: Avery.</ref><br />
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Emergent processes or behaviors can be seen in many other places, such as cities, cabal and market-dominant minority phenomena in economics, organizational phenomena in computer simulations and cellular automata. Whenever there is a multitude of individuals interacting, an order emerges from disorder; a pattern, a decision, a structure, or a change in direction occurs.<br />
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涌现过程或行为可以在许多其他地方看到,如城市、(政治)阴谋和在经济学,组织现象、计算机模拟和元胞自动机中占市场主导地位的少数群体。<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])两个in 是不是代表其有包含关系 该句不确定<br />
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无论何时,只要有大量的个体相互作用,一种秩序就会从混乱中产生(无序就会产生秩序;)一种模式、一种决定、一种结构或方向的改变就会发生。<br />
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====Economics经济学====<br />
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The [[stock market]] (or any market for that matter) is an example of emergence on a grand scale. As a whole it precisely regulates the relative security prices of companies across the world, yet it has no leader; when no [[Economic planning|central planning]] is in place, there is no one entity which controls the workings of the entire market. Agents, or investors, have knowledge of only a limited number of companies within their portfolio, and must follow the regulatory rules of the market and analyse the transactions individually or in large groupings. Trends and patterns emerge which are studied intensively by [[technical analysis|technical analysts]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}.<br />
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The stock market (or any market for that matter) is an example of emergence on a grand scale. As a whole it precisely regulates the relative security prices of companies across the world, yet it has no leader; when no central planning is in place, there is no one entity which controls the workings of the entire market. Agents, or investors, have knowledge of only a limited number of companies within their portfolio, and must follow the regulatory rules of the market and analyse the transactions individually or in large groupings. Trends and patterns emerge which are studied intensively by technical analysts..<br />
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股票市场(或任何市场)就是一个大规模涌现的例子。作为一个整体,它精确地调节着世界上各地公司的相对安全价格,然而它没有领导者; 当没有中央计划的时候,就没有一个实体控制着整个市场的运作。经纪人或投资者只了解其投资组合中有限的几家公司,他们必须遵守市场的监管规则,对交易进行单独或大规模的分析。趋势和模式的出现则是由技术分析师深入研究的。<br />
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====World Wide Web and the Internet万维网与互联网====<br />
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The [[World Wide Web]] is a popular example of a decentralized system exhibiting emergent properties. There is no central organization rationing the number of links, yet the number of links pointing to each page follows a [[power law]] in which a few pages are linked to many times and most pages are seldom linked to. A related property of the network of links in the World Wide Web is that almost any pair of pages can be connected to each other through a relatively short chain of links. Although relatively well known now, this property was initially unexpected in an unregulated network. It is shared with many other types of networks called [[small-world network]]s. {{Harv|Barabasi, Jeong, & Albert|1999|pp=130–31}}<br />
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The World Wide Web is a popular example of a decentralized system exhibiting emergent properties. There is no central organization rationing the number of links, yet the number of links pointing to each page follows a power law in which a few pages are linked to many times and most pages are seldom linked to. A related property of the network of links in the World Wide Web is that almost any pair of pages can be connected to each other through a relatively short chain of links. Although relatively well known now, this property was initially unexpected in an unregulated network. It is shared with many other types of networks called small-world networks. <br />
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万维网是一个分散系统展示涌现属性的大众例子。没有中央组织限制链接的数量,但是指向每个页面的链接数量遵循幂律分布,即少数页面被多次链接,而大多数页面很少被链接。万维网链接网络的一个相关特性是,几乎任何一对页面都可以通过相对较短的链接链相互连接。虽然这个特性现在已经被大众所熟悉,但是这个特性最初在不受控制的网络中是意想不到的。它与许多其他类型的网络共享,称为小世界网络。<br />
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Internet traffic can also exhibit some seemingly emergent properties. In the congestion control mechanism, [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] flows can become globally synchronized at bottlenecks, simultaneously increasing and then decreasing throughput in coordination. Congestion, widely regarded as a nuisance, is possibly an emergent property of the spreading of bottlenecks across a network in high traffic flows which can be considered as a phase transition [see review of related research in {{Harv|Smith|2008|pp=1–31}}].<br />
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Internet traffic can also exhibit some seemingly emergent properties. In the congestion control mechanism, TCP flows can become globally synchronized at bottlenecks, simultaneously increasing and then decreasing throughput in coordination. Congestion, widely regarded as a nuisance, is possibly an emergent property of the spreading of bottlenecks across a network in high traffic flows which can be considered as a phase transition [see review of related research in ].<br />
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互联网流量也可以表现出一些看似涌现的特性。<br />
在拥塞控制机制中,TCP 流可以在瓶颈处实现全局同步,在协调中同时增加和减少吞吐量<br />
拥塞,被广泛认为是一种滋扰,可能是一个涌现的特性,在高流量的网络中传播的瓶颈可以被认为是一个阶段的转变(见相关研究的评论)。<br />
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Another important example of emergence in web-based systems is [[social bookmarking]] (also called collaborative tagging). In social bookmarking systems, users assign tags to resources shared with other users, which gives rise to a type of information organisation that emerges from this crowdsourcing process. Recent research which analyzes empirically the complex dynamics of such systems<ref name="TWEB-ref" >Valentin Robu, Harry Halpin, Hana Shepherd [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1594173.1594176 Emergence of consensus and shared vocabularies in collaborative tagging systems], ACM Transactions on the Web (TWEB), Vol. 3(4), article 14, ACM Press, September 2009.</ref> has shown that consensus on stable distributions and a simple form of [[Folksonomy|shared vocabularies]] does indeed emerge, even in the absence of a central controlled vocabulary. Some believe that this could be because users who contribute tags all use the same language, and they share similar semantic structures underlying the choice of words. The convergence in social tags may therefore be interpreted as the emergence of structures as people who have similar semantic interpretation collaboratively index online information, a process called semantic imitation.<ref>{{Citation<br />
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Another important example of emergence in web-based systems is social bookmarking (also called collaborative tagging). In social bookmarking systems, users assign tags to resources shared with other users, which gives rise to a type of information organisation that emerges from this crowdsourcing process. Recent research which analyzes empirically the complex dynamics of such systems has shown that consensus on stable distributions and a simple form of shared vocabularies does indeed emerge, even in the absence of a central controlled vocabulary. Some believe that this could be because users who contribute tags all use the same language, and they share similar semantic structures underlying the choice of words. The convergence in social tags may therefore be interpreted as the emergence of structures as people who have similar semantic interpretation collaboratively index online information, a process called semantic imitation.<ref>{{Citation<br />
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另一个出现在基于web系统中的重要例子是社会书签(也称为协作标签)。'''社会化书签 Social Bookmark'''是指用户可以将网站随时加入自己的网络书签中;用多个关键词标示和整理书签,并与人共享。<br />
--~~~补充<br />
在社会化书签系统中,用户为与其他用户共享的资源分配标签,这就产生了一种从众包过程中产生的信息组织。最近对这种系统的复杂动力学进行实证分析的研究表明,即使在缺乏中央控制词汇表的情况下,也确实可以出现对稳定分布和一种简单形式的共享词汇表的共识。<br />
--~~~不太理解这句话<br />
一些人认为,这可能是因为提供标签的用户都使用同一种语言,而且他们在选择词汇时具有相似的语义结构。因此,社交标签的趋同可以解释为具有相似语义解释的人协同索引在线信息的结构的出现,这一过程称为语义模仿<br />
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| last = Fu | first = Wai-Tat<br />
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| last = Fu | first = Wai-Tat<br />
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| title = A Semantic Imitation Model of Social Tagging<br />
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| title = A Semantic Imitation Model of Social Tagging<br />
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社会标签的语义模仿模型<br />
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| journal = Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Social Computing<br />
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| journal = Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Social Computing<br />
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美国电气和电子工程师协会会议论文集<br />
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| pages = 66–72<br />
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| date = August 2009<br />
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| date = August 2009<br />
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2009年8月<br />
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| url = http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1633745<br />
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| url = http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1633745<br />
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Http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1633745<br />
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| doi = 10.1109/CSE.2009.382<br />
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| doi = 10.1109/CSE.2009.382<br />
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10.1109 / CSE. 2009<br />
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| last2 = Kannampallil<br />
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| last2 = Kannampallil<br />
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2 Kannampallil<br />
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第二名: 托马斯 · 乔治<br />
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| first3 = Ruogu<br />
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| isbn = 978-1-4244-5334-4 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation<br />
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| isbn = 978-1-4244-5334-4 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation<br />
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978-1-4244-5334-4}<br />
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| last = Fu | first = Wai-Tat<br />
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| title = Semantic Imitation in Social Tagging<br />
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| title = Semantic Imitation in Social Tagging<br />
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社会标签中的语义模仿<br />
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| journal = ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction<br />
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| journal = ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction<br />
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计算机-人机交互学报<br />
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2010年<br />
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| doi = 10.1145/1806923.1806926<br />
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| doi = 10.1145/1806923.1806926<br />
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10.1145 / 1806923.1806926<br />
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第二名: 托马斯<br />
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====Architecture and cities建筑与城市====<br />
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[[File:Bangkok skytrain sunset.jpg|thumb|right|300px| Traffic patterns in cities can be seen as an example of [[spontaneous order]]城市的交通模式可以看作是[[自发秩序]]的一个例子{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}]]<br />
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Traffic patterns in cities can be seen as an example of [[spontaneous order]]<br />
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城市的交通模式可以看作是[[自发秩序]]的一个例子<br />
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Emergent structures appear at many different [[integrative level|levels of organization]] or as [[spontaneous order]]. Emergent [[self-organization]] appears frequently in [[city|cities]] where no planning or zoning entity predetermines the layout of the city. {{Harv|Krugman|1996|pp=9–29}} The interdisciplinary study of emergent behaviors is not generally considered a [[wikt:Homogeneous|homogeneous]] field, but divided across its application or problem [[function domain|domains]].<br />
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Emergent structures appear at many different levels of organization or as spontaneous order. Emergent self-organization appears frequently in cities where no planning or zoning entity predetermines the layout of the city. The interdisciplinary study of emergent behaviors is not generally considered a homogeneous field, but divided across its application or problem domains.<br />
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涌现结构在许多不同层次的组织或自发秩序中出现。涌现性自组织经常出现在没有规划或分区实体预先决定城市布局的城市中。对于涌现行为的跨学科研究通常不被认为是一个单一的领域,而是被划分到跨其应用或问题的领域中。<br />
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Architects may not design all the pathways of a complex of buildings. Instead they might let usage patterns emerge and then place pavement where pathways have become worn, such as a [[desire path]].<br />
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Architects may not design all the pathways of a complex of buildings. Instead they might let usage patterns emerge and then place pavement where pathways have become worn, such as a desire path.<br />
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建筑师可能不会设计一个建筑群的所有通道。相反,他们可能会让“通路”自发涌现:让人们自由选择走出道路,然后在道路已经磨损的地方铺设路面,比如“心选小路”。'''心选小路 Desire Path''',也叫牛道 Cow Path或者羊道 Goat Track ,指行人或自行车频繁经过而形成的一条小路。这种小路通常是往返于两地之间距离最短且最易找到的路。一般情况下,正式修建的道路绕远、路中间有沟,或者压根没有正式道路的地方就会出现“心选小路”。<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]]) usage patterns emerge 意译 添加补充<br />
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The on-course action and vehicle progression of the [[DARPA Grand Challenge#2007 Urban Challenge|2007 Urban Challenge]] could possibly be regarded as an example of [[cybernetic]] emergence. Patterns of road use, indeterministic obstacle clearance times, etc. will work together to form a complex emergent pattern that can not be deterministically planned in advance.<br />
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The on-course action and vehicle progression of the 2007 Urban Challenge could possibly be regarded as an example of cybernetic emergence. Patterns of road use, indeterministic obstacle clearance times, etc. will work together to form a complex emergent pattern that can not be deterministically planned in advance.<br />
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“2007年城市挑战”(2007 Urban Challenge)的行进方向和车辆进展,可能被视为控制论出现的一个例子。道路使用模式,不确定的障碍物清除时间等将共同工作,形成一个复杂的涌现模式,它不能事先确定计划。<br />
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The architectural school of [[Christopher Alexander]] takes a deeper approach to emergence, attempting to rewrite the process of urban growth itself in order to affect form, establishing a new methodology of planning and design tied to traditional practices, an [http://emergenturbanism.com/2009/03/23/the-journey-to-emergence/ Emergent Urbanism]. Urban emergence has also been linked to theories of urban complexity {{Harv|Batty|2005}} and urban evolution.{{Harv|Marshall|2009}}<br />
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The architectural school of Christopher Alexander takes a deeper approach to emergence, attempting to rewrite the process of urban growth itself in order to affect form, establishing a new methodology of planning and design tied to traditional practices, an [http://emergenturbanism.com/2009/03/23/the-journey-to-emergence/ Emergent Urbanism]. Urban emergence has also been linked to theories of urban complexity and urban evolution.<br />
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克里斯托佛·亚历山大的建筑学派对涌现采取了更深入的方法,n order to affect form,试图重写城市发展本身的发展过程,以建立一个与传统实践相联系的规划和设计的新方法论:一个[http://emergenturbanism.com/2009/03/23/The-journey-to-emergence/ 涌现的城市主义]。城市的涌现也与城市复杂性和城市演化的理论联系在一起。<br />
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Building ecology is a conceptual framework for understanding architecture and the built environment as the interface between the dynamically interdependent elements of buildings, their occupants, and the larger environment. Rather than viewing buildings as inanimate or static objects, building ecologist Hal Levin views them as interfaces or intersecting domains of living and non-living systems.<ref name="microbe.net">{{cite web |url=http://www.microbe.net/fact-sheet-building-ecology/ |title=Fact Sheet: Building Ecology |accessdate=2011-08-04 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203182235/http://www.microbe.net/fact-sheet-building-ecology/ |archivedate=2012-02-03 |date=2011-05-26 }}</ref> The microbial ecology of the indoor environment is strongly dependent on the building materials, occupants, contents, environmental context and the indoor and outdoor climate. The strong relationship between atmospheric chemistry and indoor air quality and the chemical reactions occurring indoors. The chemicals may be nutrients, neutral or biocides for the microbial organisms. The microbes produce chemicals that affect the building materials and occupant health and well being. Humans manipulate the ventilation, temperature and humidity to achieve comfort with the concomitant effects on the microbes that populate and evolve.<ref name="microbe.net"/><ref>http://www.microbe.net {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723210118/http://www.microbe.net/ |date=2011-07-23 }}</ref><ref>http://buildingecology.com {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808024931/http://www.buildingecology.com/ |date=2011-08-08 }}</ref><br />
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Building ecology is a conceptual framework for understanding architecture and the built environment as the interface between the dynamically interdependent elements of buildings, their occupants, and the larger environment. Rather than viewing buildings as inanimate or static objects, building ecologist Hal Levin views them as interfaces or intersecting domains of living and non-living systems. The microbial ecology of the indoor environment is strongly dependent on the building materials, occupants, contents, environmental context and the indoor and outdoor climate. The strong relationship between atmospheric chemistry and indoor air quality and the chemical reactions occurring indoors. The chemicals may be nutrients, neutral or biocides for the microbial organisms. The microbes produce chemicals that affect the building materials and occupant health and well being. Humans manipulate the ventilation, temperature and humidity to achieve comfort with the concomitant effects on the microbes that populate and evolve.<br />
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建筑生态学是一种概念框架,用于理解建筑和建筑环境之间动态相互依存的要素,包括建筑、居住者和更大的环境。<br />
建筑生态学家'''哈尔·莱文 Hal Levin''' 并没有把建筑看作是无生命的或静态的物体,而是把它们看作是有生命和无生命系统的界面或交叉领域。<br />
室内环境的微生物生态学强烈依赖于建筑材料、居住者、内容、环境背景和室内外气候。大气化学与室内空气质量及室内发生的化学反应密切相关。这些化学物质可能是微生物的营养物质、中性物质或生物杀灭剂。这些微生物产生的化学物质会影响建筑材料与居民健康。<br />
人类操纵通风、温度和湿度以达到舒适的环境,同时对居住和进化的微生物产生影响。<br />
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Eric Bonabeau's attempt to define emergent phenomena is through traffic: "traffic jams are actually very complicated and mysterious. On an individual level, each driver is trying to get somewhere and is following (or breaking) certain rules, some legal (the speed limit) and others societal or personal (slow down to let another driver change into your lane). But a traffic jam is a separate and distinct entity that emerges from those individual behaviors. [[Gridlock]] on a highway, for example, can travel backward for no apparent reason, even as the cars are moving forward." He has also likened emergent phenomena to the analysis of market trends and employee behavior.<ref>Bonabeau E. Predicting the Unpredictable. Harvard Business Review [serial online]. March 2002. 80(3):109–16. Available from: Business Source Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed February 1, 2012.</ref><br />
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Eric Bonabeau's attempt to define emergent phenomena is through traffic: "traffic jams are actually very complicated and mysterious. On an individual level, each driver is trying to get somewhere and is following (or breaking) certain rules, some legal (the speed limit) and others societal or personal (slow down to let another driver change into your lane). But a traffic jam is a separate and distinct entity that emerges from those individual behaviors. Gridlock on a highway, for example, can travel backward for no apparent reason, even as the cars are moving forward." He has also likened emergent phenomena to the analysis of market trends and employee behavior.<br />
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Eric Bonabeau 试图通过交通来定义涌现现象: “交通堵塞实际上是非常复杂和神秘的。在个人层面上,每个司机都试图到达某个地方,并遵守(或打破)某些规则,一些是合法的(限速) ,另一些是社会的或个人的(减速让另一个司机进入你的车道)。但是,交通堵塞是一个独立的、不同的实体,从这些个人行为中突现出来。例如,高速公路上的交通堵塞可能无缘无故地向后延伸,即使车辆在向前行驶。”他还把涌现现象比作对市场趋势和员工行为的分析。<br />
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Computational emergent phenomena have also been utilized in architectural design processes, for example for formal explorations and experiments in digital materiality.<ref>Roudavski, Stanislav and Gwyllim Jahn (2012). 'Emergent Materiality though an Embedded Multi-Agent System', in 15th Generative Art Conference, ed. by Celestino Soddu (Lucca, Italy: Domus Argenia), pp. 348–63<br />
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Computational emergent phenomena have also been utilized in architectural design processes, for example for formal explorations and experiments in digital materiality.<ref>Roudavski, Stanislav and Gwyllim Jahn (2012). 'Emergent Materiality though an Embedded Multi-Agent System', in 15th Generative Art Conference, ed. by Celestino Soddu (Lucca, Italy: Domus Argenia), pp. 348–63<br />
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{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2368574 |title=Emergent Materiality though an Embedded Multi-Agent System |accessdate=2017-11-01 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523233743/http://www.academia.edu/2368574/Emergent_Materiality_though_an_Embedded_Multi-Agent_System |archivedate=2015-05-23 |last1=Roudavski |first1=Stanislav }}<br />
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计算涌现现象也被应用于建筑设计过程中,例如在数字物质性方面的正式探索和实验。<br />
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===Computer AI===<br />
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电脑人工智能<br />
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Some artificially intelligent (AI) computer applications utilize emergent behavior for animation. One example is [[Boids]], which mimics the [[swarming behavior]] of birds.<br />
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Some artificially intelligent (AI) computer applications utilize emergent behavior for animation. One example is Boids, which mimics the swarming behavior of birds.<br />
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一些人工智能(AI)计算机应用程序利用涌现行为进行动画制作。一个例子是Boids,它模仿鸟类的群体行为。<br />
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===Language语言===<br />
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It has been argued that the structure and regularity of [[language]] [[grammar]], or at least [[language change]], is an emergent phenomenon {{Harv|Hopper|1998}}. While each speaker merely tries to reach his or her own communicative goals, he or she uses language in a particular way. If enough speakers behave in that way, language is changed {{Harv|Keller|1994}}. In a wider sense, the norms of a language, i.e. the linguistic conventions of its speech society, can be seen as a system emerging from long-time participation in communicative problem-solving in various social circumstances {{Harv|Määttä|2000}}.<br />
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It has been argued that the structure and regularity of language grammar, or at least language change, is an emergent phenomenon . While each speaker merely tries to reach his or her own communicative goals, he or she uses language in a particular way. If enough speakers behave in that way, language is changed . In a wider sense, the norms of a language, i.e. the linguistic conventions of its speech society, can be seen as a system emerging from long-time participation in communicative problem-solving in various social circumstances .<br />
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语言语法的结构和规律,或者至少是语言变化,是一种涌现现象。虽然每个说话人只是试图达到自己的交际目的,但他或她使用语言的方式是特定的。如果有足够多的人这样做,语言就会改变。从更广泛的意义上讲,语言规范,即语言社会的语言习惯,可以看作是在各种社会环境下长期参与交际问题解决的一个系统。<br />
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===Emergent change processes涌现的变化过程===<br />
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Within the field of group facilitation and organization development, there have been a number of new group processes that are designed to maximize emergence and self-organization, by offering a minimal set of effective initial conditions. Examples of these processes include [[SEED-SCALE]], [[appreciative inquiry]], Future Search, the world cafe or [[knowledge cafe]], [[Open Space Technology]], and others (Holman, 2010<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holman|first=Peggy|date=December 2010 – January 2011|title=Engaging Emergence: Turning Upheaval into Opportunity|url=http://peggyholman.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/211001pkSystems-Thinkerarticle.pdf|journal=Pegasus Communication: The Systems Thinker|volume=21|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130418075443/http://peggyholman.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/211001pkSystems-Thinkerarticle.pdf|archivedate=2013-04-18}}</ref>).<br />
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Within the field of group facilitation and organization development, there have been a number of new group processes that are designed to maximize emergence and self-organization, by offering a minimal set of effective initial conditions. Examples of these processes include SEED-SCALE, appreciative inquiry, Future Search, the world cafe or knowledge cafe, Open Space Technology, and others (Holman, 2010).<br />
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在群体促进和组织发展的领域内,已经有一些新的群体过程,意在通过提供一组最小的有效初始条件去最大限度地实现涌现和自组织。这些过程的例子包括SEED-SCALE、赏识调查、未来搜索、世界咖啡馆或知识咖啡馆、开放空间技术等(Holman, 2010)。<br />
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== See also ==<br />
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{{cite journal |author1=O'Connor, Timothy |author2=Wong, Hong Yu |title=Emergent Properties|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edition) |editor1=Edward N. Zalta |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/properties-emergent/ |date=February 28, 2012}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
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进一步阅读<br />
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* Alexander, V. N. (2011). ''The Biologist’s Mistress: Rethinking Self-Organization in Art, Literature and Nature''. Litchfield Park AZ: Emergent Publications.<br />
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* Blitz, David. (1992). ''Emergent Evolution: Qualitative Novelty and the Levels of Reality''. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Bunge | first=Mario Augusto | authorlink = Mario Bunge | title = Emergence and Convergence: Qualitiative Novelty and the Unity of Knowledge | publisher = Toronto: University of Toronto Press| year = 2003}}<br />
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* Chalmers, David J. (2002). "Strong and Weak Emergence" http://consc.net/papers/emergence.pdf Republished in P. Clayton and P. Davies, eds. (2006) ''The Re-Emergence of Emergence''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
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* [[Philip Clayton]] & [[Paul Davies]] (eds.) (2006). ''The Re-Emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
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* Corning, Peter A. (2005). "Holistic Darwinism: Synergy, Cybernetics and the Bioeconomics of Evolution." Chicago: University of Chicago Press.<br />
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* Felipe Cucker and [[Stephen Smale]] (2007), The Japanese Journal of Mathematics, [http://ttic.uchicago.edu/~smale/papers/math-of-emergence.pdf ''The Mathematics of Emergence'']<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Smith | first = Reginald D. | title = The Dynamics of Internet Traffic: Self-Similarity, Self-Organization, and Complex Phenomena | year = 2008 | arxiv = 0807.3374|bibcode = 2008arXiv0807.3374S | doi=10.1142/S0219525911003451 | volume=14 | issue = 6 | journal=Advances in Complex Systems | pages=905–949}}<br />
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* Solé, Ricard and Goodwin, Brian (2000) Signs of life: how complexity pervades biology, Basic Books, New York<br />
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* Jakub Tkac & [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jiri_Kroc Jiri Kroc] (2017), Cellular Automaton Simulation of Dynamic Recrystallization: Introduction into Self-Organization and Emergence (Software) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316989956_Cellular_Automaton_Simulation_of_Dynamic_Recrystallization_Introduction_into_Self-Organization_and_Emergence?ev=prf_high] [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317013011_Self-Organization_Video_Sequence_Depicting_Numerical_Experiments_with_Cellular_Automaton_Model_of_Dynamic_Recrystallization_with_source-code_link "Video - Simulation of DRX"]<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Wan | first=Poe Yu-ze | title =Emergence à la Systems Theory: Epistemological Totalausschluss or Ontological Novelty? | journal=Philosophy of the Social Sciences | volume=41 | issue=2 | pages = 178–210 | year = 2011 | doi=10.1177/0048393109350751}}<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Wan | first = Poe Yu-ze | title = Reframing the Social: Emergentist Systemism and Social Theory | publisher = Ashgate Publishing | year = 2011 | url = http://www.ashgate.com/isbn/9781409411529 | access-date = 2012-02-13 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130311101716/http://www.ashgate.com/isbn/9781409411529 | archive-date = 2013-03-11 | url-status = dead }}<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Weinstock | first=Michael | authorlink = Michael Weinstock | title = The Architecture of Emergence - the evolution of form in Nature and Civilisation | year = 2010 |publisher = John Wiley and Sons |isbn = 978-0-470-06633-1}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20110912083233/http://www.architectureofemergence.com/]<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Wolfram | first=Stephen | authorlink = Stephen Wolfram | title = A New Kind of Science | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-1-57955-008-0| title-link=A New Kind of Science }}<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Young | first=Louise B. | title = The Unfinished Universe | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-19-508039-1}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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==External links==<br />
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外部链接<br />
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* {{cite SEP |url-id=properties-emergent |title=Emergent Properties}}<br />
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* {{InPho|taxonomy|2216}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190321161246/http://www.emergentuniverse.org/ The Emergent Universe]: An interactive introduction to emergent phenomena, from ant colonies to Alzheimer's.<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20021205100114/http://llk.media.mit.edu/projects/emergence/ Exploring Emergence]: An introduction to emergence using [[Cellular automaton|CA]] and [[Conway's Game of Life]] from the [[MIT Media Lab]]<br />
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* [http://isce.edu/ ISCE group]: Institute for the Study of Coherence and Emergence.<br />
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* [http://neocybernetics.com/lecture3/ Towards modeling of emergence]: lecture slides from Helsinki University of Technology<br />
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* [http://biomimetic-architecture.com Biomimetic Architecture – Emergence applied to building and construction]<br />
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* [http://studiesinemergentorder.org Studies in Emergent Order]: Studies in Emergent Order (SIEO) is an open-access journal<br />
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* [http://consc.net/papers/granada.html Emergence]<br />
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* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16W7c0mb-rE Emergence – How Stupid Things Become Smart Together] – [[YouTube]] video by [[Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell]]<br />
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* [https://www.d-iep.org/diep DIEP]: Dutch Institute for Emergent Phenomena<br />
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范畴: 混沌理论<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Emergence]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[涌现/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E6%B6%8C%E7%8E%B0&diff=18209涌现2020-11-13T01:39:10Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由趣木木、厚朴、嘉树、思无涯咿呀咿呀彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。{{Complex systems}}<br />
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{{See also|Emergent (disambiguation)|Spontaneous order|Self-organization}}<br />
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{{short description|Phenomenon in complex systems where interactions produce effects not directly predictable from the subsystems}}<br />
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[[File:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.20|The formation of complex symmetrical and [[fractal]] [[patterns in nature|patterns]] in [[snowflake]]s exemplifies emergence in a physical system.]]<br />
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The formation of complex symmetrical and [[fractal patterns in snowflakes exemplifies emergence in a physical system.]]<br />
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复杂对称的形成以及[科赫雪花中的分形图案说明了物理系统的涌现]<br />
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[[File:Termite Cathedral DSC03570.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.10|A [[termite]] "cathedral" mound produced by a [[termites|termite colony]] offers a classic example of emergence in [[nature]]]]<br />
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A [[termite "cathedral" mound produced by a termite colony offers a classic example of emergence in nature]]<br />
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一个由[白蚁聚居地制造的白蚁“大教堂”建筑高地为我们提供了一个涌现的经典例子]<br />
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In [[philosophy]], [[systems theory]], [[science]], and [[art]], '''emergence''' occurs when an entity is observed to have properties its parts do not have on their own. These properties or behaviors emerge only when the parts interact in a wider whole. For example, smooth forward motion emerges when a bicycle and its rider interoperate, but neither part can produce the behavior on their own.<br />
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In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence occurs when an entity is observed to have properties its parts do not have on their own. These properties or behaviors emerge only when the parts interact in a wider whole. For example, smooth forward motion emerges when a bicycle and its rider interoperate, but neither part can produce the behavior on their own.<br />
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在哲学、系统论、科学和艺术中,当一个实体被观察到具有其组成部分本身没有的属性时,涌现就出现了。这些属性或行为只有当各个部分在一个更广泛的整体中相互作用时才会涌现。例如,当一辆自行车和骑手互动时,平稳的向前运动就出现了,但是两个部分都不能独自产生这种行为。<br />
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Emergence plays a central role in theories of [[integrative level]]s and of [[complex system]]s. For instance, the phenomenon of ''[[life]]'' as studied in [[biology]] is an emergent property of [[chemistry]], and [[psychology|psychological]] phenomena emerge from the [[neurobiology|neurobiological]] phenomena of living things.<br />
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Emergence plays a central role in theories of integrative levels and of complex systems. For instance, the phenomenon of life as studied in biology is an emergent property of chemistry, and psychological phenomena emerge from the neurobiological phenomena of living things.<br />
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涌现在整合层次理论和复杂系统理论中起着核心作用。例如,生物学所研究的生命现象是化学的一个涌现特性,而心理现象是从生物的神经生物学现象中涌现出的。<br />
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In philosophy, theories that emphasize emergent properties have been called [[emergentism]]. Almost all accounts of emergentism include a form of [[epistemic]] or [[ontological]] irreducibility to the lower levels.<ref name=Wong/><br />
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In philosophy, theories that emphasize emergent properties have been called emergentism. Almost all accounts of emergentism include a form of epistemic or ontological irreducibility to the lower levels.<br />
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在哲学中,强调涌现特性的理论被称为涌现论。几乎所有涌现主义的叙述都包括一种认识论或本体论不可还原到较低层次的形式。<br />
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== In philosophy在哲学上 == <br />
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Philosophers often understand emergence as a claim about the [[etiology]] of a [[system]]'s properties. An emergent property of a system, in this context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system, but is still a feature of the system as a whole. [[Nicolai Hartmann]] (1882-1950), one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence, termed this a ''categorial novum'' (new category).<br />
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Philosophers often understand emergence as a claim about the etiology of a system's properties. An emergent property of a system, in this context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system, but is still a feature of the system as a whole. Nicolai Hartmann (1882-1950), one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence, termed this a categorial novum (new category).<br />
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哲学家通常把涌现理解为一种对系统特性的发生学的主张。在这个上下文中,系统的涌现特性不是系统的任何组件的属性,但仍然是整个系统的一个特征。尼古拉·哈特曼(1882-1950) ,首批写出涌现论的现代哲学家之一,把这种现象称为范畴新见习(新范畴)。<br />
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===Definitions定义===<br />
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This idea of emergence has been around since at least the time of [[Aristotle]].<ref name="Meta">Aristotle, ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)]]'', Book Η 1045a 8–10: "... the totality is not, as it were, a mere heap, but the whole is something besides the parts ...", i.e., the whole is other than the sum of the parts.</ref> The many scientists and philosophers<ref>Being Emergence vs. Pattern Emergence: Complexity, Control, and Goal-Directedness in Biological Systems<br />
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This idea of emergence has been around since at least the time of Aristotle. The many scientists and philosophers<ref>Being Emergence vs. Pattern Emergence: Complexity, Control, and Goal-Directedness in Biological Systems<br />
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这个涌现的概念至少在亚里士多德时代就已经存在了。许多科学家和哲学家写过关于这个概念的文章,其中包括《约翰·斯图尔特·密尔《原因的构成》和《朱利安 · 赫胥黎》。同样的提出存在涌现 vs. 模式涌现: 生物系统中的复杂性、控制性和目标导向性等议题。<br />
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Jason Winning & William Bechtel<br />
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Jason Winning & William Bechtel<br />
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杰森 · 温宁和威廉 · 贝克特尔<br />
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In Sophie Gibb, Robin Hendry & Tom Lancaster (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Emergence. London: pp. 134-144 (2019)<br />
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In Sophie Gibb, Robin Hendry & Tom Lancaster (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Emergence. London: pp. 134-144 (2019)<br />
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在索菲 · 吉布,罗宾 · 亨德利和汤姆 · 兰开斯特(ed。) ,《劳特利奇出现手册》。伦敦: pp。134-144 (2019)<br />
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Jason Winning<br />
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Jason Winning<br />
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杰森 · 温宁<br />
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University of California, San Diego<br />
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University of California, San Diego<br />
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加州大学圣地亚哥分校<br />
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William Bechtel<br />
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威廉 · 贝克特尔<br />
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University of California, San Diego</ref> who have written on the concept include [[John Stuart Mill]] (''[[Composition of Causes]]'' (1843))<ref>"The chemical combination of two substances produces, as is well known, a third substance with properties entirely different from those of either of the two substances separately, or of both of them taken together."</ref> and [[Julian Huxley]]<ref>Julian Huxley: "now and again there is a sudden rapid passage to a totally new and more comprehensive type of order or organization, with quite new emergent properties, and involving quite new methods of further evolution" {{Harv|Huxley|Huxley|1947}}</ref> (1887-1975).<br />
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University of California, San Diego</ref> who have written on the concept include John Stuart Mill (Composition of Causes (1843)) and Julian Huxley (1887-1975).<br />
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加利福尼亚大学圣地亚哥分校教员,他们写过关于这个概念的文章,其中包括《约翰·斯图尔特·密尔(1843年)和 Julian Huxley (1887-1975年)。<br />
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The philosopher [[George Henry Lewes|G. H. Lewes]] coined the term "emergent", writing in 1875:<br />
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The philosopher G. H. Lewes coined the term "emergent", writing in 1875:<br />
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哲学家 g· h·刘易斯(g. h. Lewes)在1875年创造了“涌现”(emergent)一词<br />
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<blockquote>Every resultant is either a sum or a difference of the co-operant forces; their sum, when their directions are the same – their difference, when their directions are contrary. Further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are [[homogeneous]] and [[Commensurability (philosophy of science)|commensurable]]. It is otherwise with emergents, when, instead of adding measurable motion to measurable motion, or things of one kind to other individuals of their kind, there is a co-operation of things of unlike kinds. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, and it cannot be reduced to their sum or their difference.<ref><br />
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<blockquote>Every resultant is either a sum or a difference of the co-operant forces; their sum, when their directions are the same – their difference, when their directions are contrary. Further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are homogeneous and commensurable. It is otherwise with emergents, when, instead of adding measurable motion to measurable motion, or things of one kind to other individuals of their kind, there is a co-operation of things of unlike kinds. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, and it cannot be reduced to their sum or their difference.<ref><br />
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每个合力要么是合作力的叠加,要么是合作力的相消; 当它们的方向相同时,是它们的和——当它们的方向相反时,则是它们的差。此外,每个成果在其组成部分中都可以清楚地朔源,因为这些组成部分是同质的和'''有公度的 Commensurable'''。与涌现情况不同的是,物,它们不是在可测量的运动中再增加可测量的运动,也不是在同类个体中增加一种事物,而是在不同种类的事物之间进行合作。涌现不同于其组成部分,因为这些部分是不可通约的(有共同因子),不能仅仅简化为它们的总和或差。 <br />
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| 作者链接1乔治·亨利·刘易斯<br />
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| title = Problems of Life and Mind<br />
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| title = Problems of Life and Mind<br />
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题目: 生活与思想的问题<br />
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| series = First Series: The Foundations of a Creed<br />
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In 1999, economist Jeffrey Goldstein provided a current definition of emergence in the journal ''Emergence''.<ref name="Goldstein1999">{{cite journal|last1= Goldstein|first1= Jeffrey|title= Emergence as a Construct: History and Issues|journal= Emergence|date= March 1999|volume= 1|issue= 1|pages= 49–72|doi= 10.1207/s15327000em0101_4}}</ref> Goldstein initially defined emergence as: "the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns and properties during the process of [[self-organization]] in complex systems".<br />
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In 1999, economist Jeffrey Goldstein provided a current definition of emergence in the journal Emergence. Goldstein initially defined emergence as: "the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns and properties during the process of self-organization in complex systems".<br />
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1999年,经济学家杰弗里•戈尔茨坦 Jeffrey Goldstein 在《涌现》(Emergence)杂志上提出了现有的对“涌现”的定义。Goldstein 最初将涌现定义为: “在和性质复杂系统自组织过程中产生的新颖而连贯的结构、模式和性质”。<br />
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In 2002 systems scientist [[Peter Corning]] described the qualities of Goldstein's definition in more detail:<br />
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In 2002 systems scientist Peter Corning described the qualities of Goldstein's definition in more detail:<br />
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2002年,系统科学家 Peter Corning 更详细地描述了 Goldstein 的定义:<br />
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<blockquote>The common characteristics are: (1) radical novelty (features not previously observed in systems); (2) coherence or correlation (meaning integrated wholes that maintain themselves over some period of time); (3) A global or macro "level" (i.e. there is some property of "wholeness"); (4) it is the product of a dynamical process (it evolves); and (5) it is "ostensive" (it can be perceived).<ref name="Corning">{{Citation | doi = 10.1002/cplx.10043 | last = Corning | first = Peter A. | authorlink = Peter Corning | title = The Re-Emergence of "Emergence": A Venerable Concept in Search of a Theory | year = 2002 | journal = Complexity | volume = 7 | pages = 18–30 | issue = 6 | bibcode = 2002Cmplx...7f..18C | df = | citeseerx = 10.1.1.114.1724 }}</ref></blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>The common characteristics are: (1) radical novelty (features not previously observed in systems); (2) coherence or correlation (meaning integrated wholes that maintain themselves over some period of time); (3) A global or macro "level" (i.e. there is some property of "wholeness"); (4) it is the product of a dynamical process (it evolves); and (5) it is "ostensive" (it can be perceived).</blockquote><br />
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它们的共同特征是: (1)根本的新颖性(以前在系统中没有观察到的特征) ; (2)连贯性或相关性(意味着在一段时间内维持自身的整体) ; (3)全局或宏观的“层次”(即:。它是一个动力学过程的产物(进化状态中) ,它是一个明示的过程(它可以被感知)。 / blockquote<br />
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Corning suggests a narrower definition, requiring that the components be unlike in kind (following Lewes), and that they involve [[division of labor]] between these components. He also says that living systems (like the game of [[chess]]), while emergent, cannot be reduced to underlying laws of emergence:<br />
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Corning suggests a narrower definition, requiring that the components be unlike in kind (following Lewes), and that they involve division of labor between these components. He also says that living systems (like the game of chess), while emergent, cannot be reduced to underlying laws of emergence:<br />
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康宁公司提出了一个狭义的定义,要求组成部件不同于实体(跟从刘易斯的观点) ,并且它们涉及这些组成部件之间的劳动分工。他还表示,生命系统(如国际象棋)虽然是涌现的,但不能简化为涌现的基本规律:<br />
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<blockquote><span id="CorningDefn" class="citation">Rules, or laws, have no causal efficacy; they do not in fact 'generate' anything. They serve merely to describe regularities and consistent relationships in nature. These patterns may be very illuminating and important, but the underlying causal agencies must be separately specified (though often they are not). But that aside, the game of chess illustrates ... why any laws or rules of emergence and evolution are insufficient. Even in a chess game, you cannot use the rules to predict 'history' – i.e., the course of any given game. Indeed, you cannot even reliably predict the next move in a chess game. Why? Because the 'system' involves more than the rules of the game. It also includes the players and their unfolding, moment-by-moment decisions among a very large number of available options at each choice point. The game of chess is inescapably historical, even though it is also constrained and shaped by a set of rules, not to mention the laws of physics. Moreover, and this is a key point, the game of chess is also shaped by [[teleonomic]], [[cybernetic]], feedback-driven influences. It is not simply a self-ordered process; it involves an organized, 'purposeful' activity.</span><ref name = Corning/></blockquote><br />
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<blockquote><span id="CorningDefn" class="citation">Rules, or laws, have no causal efficacy; they do not in fact 'generate' anything. They serve merely to describe regularities and consistent relationships in nature. These patterns may be very illuminating and important, but the underlying causal agencies must be separately specified (though often they are not). But that aside, the game of chess illustrates ... why any laws or rules of emergence and evolution are insufficient. Even in a chess game, you cannot use the rules to predict 'history' – i.e., the course of any given game. Indeed, you cannot even reliably predict the next move in a chess game. Why? Because the 'system' involves more than the rules of the game. It also includes the players and their unfolding, moment-by-moment decisions among a very large number of available options at each choice point. The game of chess is inescapably historical, even though it is also constrained and shaped by a set of rules, not to mention the laws of physics. Moreover, and this is a key point, the game of chess is also shaped by teleonomic, cybernetic, feedback-driven influences. It is not simply a self-ordered process; it involves an organized, 'purposeful' activity.</span></blockquote><br />
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这些规则,或者说定律,没有其因果效力; 因为它们实际上并不‘产生’任何东西。它们只是用来描述自然界中的规律性和一致性关系。这些模式可能非常重要且给人以启发,但必须分别说明潜在的因果关系(尽管通常不是这样)。但是除此之外,国际象棋游戏说明了为什么任何关于出现和进化的法则和规则都是不足自证的。即使在国际象棋游戏中,你也不能用这些规则来预测发生的“历史”——也就是说,任何给定游戏的过程都不能被预测。事实上,你甚至无法可靠地预测下一步棋的走法。为什么?因为系统不仅仅包含游戏规则。它还包括球员和他们的自我展现,每时每刻的决定归于一个可用的大数量选择集内,在每个选择点中。国际象棋是不可避免地具有历史性的博弈,尽管它也受到一系列规则的约束和塑造,在此之上更不用说物理定律了。此外,着重点也在这,国际象棋的游戏也塑形于目的性,控制论,反馈驱动的影响。它不仅仅是一个自我有序的过程,它还包括一个有组织的、“有目的的”活动<br />
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===Strong and weak emergence强涌现和弱涌现===<br />
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Usage of the notion "emergence" may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of "weak emergence" and "strong emergence". One paper discussing this division is ''Weak Emergence'', by philosopher [[Mark Bedau]]. In terms of physical systems, weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation or similar forms of after-the-fact analysis (for example, the formation of a traffic jam, the structure of a flight of starlings or a school of fishes, or the formation of galaxies). Crucial in these simulations is that the interacting members retain their independence. If not (for example in a chemical reaction), a new entity is formed with new, emergent properties: this is called strong emergence, which it is argued cannot be simulated or analysed.<br />
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Usage of the notion "emergence" may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of "weak emergence" and "strong emergence". One paper discussing this division is Weak Emergence, by philosopher Mark Bedau. In terms of physical systems, weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation or similar forms of after-the-fact analysis (for example, the formation of a traffic jam, the structure of a flight of starlings or a school of fishes, or the formation of galaxies). Crucial in these simulations is that the interacting members retain their independence. If not (for example in a chemical reaction), a new entity is formed with new, emergent properties: this is called strong emergence, which it is argued cannot be simulated or analysed.<br />
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“涌现”概念的用法一般可分为”弱涌现”和”强涌现”两种观点。一篇论述这种概念区分的文章来源于哲学家马克 · 贝道的《弱涌现》。就物理系统而言,弱涌现是一种涌现类型,在这种涌现类型中,适合进行计算机模拟或类似形式的事后分析(例如,交通堵塞的形成,椋鸟飞行结构或鱼群结构,又或星系的形成)。在这些模拟中至关重要的是相互作用的成员保持他们的独立性。如果没有(例如在化学反应中) ,一个新的实体就形成了,具有新颖的、涌现的特性: 这就是所谓的强涌现,它被认为是不能被模拟或分析的。<br />
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Some common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states. Also, it is assumed that the properties are [[supervenient]] rather than metaphysically primitive {{Harv|Bedau|1997}}.<br />
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Some common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states. Also, it is assumed that the properties are supervenient rather than metaphysically primitive .<br />
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这两个概念之间的一些共同点是,涌现关系到随着系统生长而生成的新特性,也就是说,那些不与其组件或先前状态共享的特性。另外,假设这些属性是附生的,而不是形而上学上的原初的。<br />
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Weak emergence describes new properties arising in systems as a result of the interactions at an elemental level. However, Bedau stipulates that the properties can be determined only by observing or simulating the system, and not by any process of a [[Reductionism|reductionist]] analysis. As a consequence the emerging properties are '''scale dependent''': they are only observable if the system is large enough to exhibit the phenomenon. Chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can be seen as an emergent phenomenon, while at a microscopic scale the behaviour of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.<br />
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Weak emergence describes new properties arising in systems as a result of the interactions at an elemental level. However, Bedau stipulates that the properties can be determined only by observing or simulating the system, and not by any process of a reductionist analysis. As a consequence the emerging properties are scale dependent: they are only observable if the system is large enough to exhibit the phenomenon. Chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can be seen as an emergent phenomenon, while at a microscopic scale the behaviour of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.<br />
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弱涌现描述了由于元素层次上的相互作用而在系统中产生的新特性。然而,Mark Bedau规定,只有通过观察或模拟系统才能确定系统的性质,而不是通过任何还原分析的过程。因此,新出现的属性是与规模相关的: 它们只有在系统足够大能够展现这种现象时才能观察到。混乱、不可预知的行为可以看作是一种涌现现象,而在微观尺度上,组成部分的行为可以是完全确定的。<br />
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[[Mark Bedau|Bedau]] notes that weak emergence is not a universal metaphysical solvent, as the hypothesis that consciousness is weakly emergent would not resolve the traditional philosophical questions about the physicality of consciousness. However, Bedau concludes that adopting this view would provide a precise notion that emergence is involved in consciousness, and second, the notion of weak emergence is metaphysically benign. {{Harv|Bedau|1997}}<br />
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Bedau notes that weak emergence is not a universal metaphysical solvent, as the hypothesis that consciousness is weakly emergent would not resolve the traditional philosophical questions about the physicality of consciousness. However, Bedau concludes that adopting this view would provide a precise notion that emergence is involved in consciousness, and second, the notion of weak emergence is metaphysically benign. <br />
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Mark Bedau指出,弱涌现不是一种普遍的形而上学的solvent,因为意识是弱涌现的假设不能解决关于意识的物质性的传统哲学问题。然而,Bedau 的结论是,采用这种观点将提供一个精确的概念,即涌现是包含在意识中的,其次,弱涌现的概念在形而上学上是良性的。<br />
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Strong emergence describes the direct causal action of a high-level system upon its components; qualities produced this way are [[irreducible (philosophy)|irreducible]] to the system's constituent parts {{Harv|Laughlin|2005}}. The whole is other than the sum of its parts. An example from physics of such emergence is water, which appears unpredictable even after an exhaustive study of the properties of its constituent atoms of hydrogen and oxygen.<ref>{{cite book|last= Luisi|first= Pier L.|title= The Emergence of Life: From Chemical Origins to Synthetic Biology|year= 2006|publisher= Cambridge University Press|location= Cambridge, England|isbn= 978-0521821179|page= 119|url= http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/chemistry/organic-chemistry/emergence-life-chemical-origins-synthetic-biology|url-status=live|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20151117023700/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/chemistry/organic-chemistry/emergence-life-chemical-origins-synthetic-biology|archivedate= 2015-11-17}}</ref> It follows then that no simulation of the system can exist, for such a simulation would itself constitute a reduction of the system to its constituent parts. {{Harv|Bedau|1997}}.<br />
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Strong emergence describes the direct causal action of a high-level system upon its components; qualities produced this way are irreducible to the system's constituent parts . The whole is other than the sum of its parts. An example from physics of such emergence is water, which appears unpredictable even after an exhaustive study of the properties of its constituent atoms of hydrogen and oxygen. It follows then that no simulation of the system can exist, for such a simulation would itself constitute a reduction of the system to its constituent parts. .<br />
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强涌现描述了一个高级系统对其组成部分的直接因果作用; 这种方式产生的质量不可能还原为系统的组成部分。<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])质量/品质 存疑<br />
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整体不是各部分的总和。从物理学角度来看,这种现象的一个例子是水,即使对其组成原子氢和氧的性质进行了详尽的研究,水的形成也显得不可预测。因此,不可能存在任何对系统的模拟,因为这种模拟本身将构成对系统组成部分的简化。.<br />
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====Rejecting the distinction拒绝区分====<br />
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However, biologist Peter Corning has asserted that "the debate about whether or not the whole can be predicted from the properties of the parts misses the point. Wholes produce unique combined effects, but many of these effects may be co-determined by the context and the interactions between the whole and its environment(s)" {{Harv|Corning|2002}}. In accordance with his '''Synergism Hypothesis''' {{Harv|Corning 1983|2005}}, Corning also stated: "It is the [[synergistic]] effects produced by wholes that are the very cause of the evolution of complexity in nature." Novelist [[Arthur Koestler]] used the metaphor of [[Janus]] (a symbol of the unity underlying complements like open/shut, peace/war) to illustrate how the two perspectives (strong vs. weak or [[holistic]] vs. [[reductionistic]]) should be treated as non-exclusive, and should work together to address the issues of emergence {{Harv|Koestler|1969}}. Theoretical physicist PW Anderson states it this way:<br />
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However, biologist Peter Corning has asserted that "the debate about whether or not the whole can be predicted from the properties of the parts misses the point. Wholes produce unique combined effects, but many of these effects may be co-determined by the context and the interactions between the whole and its environment(s)" . In accordance with his Synergism Hypothesis , Corning also stated: "It is the synergistic effects produced by wholes that are the very cause of the evolution of complexity in nature." Novelist Arthur Koestler used the metaphor of Janus (a symbol of the unity underlying complements like open/shut, peace/war) to illustrate how the two perspectives (strong vs. weak or holistic vs. reductionistic) should be treated as non-exclusive, and should work together to address the issues of emergence . Theoretical physicist PW Anderson states it this way:<br />
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然而,生物学家彼得 · 康宁声称,“关于是否可以从部分特性来预测整体特性的争论并没有抓住要点。整体产生独特的综合效应,但其中许多效应可能由环境和整体及其环境之间的相互作用共同决定”。根据他的协同论假说,康宁还指出: “正是整体产生的协同效应才是自然界复杂性进化的根本原因。”小说家'''亚瑟 · 凯斯特勒 Arthur Koestler''' 用“两面神” Janus 这个隐喻(两面神是开 / 关、和平 / 战争等潜在补充的统一的象征)来说明两种观点(强与弱、整体与简化论)应该如何被视为非排他性的,并且应该一起解决涌现的问题。理论物理学家 PW Anderson 是这样说的:<br />
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<blockquote>The ability to reduce everything to simple fundamental laws does not imply the ability to start from those laws and reconstruct the universe. The constructionist hypothesis breaks down when confronted with the twin difficulties of scale and complexity. At each level of complexity entirely new properties appear. Psychology is not applied biology, nor is biology applied chemistry. We can now see that the whole becomes not merely more, but very different from the sum of its parts {{Harv|Anderson|1972}}.</blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>The ability to reduce everything to simple fundamental laws does not imply the ability to start from those laws and reconstruct the universe. The constructionist hypothesis breaks down when confronted with the twin difficulties of scale and complexity. At each level of complexity entirely new properties appear. Psychology is not applied biology, nor is biology applied chemistry. We can now see that the whole becomes not merely more, but very different from the sum of its parts .</blockquote><br />
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把一切都简化为简单的基本定律的能力并不意味着从这些定律出发并重建宇宙的能力。当面对规模和复杂性的双重困难时,建构主义假设就失败了。在复杂性的每个层级上,都会出现全新的属性。心理学不是应用生物学,生物学也不是应用化学。我们现在可以看到,整体不仅变得更多,而且与各部分的总和大不相同。 / blockquote<br />
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====Viability of strong emergence====<br />
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强烈涌现的可行性<br />
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Some thinkers question the plausibility of strong emergence as contravening our usual understanding of physics. Mark A. Bedau observes:<br />
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Some thinkers question the plausibility of strong emergence as contravening our usual understanding of physics. Mark A. Bedau observes:<br />
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一些思想家质疑强涌现的可能性,因为它违背了我们对物理学的通常理解。马克 · 贝道观察到:<br />
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<blockquote>Although strong emergence is logically possible, it is uncomfortably like magic. How does an irreducible but supervenient downward causal power arise, since by definition it cannot be due to the aggregation of the micro-level potentialities? Such causal powers would be quite unlike anything within our scientific ken. This not only indicates how they will discomfort reasonable forms of materialism. Their mysteriousness will only heighten the traditional worry that emergence entails illegitimately getting something from nothing.<ref name = Bedau>(Bedau 1997)</ref></blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>Although strong emergence is logically possible, it is uncomfortably like magic. How does an irreducible but supervenient downward causal power arise, since by definition it cannot be due to the aggregation of the micro-level potentialities? Such causal powers would be quite unlike anything within our scientific ken. This not only indicates how they will discomfort reasonable forms of materialism. Their mysteriousness will only heighten the traditional worry that emergence entails illegitimately getting something from nothing.</blockquote><br />
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尽管强烈的涌现在逻辑上是可能的,但它就像魔术一样令人不安。既然根据定义它不可能是由于微观层面潜力的聚集,那么一种不可还原但随时间而来的向下因果力是如何产生的呢?这种因果关系的力量与我们科学知识范围内的任何东西都完全不同。这不仅表明他们将如何不适应物质主义的合理形式。他们的神秘只会加剧传统的担忧,即出现意味着非法地从无到有。<br />
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Strong emergence can be criticized for being causally [[Overdetermination|overdetermined]]. The canonical example concerns emergent mental states (M and M∗) that supervene on physical states (P and P∗) respectively. Let M and M∗ be emergent properties. Let M∗ supervene on base property P∗. What happens when M causes M∗? [[Jaegwon Kim]] says:<br />
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Strong emergence can be criticized for being causally overdetermined. The canonical example concerns emergent mental states (M and M∗) that supervene on physical states (P and P∗) respectively. Let M and M∗ be emergent properties. Let M∗ supervene on base property P∗. What happens when M causes M∗? Jaegwon Kim says:<br />
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强涌现可以被批评为因果过度决定。典型的例子是关于涌现的心理状态(m 和 m *) ,它们分别在物理状态(p 和 p *)上叠加。设 m 和 m * 是涌现性质。乘以 m 的立方乘以基数 p * 。当 m 导致 m * 时会发生什么?Jaegwon Kim 表示:<br />
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<blockquote>In our schematic example above, we concluded that M causes M∗ by causing P∗. So M causes P∗. Now, M, as an emergent, must itself have an emergence base property, say P. Now we face a critical question: if an emergent, M, emerges from basal condition P, why cannot P displace M as a cause of any putative effect of M? Why cannot P do all the work in explaining why any alleged effect of M occurred? If causation is understood as nomological (law-based) sufficiency, P, as M's emergence base, is nomologically sufficient for it, and M, as P∗'s cause, is nomologically sufficient for P∗. It follows that P is nomologically sufficient for P∗ and hence qualifies as its cause…If M is somehow retained as a cause, we are faced with the highly implausible consequence that every case of downward causation involves overdetermination (since P remains a cause of P∗ as well). Moreover, this goes against the spirit of emergentism in any case: emergents are supposed to make distinctive and novel causal contributions.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kim | first1 = Jaegwon | year = 2016 | title = Emergence: Core ideas and issues | url = | journal = Synthese | volume = 151 | issue = 3| pages = 547–59 | doi = 10.1007/s11229-006-9025-0 }}</ref></blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>In our schematic example above, we concluded that M causes M∗ by causing P∗. So M causes P∗. Now, M, as an emergent, must itself have an emergence base property, say P. Now we face a critical question: if an emergent, M, emerges from basal condition P, why cannot P displace M as a cause of any putative effect of M? Why cannot P do all the work in explaining why any alleged effect of M occurred? If causation is understood as nomological (law-based) sufficiency, P, as M's emergence base, is nomologically sufficient for it, and M, as P∗'s cause, is nomologically sufficient for P∗. It follows that P is nomologically sufficient for P∗ and hence qualifies as its cause…If M is somehow retained as a cause, we are faced with the highly implausible consequence that every case of downward causation involves overdetermination (since P remains a cause of P∗ as well). Moreover, this goes against the spirit of emergentism in any case: emergents are supposed to make distinctive and novel causal contributions.</blockquote><br />
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在我们上面的示意图中,我们得出结论,m 引起 m * 是由 p * 引起的。所以 M 引起 P∗.现在,m,作为一个涌现,本身必须有一个涌现基本性质,比如 p。 现在我们面临一个关键的问题: 如果一个涌现m,出现在基础条件 p下,为什么不能 p 置换 m 作为任何假定的影响的原因?为什么 p 不能做所有的工作来解释为什么会发生所谓的 m 效应?如果因果关系被理解为定律上的充分性,那么 p,作为 m 的涌现基础,在定律上就足够了,m,作为 p * 的原因,在定律上就足够了。如果 m 以某种方式作为原因被保留下来,我们就会面临一个非常难以置信的结果,那就是每一个向下的因果关系都牵涉到过度决定(因为 p 也是 p * 的原因)。此外,这在任何情况下都与涌现主义的精神背道而驰: 涌现主义者应该做出独特而新颖的因果贡献。 / blockquote<br />
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If M is the cause of M∗, then M∗ is overdetermined because M∗ can also be thought of as being determined by P. One escape-route that a strong emergentist could take would be to deny [[downward causation]]. However, this would remove the proposed reason that emergent mental states must supervene on physical states, which in turn would call [[physicalism]] into question, and thus be unpalatable for some philosophers and physicists.<br />
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If M is the cause of M∗, then M∗ is overdetermined because M∗ can also be thought of as being determined by P. One escape-route that a strong emergentist could take would be to deny downward causation. However, this would remove the proposed reason that emergent mental states must supervene on physical states, which in turn would call physicalism into question, and thus be unpalatable for some philosophers and physicists.<br />
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如果 m 是 m * 的原因,那么 m * 就被过分确定了,因为 m * 也可以被认为是由 p 决定的。 一个强涌现论者强大的紧急事件者可能采取的逃避途径是否认向下的因果关系。然而,这将消除涌现的精神状态必须附加在物理状态上的理由,这反过来会使物理主义受到质疑,因此对于一些哲学家和物理学家来说是难以接受的。<br />
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Meanwhile, others have worked towards developing analytical evidence of strong emergence. In 2009, Gu ''et al.'' presented a class of physical systems that exhibits non-computable macroscopic properties.<ref name="morereally">{{cite journal | last1 = Gu | first1 = Mile | display-authors = etal | year = 2009 | title = More really is different | url =| journal = Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena | volume = 238 | issue = 9| pages = 835–39 | doi=10.1016/j.physd.2008.12.016| arxiv = 0809.0151 | bibcode = 2009PhyD..238..835G }}</ref><ref name="binder">{{cite journal | last1 = Binder | first1 = P-M | year = 2009 | title = Computation: The edge of reductionism | url = | journal = Nature | volume = 459 | issue = 7245| pages = 332–34 | doi=10.1038/459332a| pmid = 19458701 | bibcode = 2009Natur.459..332B}}</ref> More precisely, if one could compute certain macroscopic properties of these systems from the microscopic description of these systems, then one would be able to solve computational problems known to be undecidable in computer science. Gu ''et al.'' concluded that<br />
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Meanwhile, others have worked towards developing analytical evidence of strong emergence. In 2009, Gu et al. presented a class of physical systems that exhibits non-computable macroscopic properties. More precisely, if one could compute certain macroscopic properties of these systems from the microscopic description of these systems, then one would be able to solve computational problems known to be undecidable in computer science. Gu et al. concluded that<br />
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与此同时,其他人则致力于发掘强涌现的分析证据。2009年,顾等人。提出了一类具有不可计算的宏观属性的物理系统。更准确地说,如果一个人能够从这些系统的微观描述计算出这些系统的某些宏观性质,那么他就能够解决计算机科学中已知的无法判定的计算问题。谷等人。得出结论<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])探究一下是Gu 是谷还是顾<br />
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<blockquote>Although macroscopic concepts are essential for understanding our world, much of fundamental physics has been devoted to the search for a 'theory of everything', a set of equations that perfectly describe the behavior of all fundamental particles. The view that this is the goal of science rests in part on the rationale that such a theory would allow us to derive the behavior of all macroscopic concepts, at least in principle. The evidence we have presented suggests that this view may be overly optimistic. A 'theory of everything' is one of many components necessary for complete understanding of the universe, but is not necessarily the only one. The development of macroscopic laws from first principles may involve more than just systematic logic, and could require conjectures suggested by experiments, simulations or insight.<ref name="morereally" /></blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>Although macroscopic concepts are essential for understanding our world, much of fundamental physics has been devoted to the search for a 'theory of everything', a set of equations that perfectly describe the behavior of all fundamental particles. The view that this is the goal of science rests in part on the rationale that such a theory would allow us to derive the behavior of all macroscopic concepts, at least in principle. The evidence we have presented suggests that this view may be overly optimistic. A 'theory of everything' is one of many components necessary for complete understanding of the universe, but is not necessarily the only one. The development of macroscopic laws from first principles may involve more than just systematic logic, and could require conjectures suggested by experiments, simulations or insight.</blockquote><br />
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尽管宏观概念对于理解我们的世界来说是必不可少的,大部分的基础物理学已经致力于寻找一个万有理论,一个完美描述所有基本粒子行为的方程组。这种认为这是科学目标的观点,部分依赖于这样一个理论的基本原理,即这样一个理论将允许我们得出所有宏观概念的行为,至少在原则上是这样的。我们提供的证据表明,这种观点可能过于乐观。“万有理论”是完全理解宇宙所必需的许多要素之一,但不一定是唯一的要素。从第一原理发展宏观定律可能不仅仅涉及系统的逻辑,而且可能需要实验、模拟或洞察力的推测。 / blockquote<br />
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===Emergence and interaction涌现和相互作用===<br />
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Emergent structures are patterns that emerge via the collective actions of many individual entities. To explain such patterns, one might conclude, per [[Aristotle]],<ref name="Meta" /> that emergent structures are other than the sum of their parts on the assumption that the emergent order will not arise if the various parts simply interact independently of one another. However, there are those who [[A New Kind of Science#Simple programs|disagree]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.physlink.com/Education/essay_weinberg.cfm|title= A Designer Universe?|author= Steven Weinberg|accessdate= 2008-07-14|quote= A version of the original quote from address at the Conference on Cosmic Design, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. in April 1999|url-status= live|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100519145647/http://www.physlink.com/education/essay_weinberg.cfm|archivedate= 2010-05-19}}</ref> According to this argument, the interaction of each part with its immediate surroundings causes a complex chain of processes that can lead to order in some form. In fact, some systems in nature are observed to exhibit emergence based upon the interactions of autonomous parts, and some others exhibit emergence that at least at present cannot be reduced in this way. In particular [[Renormalization group|renormalization]] methods in theoretical physics enable scientists to study systems that are not tractable as the combination of their parts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last= Longo|first= Giuseppe|last2= Montévil|first2= Maël|last3= Pocheville|first3= Arnaud|date= 2012-01-01|title= From bottom-up approaches to levels of organization and extended critical transitions|journal= Frontiers in Physiology|volume= 3|page= 232|doi= 10.3389/fphys.2012.00232|pmc= 3429021|pmid= 22934001}}</ref><br />
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Emergent structures are patterns that emerge via the collective actions of many individual entities. To explain such patterns, one might conclude, per Aristotle, According to this argument, the interaction of each part with its immediate surroundings causes a complex chain of processes that can lead to order in some form. In fact, some systems in nature are observed to exhibit emergence based upon the interactions of autonomous parts, and some others exhibit emergence that at least at present cannot be reduced in this way. In particular renormalization methods in theoretical physics enable scientists to study systems that are not tractable as the combination of their parts.<br />
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涌现结构是通过许多单个实体的集体行动而出现的模式。为了解释这种模式,人们可能会得出结论,按照亚里士多德的说法,每个部分与其周围环境的相互作用导致了一系列复杂的过程,这些过程可以导致某种形式的秩序。事实上,我们观察到自然界中的一些系统是基于自治部分的相互作用而呈现出涌现的,而另一些系统则呈现出涌现,至少目前不能以这种方式进行简化。特别是理论物理学中的重整化方法使得科学家们能够研究那些不能作为各部分组合而易于处理的系统。<br />
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===客观或主观的品质Objective or subjective quality===<br />
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Crutchfield regards the properties of complexity and organization of any system as [[Subjectivity|subjective]] [[Quality (philosophy)|qualities]] determined by the observer.<br />
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Crutchfield regards the properties of complexity and organization of any system as subjective qualities determined by the observer.<br />
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克拉奇菲尔德认为任何系统的复杂性和组织性都是由观察者的主观品质所决定的。<br />
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<blockquote>Defining structure and detecting the emergence of complexity in nature are inherently subjective, though essential, scientific activities. Despite the difficulties, these problems can be analysed in terms of how model-building observers infer from measurements the computational capabilities embedded in non-linear processes. An observer’s notion of what is ordered, what is random, and what is complex in its environment depends directly on its computational resources: the amount of raw measurement data, of memory, and of time available for estimation and inference. The discovery of structure in an environment depends more critically and subtly, though, on how those resources are organized. The descriptive power of the observer’s chosen (or implicit) computational model class, for example, can be an overwhelming determinant in finding regularity in data.<ref><br />
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<blockquote>Defining structure and detecting the emergence of complexity in nature are inherently subjective, though essential, scientific activities. Despite the difficulties, these problems can be analysed in terms of how model-building observers infer from measurements the computational capabilities embedded in non-linear processes. An observer’s notion of what is ordered, what is random, and what is complex in its environment depends directly on its computational resources: the amount of raw measurement data, of memory, and of time available for estimation and inference. The discovery of structure in an environment depends more critically and subtly, though, on how those resources are organized. The descriptive power of the observer’s chosen (or implicit) computational model class, for example, can be an overwhelming determinant in finding regularity in data.<ref><br />
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尽管是必不可少的科学活动,定义结构和探测自然界复杂性的出现本质上是主观的。尽管存在这些困难,这些问题可以从建模观察者如何从测量中推断出嵌入在非线性过程中的计算能力的角度进行分析。观察者对于什么是有序的,什么是随机的,什么是复杂的环境的概念直接取决于它的计算资源: 原始测量数据的数量,内存,以及可用于估计和推断的时间。发现环境中的结构更加关键性的和微妙地取决于这些资源是如何组织的。例如,观察者选择的(或隐含的)计算模型类的描述能力,可以是在数据中找到规律性的一个压倒性的决定因素。 <br />
{{cite journal<br />
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{{cite journal<br />
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{引用期刊<br />
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| last1 = Crutchfield<br />
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1 Crutchfield<br />
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| first1 = James P.<br />
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| first1 = James P.<br />
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第一名: 詹姆斯 · p。<br />
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| author-link1 = James P. Crutchfield<br />
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| author-link1 = James P. Crutchfield<br />
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1 James p. Crutchfield<br />
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| year = 1993<br />
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| year = 1993<br />
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1993年<br />
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| title = The Calculi of Emergence: Computation, Dynamics, and Induction<br />
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| title = The Calculi of Emergence: Computation, Dynamics, and Induction<br />
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浮现的计算: 计算、动力学和归纳<br />
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| url = http://csc.ucdavis.edu/~cmg/compmech/pubs/CalcEmergTitlePage.htm<br />
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| url = http://csc.ucdavis.edu/~cmg/compmech/pubs/CalcEmergTitlePage.htm<br />
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Http://csc.ucdavis.edu/~cmg/compmech/pubs/calcemergtitlepage.htm<br />
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| journal = Physica<br />
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| journal = Physica<br />
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物理学杂志<br />
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| series = D<br />
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系列 d<br />
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| location = Utrecht<br />
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| location = Utrecht<br />
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| 地点: 乌得勒支<br />
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| publication-date = 1994<br />
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| publication-date = 1994<br />
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1994年出版<br />
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| volume = 75<br />
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| volume = 75<br />
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第75卷<br />
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| issue = 1–3<br />
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第一季第三集<br />
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| pages = 11–54<br />
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| pages = 11–54<br />
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第11-54页<br />
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| issn = <br />
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不会有事的<br />
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| access-date = 24 Mar 2019<br />
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| access-date = 24 Mar 2019<br />
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| 存取日期: 2019年3月24日<br />
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| bibcode = 1994PhyD...75...11C<br />
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| bibcode = 1994PhyD...75...11C<br />
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1994 / phyd... 75... 11C<br />
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| doi = 10.1016/0167-2789(94)90273-9<br />
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| doi = 10.1016/0167-2789(94)90273-9<br />
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| doi 10.1016 / 0167-2789(94)90273-9<br />
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On the other hand, [[Peter Corning]] argues: "Must the synergies be perceived/observed in order to qualify as emergent effects, as some theorists claim? Most emphatically not. The synergies associated with emergence are real and measurable, even if nobody is there to observe them."{{Harv|Corning|2002}}<br />
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On the other hand, Peter Corning argues: "Must the synergies be perceived/observed in order to qualify as emergent effects, as some theorists claim? Most emphatically not. The synergies associated with emergence are real and measurable, even if nobody is there to observe them."<br />
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另一方面,彼得·康宁认为: “难道协同作用必须被感知 / 观察,才能像某些理论家所说的那样,被称为涌现效应吗?最明显的不是。与涌现相关的协同效应是真实的、可衡量的,即使没有人在那里观察它们。”<br />
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The low [[entropy]] of an ordered system can be viewed as an example of subjective emergence: the observer sees an ordered system by ignoring the underlying microstructure (i.e. movement of molecules or elementary particles) and concludes that the system has a low entropy.<ref><br />
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The low entropy of an ordered system can be viewed as an example of subjective emergence: the observer sees an ordered system by ignoring the underlying microstructure (i.e. movement of molecules or elementary particles) and concludes that the system has a low entropy.<ref><br />
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有序系统的低熵可以看作是主观涌现的一个例子: 观察者通过忽略基本的微观结构(例如:。分子或基本粒子的运动) ,并得出结论,该系统有一个低熵<br />
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See f.i. Carlo Rovelli: The mystery of time, 2017, part 10: Perspective, p.105-110<br />
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See f.i. Carlo Rovelli: The mystery of time, 2017, part 10: Perspective, p.105-110<br />
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请参阅详细资料。卡洛 · 罗维利: 时间之谜,2017年,第10部分: 透视,第105-110页(这本书有中文资料)<br />
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On the other hand, chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can also be seen as subjective emergent, while at a microscopic scale the movement of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.<br />
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On the other hand, chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can also be seen as subjective emergent, while at a microscopic scale the movement of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.<br />
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另一方面,混乱、不可预知的行为也可以被视为主观涌现,而在微观尺度上,组成部分的运动可以是完全确定的。<br />
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==In religion, art and humanities==<br />
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在宗教、艺术和人文学科<br />
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In religion, emergence grounds expressions of [[religious naturalism]] and [[syntheism]] in which a sense of the [[sacred]] is perceived in the workings of entirely naturalistic processes by which more [[Complexity|complex]] forms arise or evolve from simpler forms. Examples are detailed in ''The Sacred Emergence of Nature'' by [[Ursula Goodenough]] & [[Terrence Deacon]] and [http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/kauffman06/kauffman06_index.html ''Beyond Reductionism: Reinventing the Sacred''] by [[Stuart Kauffman]], both from 2006, and in ''Syntheism – Creating God in The Internet Age'' by [[Alexander Bard]] & [[Jan Söderqvist]] from 2014. An early argument (1904–05) for the emergence of social formations, in part stemming from religion, can be found in [[Max Weber]]'s most famous work, ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]''.<ref>McKinnon, AM. (2010). 'Elective affinities of the Protestant ethic: Weber and the chemistry of capitalism'. Sociological Theory, vol 28, no. 1, pp. 108–26.{{cite web |url=http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3035/1/McKinnon_Elective_Affinities_final_non_format.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-10-26 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818023547/http://aura.abdn.ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3035/1/McKinnon_Elective_Affinities_final_non_format.pdf |archivedate=2014-08-18 }}</ref> Recently, the emergence of a new social system is linked with the emergence of order from nonlinear relationships among multiple interacting units, where multiple interacting units are individual thoughts, consciousness, and actions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Complexification: Explaining a paradoxical world through the science of surprise|last=Casti, J. L.|publisher=Harper Collins|year=1994|isbn=|location=New York|pages=}}</ref><br />
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In religion, emergence grounds expressions of religious naturalism and syntheism in which a sense of the sacred is perceived in the workings of entirely naturalistic processes by which more complex forms arise or evolve from simpler forms. Examples are detailed in The Sacred Emergence of Nature by Ursula Goodenough & Terrence Deacon and [http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/kauffman06/kauffman06_index.html Beyond Reductionism: Reinventing the Sacred] by Stuart Kauffman, both from 2006, and in Syntheism – Creating God in The Internet Age by Alexander Bard & Jan Söderqvist from 2014. An early argument (1904–05) for the emergence of social formations, in part stemming from religion, can be found in Max Weber's most famous work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Recently, the emergence of a new social system is linked with the emergence of order from nonlinear relationships among multiple interacting units, where multiple interacting units are individual thoughts, consciousness, and actions.<br />
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在宗教中,涌现是宗教自然主义和综合主义的表现形式,给人一种神圣的感觉,通常认为在完全自然主义的过程中,复杂形式是从更简单形式中产生或演化出来的。例如,2006年出版的 Ursula Goodenough 和 Terrence Deacon的《[https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/bio_facpubs/67/ 自然的神圣涌现]》和 Stuart Kauffman的《[http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/kauffman06/kauffman06_index.html] 超越还原论的:重塑神圣]》,以及2014年出版的Alexander Bard和Jan Söderqvist的《综合主义: 在互联网时代创造上帝》,这个也被拍成电影:Futurica Trilogy 未来三部曲。关于社会形态出现的早期论证(1904-05),部分源于宗教,可以在 Max Weber最著名的作品《新教伦理与资本主义精神》找到。到近代以来,一个新的社会系统的涌现和多个相互作用的单元之间的非线性关系所导致的秩序的涌现是联系在一起的,其中多个相互作用的单元可以是个人的思想、意识和行动。<br />
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In art, emergence is used to explore the origins of novelty, creativity, and authorship. Some art/literary theorists (Wheeler, 2006;<ref>{{cite book|last=Wheeler|first=Wendy|title=The Whole Creature: Complexity, Biosemiotics and the Evolution of Culture|year=2006|publisher=Lawrence & Wishart|location=London|isbn=978-1-905007-30-1|page=192}}</ref> Alexander, 2011<ref>{{cite book|last=Alexander|first=Victoria N.|title=The Biologist's Mistress: Rethinking Self-Organization in Art, Literature, and Nature|year=2011|publisher=Emergent Publications|location=Litchfield Park, AZ|isbn=978-0-9842165-5-0|url=http://emergentpublications.com/catalog_detail.aspx?Value=82|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208050459/http://emergentpublications.com/catalog_detail.aspx?Value=82|archivedate=2014-12-08}}</ref>) have proposed alternatives to postmodern understandings of "authorship" using the complexity sciences and emergence theory. They contend that artistic selfhood and meaning are emergent, relatively objective phenomena. [[Michael Pearce (artist)|Michael J. Pearce]] has used emergence to describe the experience of works of art in relation to contemporary neuroscience.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pearce|first=Michael J.|title=Art in the Age of Emergence|year=2015|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|location=Manchester, England|isbn=978-1443870573|url=http://www.cambridgescholars.com/art-in-the-age-of-emergence|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522021953/http://www.cambridgescholars.com/art-in-the-age-of-emergence|archivedate=2015-05-22}}</ref> Practicing artist [[Leonel Moura]], in turn, attributes to his "artbots" a real, if nonetheless rudimentary, creativity based on emergent principles.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Leonel Moura|date=16 July 2018|title=Robot Art: An Interview with Leonel Moura|journal=Arts|volume=7|issue=3|pages=28|doi=10.3390/arts7030028|doi-access=free}}</ref> In literature and linguistics, the concept of emergence has been applied in the domain of stylometry to explain the interrelation between the syntactical structures of the text and the author style (Slautina, Marusenko, 2014).<ref>Slautina, Maria & Marusenko, Mikhail (2014), [https://www.academia.edu/9466688/Lémergence_du_style._Les_méthodes_stylométriques_pour_la_recherche_de_paternité_des_textes_médiévaux "L'émergence du style. Les méthodes stylométriques pour la recherche de paternité des textes médiévaux"] (in French), in ''Les Cahiers du Numérique'' , vol. 10, pp. 179-215.</ref><br />
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In art, emergence is used to explore the origins of novelty, creativity, and authorship. Some art/literary theorists (Wheeler, 2006; Alexander, 2011) have proposed alternatives to postmodern understandings of "authorship" using the complexity sciences and emergence theory. They contend that artistic selfhood and meaning are emergent, relatively objective phenomena. Michael J. Pearce has used emergence to describe the experience of works of art in relation to contemporary neuroscience. Practicing artist Leonel Moura, in turn, attributes to his "artbots" a real, if nonetheless rudimentary, creativity based on emergent principles. In literature and linguistics, the concept of emergence has been applied in the domain of stylometry to explain the interrelation between the syntactical structures of the text and the author style (Slautina, Marusenko, 2014).<br />
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在艺术中,涌现被用来探索创新、创造和作者身份的起源。一些艺术 / 文学理论家(Wheeler,2006; Alexande,2011)利用复杂性科学和涌现理论提出了替代后现代理解的“作者身份”。他们认为艺术的自我和意义是涌现的、相对客观的现象。Michael J. Pearce用涌现现象来描述与当代神经科学相关艺术作品的经验。实践艺术家Leonel Moura则认为他的“机器人艺术”具有真正的创造力,尽管这种创造力还很初级,这种创造力基于涌现原理。在文学和语言学中,涌现的概念被应用于文体学领域,以解释文本的句法结构和作者风格之间的相互关系(Slautina,Marusenko,2014)。<br />
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In international development, concepts of emergence have been used within a theory of social change termed [[SEED-SCALE]] to show how standard principles interact to bring forward socio-economic development fitted to cultural values, community economics, and natural environment (local solutions emerging from the larger socio-econo-biosphere). These principles can be implemented utilizing a sequence of standardized tasks that [[self-assemble]] in individually specific ways utilizing recursive evaluative criteria.<ref>Daniel C. Taylor, Carl E. Taylor, Jesse O. Taylor, ''Empowerment on an Unstable Planet: From Seeds of Human Energy to a Scale of Global Change'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012)</ref><br />
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In international development, concepts of emergence have been used within a theory of social change termed SEED-SCALE to show how standard principles interact to bring forward socio-economic development fitted to cultural values, community economics, and natural environment (local solutions emerging from the larger socio-econo-biosphere). These principles can be implemented utilizing a sequence of standardized tasks that self-assemble in individually specific ways utilizing recursive evaluative criteria.<br />
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在国际发展中,涌现的概念被用于一种称为 SEED-SCALE 的社会变革理论中,以显示标准原则是如何相互作用的,从而推动符合文化价值观、社区经济和自然环境的社会经济发展(来自更大的社会经济生物圈的当地解决办法)。这些原则可以利用一系列标准化的任务来实现,这些任务可以利用递归评估标准以各自特定的方式进行自组装。<br />
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In postcolonial studies, the term "Emerging Literature" refers to a contemporary body of texts that is gaining momentum in the global literary landscape (v. esp.: J.M. Grassin, ed. ''Emerging Literatures'', Bern, Berlin, etc. : Peter Lang, 1996). By opposition, "emergent literature" is rather a concept used in the theory of literature.<br />
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In postcolonial studies, the term "Emerging Literature" refers to a contemporary body of texts that is gaining momentum in the global literary landscape (v. esp.: J.M. Grassin, ed. Emerging Literatures, Bern, Berlin, etc. : Peter Lang, 1996). By opposition, "emergent literature" is rather a concept used in the theory of literature.<br />
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在20世纪90年代后殖民主义理论,“新兴文学”一词指的是在全球文学景观中获得势头的当代文本主体。(v. esp.: J.M. Grassin, ed. Emerging Literatures, Bern, Berlin, etc. : Peter Lang, 1996)。从反面看,“涌现文学”更像是文学理论中使用的一个概念。<br />
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==涌现的特性和过程 ==<br />
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An emergent behavior or emergent property can appear when a number of simple [[wikt:entity|entities]] (agents) operate in an environment, forming more complex behaviors as a collective. If emergence happens over disparate size scales, then the reason is usually a causal relation across different scales. In other words, there is often a form of top-down feedback in systems with emergent properties. The processes causing emergent properties may occur in either the observed or observing system, and are commonly identifiable by their patterns of accumulating change, generally called 'growth'. Emergent behaviours can occur because of intricate causal relations across different scales and feedback, known as [[interconnectivity]]. The emergent property itself may be either very predictable or unpredictable and unprecedented, and represent a new level of the system's evolution. The complex behaviour or properties are not a property of any single such entity, nor can they easily be predicted or deduced from behaviour in the lower-level entities, and might in fact be irreducible to such behavior.<ref>{{cite web |title=Flying in V-formation gives best view for least effort |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn11679-flying-in-v-formation-gives-best-view-for-least-effort/ |website=New Scientist |date=21 April 2007}}</ref> The shape and behaviour of a flock of birds or school of fish are good examples of emergent properties.<br />
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An emergent behavior or emergent property can appear when a number of simple entities (agents) operate in an environment, forming more complex behaviors as a collective. If emergence happens over disparate size scales, then the reason is usually a causal relation across different scales. In other words, there is often a form of top-down feedback in systems with emergent properties. The processes causing emergent properties may occur in either the observed or observing system, and are commonly identifiable by their patterns of accumulating change, generally called 'growth'. Emergent behaviours can occur because of intricate causal relations across different scales and feedback, known as interconnectivity. The emergent property itself may be either very predictable or unpredictable and unprecedented, and represent a new level of the system's evolution. The complex behaviour or properties are not a property of any single such entity, nor can they easily be predicted or deduced from behaviour in the lower-level entities, and might in fact be irreducible to such behavior. The shape and behaviour of a flock of birds or school of fish are good examples of emergent properties.<br />
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当一些简单的个体(主体)在一个环境中运动时,可能会出现涌现的行为或涌现特性,形成整体层面更复杂的行为。如果涌现发生在不同的尺度上,那么原因通常是不同尺度之间的因果关系。换句话说,涌现特性通常意味着在系统中通常存在一种自上而下的反馈形式。出现涌现特性的过程可能发生在观察系统之后或观察系统之时,并且通常可以通过变化累积所形成的模式来识别,这个过程一般称为“增长”。涌现行为之所以会出现,是因为不同尺度之间存在复杂的因果关系和反馈,这种关系被称为互联性。涌现特性本身既不是可预测的或不可预测的,或者说前所未有的,而是代表系统进化的新层次。复杂的行为或者特性不是任何单一类实体的特性,也不能轻易地从较低级别个体行为中预测或推断出来,事实上复杂行为不能简化为个体层面的行为。<br />
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鸟群或鱼群的集体行为展现出的整体形状就可以看成是涌现特性的很好例子。<br />
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One reason emergent behaviour is hard to predict is that the number of [[interaction]]s between a system's components increases exponentially with the number of components, thus allowing for many new and subtle types of behaviour to emerge. Emergence is often a product of particular patterns of interaction. [[Negative feedback]] introduces constraints that serve to fix structures or behaviours. In contrast, [[positive feedback]] promotes change, allowing local variations to grow into global patterns. Another way in which interactions leads to emergent properties is [[dual-phase evolution]]. This occurs where interactions are applied intermittently, leading to two phases: one in which patterns form or grow, the other in which they are refined or removed.<br />
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One reason emergent behaviour is hard to predict is that the number of interactions between a system's components increases exponentially with the number of components, thus allowing for many new and subtle types of behaviour to emerge. Emergence is often a product of particular patterns of interaction. Negative feedback introduces constraints that serve to fix structures or behaviours. In contrast, positive feedback promotes change, allowing local variations to grow into global patterns. Another way in which interactions leads to emergent properties is dual-phase evolution. This occurs where interactions are applied intermittently, leading to two phases: one in which patterns form or grow, the other in which they are refined or removed.<br />
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涌现行为难以预测的一个原因是,系统个体之间的相互作用的数量随个体的数量呈指数增长,从而允许许多新的微妙行为类型涌现出来。涌现通常是特定交互模式的产物。负反馈引入了有助于修复结构或行为的约束。相比之下,正反馈促进改变,允许局部变化发展成为全局模式。相互作用产生涌现特性的另一种方式是[[双相演化]]。这发生在相互作用是间歇地出现,导致两个阶段: 一个是模式的形成或增长,另一个是他们被提炼或移除。<br />
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On the other hand, merely having a large number of interactions is not enough by itself to guarantee emergent behaviour; many of the interactions may be negligible or irrelevant, or may cancel each other out. In some cases, a large number of interactions can in fact hinder the emergence of interesting behaviour, by creating a lot of "noise" to drown out any emerging "signal"; the emergent behaviour may need to be temporarily isolated from other interactions before it reaches enough critical mass to self-support. Thus it is not just the sheer number of connections between components which encourages emergence; it is also how these connections are organised. A hierarchical organisation is one example that can generate emergent behaviour (a bureaucracy may behave in a way quite different from the individual departments of that bureaucracy); but emergent behaviour can also arise from more decentralized organisational structures, such as a marketplace. In some cases, the system has to reach a combined threshold of diversity, organisation, and connectivity before emergent behaviour appears.<br />
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On the other hand, merely having a large number of interactions is not enough by itself to guarantee emergent behaviour; many of the interactions may be negligible or irrelevant, or may cancel each other out. In some cases, a large number of interactions can in fact hinder the emergence of interesting behaviour, by creating a lot of "noise" to drown out any emerging "signal"; the emergent behaviour may need to be temporarily isolated from other interactions before it reaches enough critical mass to self-support. Thus it is not just the sheer number of connections between components which encourages emergence; it is also how these connections are organised. A hierarchical organisation is one example that can generate emergent behaviour (a bureaucracy may behave in a way quite different from the individual departments of that bureaucracy); but emergent behaviour can also arise from more decentralized organisational structures, such as a marketplace. In some cases, the system has to reach a combined threshold of diversity, organisation, and connectivity before emergent behaviour appears.<br />
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另一方面,个体之间仅仅有大量的相互作用本身并不足以保证出现涌现行为; 许多相互作用可能是微不足道或无关紧要的,或者可能相互抵消。在某些情况下,大量的相互作用实际上可能阻碍有趣行为的涌现,因为它们制造了大量的”噪音”来干扰新涌现出现的”信号” ; 在达到足够的临界质量以自立之前,这种涌现行为可能需要暂时与其他相互作用隔离。因此,促进涌现的的不仅仅是个体之间连接的绝对数量,还有连接的方式。等级组织就是能够产生涌现行为的例子(政府机构的行为方式可能与政府机构的单个部门大不相同) ; 但涌现行为也可能产生于更为分散的组织结构,如市场。在某些情况下,在涌现行为出现之前,系统必须达到多样性、组织性和连通性的组合阈值。<br />
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[[Unintended consequence]]s and side effects are closely related to emergent properties. [[Luc Steels]] writes: "A component has a particular functionality but this is not recognizable as a subfunction of the global functionality. Instead a component implements a behaviour whose side effect contributes to the global functionality [...] Each behaviour has a side effect and the sum of the side effects gives the desired functionality".{{Harv|Steels|1990}} In other words, the global or macroscopic functionality of a system with "emergent functionality" is the sum of all "side effects", of all emergent properties and functionalities.<br />
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Unintended consequences and side effects are closely related to emergent properties. Luc Steels writes: "A component has a particular functionality but this is not recognizable as a subfunction of the global functionality. Instead a component implements a behaviour whose side effect contributes to the global functionality [...] Each behaviour has a side effect and the sum of the side effects gives the desired functionality". In other words, the global or macroscopic functionality of a system with "emergent functionality" is the sum of all "side effects", of all emergent properties and functionalities.<br />
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意外后果和子作用与涌现特性密切相关。Luc Steels写道: “一个组件有一个特定的功能,但这不能识别为全局功能的子功能。相反,一个组件实现了一种行为,其子作用有助于实现全局功能[ ... ]每种行为都有子作用,子作用的总和就是整体的功能”。换句话说,具有“涌现功能”系统的全局或宏观功能是所有“子作用”的总和,即所有涌现特性和功能的总和。<br />
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Systems with emergent properties or emergent structures may appear to defy [[entropy|entropic]] principles and the second law of [[thermodynamics]], because they form and increase order despite the lack of command and central control. This is possible because open systems can extract information and order out of the environment.<br />
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Systems with emergent properties or emergent structures may appear to defy entropic principles and the second law of thermodynamics, because they form and increase order despite the lack of command and central control. This is possible because open systems can extract information and order out of the environment.<br />
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具有涌现特性或涌现结构的系统可能看起来可能抵抗熵原理和热力学第二定律,因为他们形成并增加秩序,尽管缺乏中央的指挥和控制,这是可能的,因为开放系统可以从环境中获取信息和秩序。<br />
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Emergence helps to explain why the [[fallacy of division]] is a fallacy.<br />
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Emergence helps to explain why the fallacy of division is a fallacy.<br />
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涌现有助于解释分割谬误是一个谬论。<br />
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==Emergent structures in nature 自然界中的涌现结构 ==<br />
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{{main|Patterns in nature}}<br />
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{{More citations needed section|date=November 2008}}<br />
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[[File:Sand dune ripples.jpg|thumb|280px|right|Ripple patterns in a [[sand dune]] created by wind or water is an example of an emergent structure in nature.]]<br />
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Ripple patterns in a [[sand dune created by wind or water is an example of an emergent structure in nature.]]<br />
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由风或水形成的沙丘的波纹模式是自然界涌现结构的一个例子。<br />
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[[File:Causeway-code poet-4.jpg|thumb|right|280px|[[Giant's Causeway]] in Northern Ireland is an example of a complex emergent structure.]]<br />
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[[Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland is an example of a complex emergent structure.]]<br />
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北爱尔兰的巨人堤道是复杂新兴结构的一个例子。<br />
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Emergent structures can be found in many natural phenomena, from the physical to the biological domain. For example, the shape of weather phenomena such as [[hurricane]]s are emergent structures. The development and growth of complex, orderly [[crystal]]s, as driven by the [[random motion]] of water molecules within a conducive natural environment, is another example of an emergent process, where [[randomness]] can give rise to complex and deeply attractive, orderly structures.<br />
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Emergent structures can be found in many natural phenomena, from the physical to the biological domain. For example, the shape of weather phenomena such as hurricanes are emergent structures. The development and growth of complex, orderly crystals, as driven by the random motion of water molecules within a conducive natural environment, is another example of an emergent process, where randomness can give rise to complex and deeply attractive, orderly structures.<br />
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涌现结构可以在从物理到生物的许多自然现象中找到。例如,气象(比如飓风)的形状就是涌现结构。在导电的环境中(--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]([[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]) conducive natural environment 导电的环境),由水分子的随机运动驱动的复杂有序晶体的发展和生长,是涌现过程的另一个例子,在这种突发过程中,随机性可以产生复杂而具吸引力的有序结构。<br />
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[[File:Water Crystals on Mercury 20Feb2010 CU1.jpg|thumb|280px|right|Water crystals forming on glass demonstrate an emergent, [[fractal]] process occurring under appropriate conditions of temperature and humidity.]] However, crystalline structure and hurricanes are said to have a self-organizing phase.<br />
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Water crystals forming on glass demonstrate an emergent, [[fractal process occurring under appropriate conditions of temperature and humidity.]] However, crystalline structure and hurricanes are said to have a self-organizing phase.<br />
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在玻璃上形成的水的晶体是一个涌现现象,这是一个在适当的温度和湿度条件下发生的分形过程。然而,据说水的晶体结构和飓风有一个'''自组织的阶段 Self-organizing Phase'''。<br />
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It is useful to distinguish three forms of emergent structures. A ''first-order'' emergent structure occurs as a result of shape interactions (for example, [[hydrogen bond]]s in water molecules lead to [[surface tension]]). A ''second-order'' emergent structure involves shape interactions played out sequentially over time (for example, changing atmospheric conditions as a snowflake falls to the ground build upon and alter its form). Finally, a ''third-order'' emergent structure is a consequence of shape, time, and heritable instructions. For example, an organism's [[genetic code]] affects the form of the organism's systems in space and time.<br />
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It is useful to distinguish three forms of emergent structures. A first-order emergent structure occurs as a result of shape interactions (for example, hydrogen bonds in water molecules lead to surface tension). A second-order emergent structure involves shape interactions played out sequentially over time (for example, changing atmospheric conditions as a snowflake falls to the ground build upon and alter its form). Finally, a third-order emergent structure is a consequence of shape, time, and heritable instructions. For example, an organism's genetic code affects the form of the organism's systems in space and time.<br />
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区分涌现结构的三种形式是有必要的。一级涌现结构是空间相互作用的结果(例如,水分子中的氢键导致表面张力)。二级涌现结构涉及随时间变化的空间的相互作用(例如,当雪花落到地面时,大气环境的变化,会影响雪花的形态)。三级涌现结构是空间、时间和可遗传指令的结果。例如,有机体的遗传密码影响着有机体在空间和时间上的形式。<br />
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===Nonliving, physical systems 无生命的物理系统===<br />
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In [[physics]], emergence is used to describe a property, law, or phenomenon which occurs at macroscopic scales (in space or time) but not at microscopic scales, despite the fact that a macroscopic system can be viewed as a very large ensemble of microscopic systems.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Philip W.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HhQDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Basic Notions Of Condensed Matter Physics|date=2018-03-09|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-429-97374-1|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Girvin|first=Steven M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ESIDwAAQBAJ&hl=en|title=Modern Condensed Matter Physics|last2=Yang|first2=Kun|date=2019-02-28|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-57347-4|language=en}}</ref><br />
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In physics, emergence is used to describe a property, law, or phenomenon which occurs at macroscopic scales (in space or time) but not at microscopic scales, despite the fact that a macroscopic system can be viewed as a very large ensemble of microscopic systems.<br />
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在物理学中,涌现被用来描述在宏观尺度(空间或时间)上的性质、规律或现象,尽管一个宏观系统可以被看作是一个非常庞大的微观系统的集合。<br />
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An emergent property need not be more complicated than the underlying non-emergent properties which generate it. For instance, the laws of [[thermodynamics]] are remarkably simple, even if the laws which govern the interactions between component particles are complex. The term emergence in physics is thus used not to signify complexity, but rather to distinguish which laws and concepts apply to macroscopic scales, and which ones apply to microscopic scales.<br />
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An emergent property need not be more complicated than the underlying non-emergent properties which generate it. For instance, the laws of thermodynamics are remarkably simple, even if the laws which govern the interactions between component particles are complex. The term emergence in physics is thus used not to signify complexity, but rather to distinguish which laws and concepts apply to macroscopic scales, and which ones apply to microscopic scales.<br />
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涌现属性不必比生成它的底层非涌现属性更复杂。例如,热力学定律是非常简单的,即使粒子之间相互作用的法则是复杂的。因此,物理学中的涌现一词不是用来表示复杂性,而是用来区分哪些定律和概念适用于宏观尺度,哪些定律和概念适用于微观尺度。<br />
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However, another, perhaps more broadly applicable way to conceive of the emergent divide does involve a dose of complexity insofar as the computational feasibility of going from the microscopic to the macroscopic property tells the 'strength' of the emergence. This is better understood given the following definition of emergence that comes from physics:<br />
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However, another, perhaps more broadly applicable way to conceive of the emergent divide does involve a dose of complexity insofar as the computational feasibility of going from the microscopic to the macroscopic property tells the 'strength' of the emergence. This is better understood given the following definition of emergence that comes from physics:<br />
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然而,另一种也许更广泛适用的方式来设想涌现的方法涉及到一定程度的复杂性,因为从微观到宏观上,计算的可行性告诉我们涌现的力量。如果考虑到以下来自物理学的涌现的定义,这一点可以更好地理解:<br />
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"An emergent behavior of a physical system is a qualitative property that can only occur in the limit that the number of microscopic constituents tends to infinity."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kivelson |first1=Sophia |last2=Kivelson |first2=Steve |title=Defining Emergence in Physics |journal=NPJ Quantum Materials |volume=1 |publisher=Nature Research |doi=10.1038/npjquantmats.2016.24 |year=2016 |doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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"An emergent behavior of a physical system is a qualitative property that can only occur in the limit that the number of microscopic constituents tends to infinity."<br />
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物理系统的涌现是一种定性性质,只有在微观成分的数量趋于无穷大的情况下才能发生。<br />
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Since there are no actually infinite systems in the real world, there is no obvious naturally occurring notion of a hard separation between the properties of the constituents of a system and those of the emergent whole. As discussed below, classical mechanics is thought to be emergent from quantum mechanics, though in principle, quantum dynamics fully describes everything happening at a classical level. However, it would take a computer larger than the size of the universe with more computing time than life time of the universe to describe the motion of a falling apple in terms of the locations of its electrons {{citation needed|date=November 2018}}; thus we can take this to be a "strong" emergent divide.<br />
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Since there are no actually infinite systems in the real world, there is no obvious naturally occurring notion of a hard separation between the properties of the constituents of a system and those of the emergent whole. As discussed below, classical mechanics is thought to be emergent from quantum mechanics, though in principle, quantum dynamics fully describes everything happening at a classical level. However, it would take a computer larger than the size of the universe with more computing time than life time of the universe to describe the motion of a falling apple in terms of the locations of its electrons ; thus we can take this to be a "strong" emergent divide.<br />
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因为在现实世界中不存在无限的系统,所以一个系统的组成部分的属性和涌现的整体的属性之间,并不存在自然产生的明显的区分。正如下面所讨论的,经典力学被认为是从量子力学中涌现出来的,尽管在原则上,量子力学完全描述了在经典水平上发生的一切。然而,需要一台比宇宙更大的计算机,计算比宇宙的生命时间更长的时间,才能根据电子的位置来描述一个下落的苹果的运动,因此我们可以把这看作一个“强的”涌现在宏观和微观世界的区分。<br />
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Some examples include:<br />
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一些例子包括:<br />
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* [[Classical mechanics]]: The laws of classical mechanics can be said to emerge as a limiting case from the rules of [[quantum mechanics]] applied to large enough masses. This is particularly strange since quantum mechanics is generally thought of as ''more'' complicated than classical mechanics.<br />
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[[经典力学] : 可以说经典力学的法律是从量子力学规则中涌现的,适用于足够大的物质的一个有限的例子。这一点特别奇怪,因为人们通常认为量子力学比经典力学更复杂。<br />
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* [[Friction]]: Forces between elementary particles are conservative. However, friction emerges when considering more complex structures of matter, whose surfaces can convert mechanical energy into heat energy when rubbed against each other. Similar considerations apply to other emergent concepts in [[continuum mechanics]] such as [[viscosity]], [[Elasticity (physics)|elasticity]], [[tensile strength]], etc.<br />
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Friction: Forces between elementary particles are conservative. However, friction emerges when considering more complex structures of matter, whose surfaces can convert mechanical energy into heat energy when rubbed against each other. Similar considerations apply to other emergent concepts in continuum mechanics such as viscosity, Elasticity (physics)|elasticity, tensile strength, etc.<br />
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摩擦力: 基本粒子之间的力是'''保守的 Conservative'''。然而,当考虑到物质更复杂的结构时,摩擦就涌现了。物质表面相互摩擦时,机械能转化为热能。类似的涌现现象也适用于连续介质力学中的概念,如粘度、弹性、抗拉强度等。<br />
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* [[Patterned ground]]: the distinct, and often symmetrical geometric shapes formed by ground material in periglacial regions.<br />
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Patterned ground: the distinct, and often symmetrical geometric shapes formed by ground material in periglacial regions.<br />
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'''有图案的地面 Patterned Ground''': 有图案的地面是在冰缘地区由地面材料形成的明显的,通常是对称的几何图形。<br />
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* [[Statistical mechanics]] was initially derived using the concept of a large enough [[statistical ensemble (mathematical physics)|ensemble]] that fluctuations about the most likely distribution can be all but ignored. However, small clusters do not exhibit sharp first order [[phase transition]]s such as melting, and at the boundary it is not possible to completely categorize the cluster as a liquid or solid, since these concepts are (without extra definitions) only applicable to macroscopic systems. Describing a system using statistical mechanics methods is much simpler than using a low-level atomistic approach.<br />
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Statistical mechanics was initially derived using the concept of a large enough statistical ensemble (mathematical physics)|ensemble that fluctuations about the most likely distribution can be all but ignored. However, small clusters do not exhibit sharp first order phase transitions such as melting, and at the boundary it is not possible to completely categorize the cluster as a liquid or solid, since these concepts are (without extra definitions) only applicable to macroscopic systems. Describing a system using statistical mechanics methods is much simpler than using a low-level atomistic approach.<br />
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统计力学最初是用一个足够大的数学和物理学集合的概念推导出来的,最有可能分布的波动可以是任何事情,但是不可以忽略不计。然而,小的团簇不表现出明显的一级相变,例如熔化,而且在边界上不可能完全将团簇归类为液体或固体,因为这些概念(没有额外的定义)只适用于宏观系统。使用统计力学方法描述一个系统要比使用低层次的原子论方法简单得多。<br />
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* [[Electrical networks]]: The bulk conductive response of binary (RC) electrical networks with random arrangements, known as the [[Universal dielectric response|Universal Dielectric Response (UDR)]], can be seen as emergent properties of such physical systems. Such arrangements can be used as simple physical prototypes for deriving mathematical formulae for the emergent responses of complex systems.<ref>{{cite journal|url = | doi=10.1016/j.physa.2012.10.035 | volume=392 | issue=4 | title=The origin of power-law emergent scaling in large binary networks | year=2013 | journal=Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications | pages=1004–1027 | last1 = Almond | first1 = D.P. | last2 = Budd | first2 = C.J. | last3 = Freitag | first3 = M.A. | last4 = Hunt | first4 = G.W. | last5 = McCullen | first5 = N.J. | last6 = Smith | first6 = N.D.| arxiv=1204.5601 | bibcode=2013PhyA..392.1004A }}</ref><br />
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Electrical networks: The bulk conductive response of binary (RC) electrical networks with random arrangements, known as the Universal Dielectric Response (UDR), can be seen as emergent properties of such physical systems. Such arrangements can be used as simple physical prototypes for deriving mathematical formulae for the emergent responses of complex systems.<ref><br />
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电网络: 具有随机排列的'''二元电网络的体传导响应 bulk conductive response of binary (RC)''',称为'''通用介电响应 Universal Dielectric Response (UDR)''' ,可以看作是这种物理系统的涌现特性。这样的排列可以被用作简单的,用于推导复杂系统涌现的数学公式的物理原型。引用《The origin of power-law emergent scaling in large binary networks》<br />
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* [[Weather]]<br />
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气象<br />
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[[Temperature]] is sometimes used as an example of an emergent macroscopic behaviour. In classical dynamics, a ''snapshot'' of the instantaneous momenta of a large number of particles at equilibrium is sufficient to find the average kinetic energy per degree of freedom which is proportional to the temperature. For a small number of particles the instantaneous momenta at a given time are not statistically sufficient to determine the temperature of the system. However, using the [[ergodic hypothesis]], the temperature can still be obtained to arbitrary precision by further averaging the momenta over a long enough time.<br />
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Temperature is sometimes used as an example of an emergent macroscopic behaviour. In classical dynamics, a snapshot of the instantaneous momenta of a large number of particles at equilibrium is sufficient to find the average kinetic energy per degree of freedom which is proportional to the temperature. For a small number of particles the instantaneous momenta at a given time are not statistically sufficient to determine the temperature of the system. However, using the ergodic hypothesis, the temperature can still be obtained to arbitrary precision by further averaging the momenta over a long enough time.<br />
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温度有时被用来作为一个涌现的宏观行为的例子。在经典动力学中,对处于平衡状态的大量粒子的瞬时动量足以求出每个自由度的平均动能,而平均动能与温度成正比。对于少数粒子,在给定时间的瞬时动量不足以计算出系统的温度。然而,使用'''遍历假设 Ergodic Hypothesis''',任意精度的温度仍然可以通过在足够长的时间内进行动量的平均而得到。<br />
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[[Convection]] in a liquid or gas is another example of emergent macroscopic behaviour that makes sense only when considering differentials of temperature. [[Convection cells]], particularly [[Bénard cells]], are an example of a [[self-organizing]] system (more specifically, a [[dissipative system]]) whose structure is determined both by the constraints of the system and by random perturbations: the possible realizations of the shape and size of the cells depends on the temperature gradient as well as the nature of the fluid and shape of the container, but which configurations are actually realized is due to random perturbations (thus these systems exhibit a form of [[symmetry breaking]]).<br />
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Convection in a liquid or gas is another example of emergent macroscopic behaviour that makes sense only when considering differentials of temperature. Convection cells, particularly Bénard cells, are an example of a self-organizing system (more specifically, a dissipative system) whose structure is determined both by the constraints of the system and by random perturbations: the possible realizations of the shape and size of the cells depends on the temperature gradient as well as the nature of the fluid and shape of the container, but which configurations are actually realized is due to random perturbations (thus these systems exhibit a form of symmetry breaking).<br />
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液体或气体中的'''对流 Convection'''是另一个涌现宏观行为的例子,只有在考虑温差时才有意义。'''对流细胞 Convection Cells''',特别是 Bénard 细胞,是一个自组织系统(更具体地说,是一个'''耗散系统 Dissipative System''')的例子,其结构既由系统的约束和随机扰动决定: 细胞的形状和大小的可能实现取决于温度梯度以及流体的性质和容器的形状,但实际上实现的配置是由于随机扰动(因此这些系统呈现一种'''对称破缺 Symmetry Breaking'''形式)。<br />
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In some theories of particle physics, even such basic structures as [[mass]], [[space]], and [[time]] are viewed as emergent phenomena, arising from more fundamental concepts such as the [[Higgs boson]] or [[string theory|strings]]. In some interpretations of [[quantum mechanics]], the perception of a [[deterministic]] reality, in which all objects have a definite position, momentum, and so forth, is actually an emergent phenomenon, with the true state of matter being described instead by a [[wavefunction]] which need not have a single position or momentum.<br />
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In some theories of particle physics, even such basic structures as mass, space, and time are viewed as emergent phenomena, arising from more fundamental concepts such as the Higgs boson or strings. In some interpretations of quantum mechanics, the perception of a deterministic reality, in which all objects have a definite position, momentum, and so forth, is actually an emergent phenomenon, with the true state of matter being described instead by a wavefunction which need not have a single position or momentum.<br />
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在一些粒子物理学理论中,甚至像质量、空间和时间这样的基本结构都被视为来自于更基本的概念(比如'''希格斯玻色子Higgs Boson'''或者'''弦 Strings''')的涌现现象。在某些量子力学诠释中,对所有物体都具有确定的位置、动量等等的确定性的感知,实际上是一种涌现现象,因为物质的真实状态是被不需要单一位置或动量的波函数所描述的。<br />
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Most of the laws of [[physics]] themselves as we experience them today appear to have emerged during the course of time making emergence the most fundamental principle in the universe{{According to whom|date=September 2016}} and raising the question of what might be the most fundamental law of physics from which all others emerged. [[Chemistry]] can in turn be viewed as an emergent property of the laws of physics. [[Biology]] (including biological [[evolution]]) can be viewed as an emergent property of the laws of chemistry. Similarly, [[psychology]] could be understood as an emergent property of neurobiological laws. Finally, free-market theories understand [[economy]] as an emergent feature of psychology.<br />
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Most of the laws of physics themselves as we experience them today appear to have emerged during the course of time making emergence the most fundamental principle in the universe and raising the question of what might be the most fundamental law of physics from which all others emerged. Chemistry can in turn be viewed as an emergent property of the laws of physics. Biology (including biological evolution) can be viewed as an emergent property of the laws of chemistry. Similarly, psychology could be understood as an emergent property of neurobiological laws. Finally, free-market theories understand economy as an emergent feature of psychology.<br />
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我们今天所经历的大多数物理定律,似乎都是在时间的推移中出现的,这使得涌现成为宇宙中最基本的定律,并提出了一个问题: 什么可能是物理学中最基本的定律,而其他所有定律都是从这个定律中涌现而来的。化学可以被看作是物理定律的一种涌现。生物学(包括生物进化)可以看作是化学定律的涌现。同样,心理学也可以被理解为神经生物学定律的一种涌现。最后,经济学中的自由市场理论是心理学的一个涌现。<br />
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According to Laughlin (2005), for many particle systems, nothing can be calculated exactly from the microscopic equations, and macroscopic systems are characterised by broken symmetry: the symmetry present in the microscopic equations is not present in the macroscopic system, due to phase transitions. As a result, these macroscopic systems are described in their own terminology, and have properties that do not depend on many microscopic details. This does not mean that the microscopic interactions are irrelevant, but simply that you do not see them anymore&nbsp;— you only see a renormalized effect of them. Laughlin is a pragmatic theoretical physicist: if you cannot, possibly ever, calculate the broken symmetry macroscopic properties from the microscopic equations, then what is the point of talking about reducibility?<br />
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According to Laughlin (2005), for many particle systems, nothing can be calculated exactly from the microscopic equations, and macroscopic systems are characterised by broken symmetry: the symmetry present in the microscopic equations is not present in the macroscopic system, due to phase transitions. As a result, these macroscopic systems are described in their own terminology, and have properties that do not depend on many microscopic details. This does not mean that the microscopic interactions are irrelevant, but simply that you do not see them anymore&nbsp;— you only see a renormalized effect of them. Laughlin is a pragmatic theoretical physicist: if you cannot, possibly ever, calculate the broken symmetry macroscopic properties from the microscopic equations, then what is the point of talking about reducibility?<br />
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Laughlin(2005)认为,对于许多粒子系统来说,从微观方程中无法精确地计算出任何东西,而宏观系统的特征是破缺的对称性: 由于相变,微观方程中存在的对称性无法在宏观系统中存在。因此,这些宏观系统需要用它们自己的术语来描述,并且具有许多不依赖微观细节的性质。这并不意味着宏观性质和微观的相互作用无关,只是你不再看到它们了,你只看到它们的'''重整化效应 Renormalized Effect'''。Laughlin是一个务实的理论物理学家: 如果你不能从微观尺度的方程中计算出对称性破缺的宏观性质,那么谈论'''还原性 Reducibility'''还有什么意义?<br />
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===Living, biological systems===<br />
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生命,生物系统<br />
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====Emergence and evolution 涌现与进化====<br />
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{{see also|Abiogenesis}}<br />
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[[Life]] is a major source of complexity, and [[evolution]] is the major process behind the varying forms of life. In this view, evolution is the process describing the growth of complexity in the natural world and in speaking of the emergence of complex living beings and life-forms, this view refers therefore to processes of sudden changes in evolution.<br />
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Life is a major source of complexity, and evolution is the major process behind the varying forms of life. In this view, evolution is the process describing the growth of complexity in the natural world and in speaking of the emergence of complex living beings and life-forms, this view refers therefore to processes of sudden changes in evolution.<br />
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生命是复杂性的主要来源,进化是不同生命形式背后的主要过程。这种观点认为,进化是描述自然界中复杂性增长的过程,在谈到复杂生物和生命形式的涌现时,这种观点是指进化中的突然变化的过程。<br />
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[[Life]] is thought to have emerged in the early [[RNA world hypothesis|RNA world]] when [[RNA]] chains began to express the basic conditions necessary for natural selection to operate as conceived by [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources. [[Fitness (biology)|Fitness]] of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely be a function of adaptive capacities that were intrinsic (in the sense that they were determined by the nucleotide sequence) and the availability of resources.<ref name="Bernstein">{{cite journal | last1 = Bernstein | first1 = H | last2 = Byerly | first2 = HC | last3 = Hopf | first3 = FA | last4 = Michod | first4 = RA | last5 = Vemulapalli | first5 = GK | year = 1983 | title = The Darwinian Dynamic | journal = Quarterly Review of Biology | volume = 58 | issue = 2| pages = 185–207 | doi=10.1086/413216| jstor = 2828805 }}</ref><ref name="Michod">Michod RE. (2000) Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey {{ISBN|0691050112}}</ref> The three primary adaptive capacities may have been (1) the capacity to replicate with moderate fidelity (giving rise to both heritability and variation of type); (2) the capacity to avoid decay; and (3) the capacity to acquire and process resources.<ref name=Bernstein /><ref name =Michod /> These capacities would have been determined initially by the folded configurations of the RNA replicators (see “[[Ribozyme]]”) that, in turn, would be encoded in their individual nucleotide sequences. Competitive success among different replicators would have depended on the relative values of these adaptive capacities.<br />
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Life is thought to have emerged in the early RNA world when RNA chains began to express the basic conditions necessary for natural selection to operate as conceived by Darwin: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources. Fitness of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely be a function of adaptive capacities that were intrinsic (in the sense that they were determined by the nucleotide sequence) and the availability of resources. The three primary adaptive capacities may have been (1) the capacity to replicate with moderate fidelity (giving rise to both heritability and variation of type); (2) the capacity to avoid decay; and (3) the capacity to acquire and process resources. These capacities would have been determined initially by the folded configurations of the RNA replicators (see “Ribozyme”) that, in turn, would be encoded in their individual nucleotide sequences. Competitive success among different replicators would have depended on the relative values of these adaptive capacities.<br />
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生命被认为是在早期的 RNA 世界中出现的,那时 RNA 链开始出现达尔文所构想的自然选择运作的基本条件: 遗传性、类型变异和对有限资源的竞争。'''RNA 复制器 RNA Replicators'''的适应性(其人均增长率)可能是适应能力的函数,这种适应能力是内在的(在某种意义上说,它们是由核酸序列决定的)和资源的可用性。<br />
--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]([[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]) 觉得原文是个半截句 the availability of resources。。。?<br />
三种主要的适应能力可能是: (1)具有中等保真度的复制能力(同时具有遗传和变异的能力) ; (2)避免衰变的能力; (3)获取和加工资源的能力。这些能力最初是由 RNA 复制器(见'''“核酶 Ribozyme”''')的折叠结构决定的,而这些结构又反过来编码在各自的核酸序列中。不同复制器之间的竞争成功将取决于这些适应能力的相对价值。<br />
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Regarding [[causality]] in evolution [[Peter Corning]] observes:<br />
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Regarding causality in evolution Peter Corning observes:<br />
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关于进化中的因果关系,Peter Corning 观察到:<br />
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<blockquote>Synergistic effects of various kinds have played a major causal role in the evolutionary process generally and in the evolution of cooperation and complexity in particular... Natural selection is often portrayed as a “mechanism”, or is personified as a causal agency... In reality, the differential “selection” of a trait, or an adaptation, is a consequence of the functional effects it produces in relation to the survival and reproductive success of a given organism in a given environment. It is these functional effects that are ultimately responsible for the trans-generational continuities and changes in nature.{{nowrap|{{Harv|Corning|2002}}}}</blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>Synergistic effects of various kinds have played a major causal role in the evolutionary process generally and in the evolution of cooperation and complexity in particular... Natural selection is often portrayed as a “mechanism”, or is personified as a causal agency... In reality, the differential “selection” of a trait, or an adaptation, is a consequence of the functional effects it produces in relation to the survival and reproductive success of a given organism in a given environment. It is these functional effects that are ultimately responsible for the trans-generational continuities and changes in nature.}}</blockquote><br />
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一般来说,各种协同作用在进化过程中,特别是在合作和复杂性的进化中起着重要的因果作用... ... 自然选择通常被描述为一种“机制”,或者被人格化为一种因果... ..。实际上,对某一特性的差异化“选择”,或适应性,是它对特定生物体在特定环境中的生存和繁殖成功所产生的功能性影响的结果。正是这些功能性效应最终导致了'''跨代连续性 Trans-generational Continuities'''和自然界的变化。[} / blockquote<br />
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Per his [[#CorningDefn|definition of emergence]], Corning also addresses emergence and evolution:<br />
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Per his definition of emergence, Corning also addresses emergence and evolution:<br />
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根据 Corning 对涌现的定义,Corning 还提到了“涌现”和“进化” :<br />
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<blockquote>[In] evolutionary processes, causation is iterative; effects are also causes. And this is equally true of the synergistic effects produced by emergent systems. In other words, emergence itself... has been the underlying cause of the evolution of emergent phenomena in biological evolution; it is the synergies produced by organized systems that are the key.{{nowrap|{{Harv|Corning|2002}}}}</blockquote><br />
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<blockquote>[In] evolutionary processes, causation is iterative; effects are also causes. And this is equally true of the synergistic effects produced by emergent systems. In other words, emergence itself... has been the underlying cause of the evolution of emergent phenomena in biological evolution; it is the synergies produced by organized systems that are the key.}}</blockquote><br />
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在进化过程中,因果关系是迭代的; 结果也是原因。这同样适用于由涌现系统产生的'''协同效应 Synergistic Effects'''。换句话说,涌现本身... ... 是生物进化中涌现现象的根本原因; 有组织的系统产生的协同作用才是进化的关键。<br />
--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]([[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]) (进化的)是自己加的不知是否合适<br />
[} / blockquote<br />
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[[Swarming]] is a well-known behaviour in many animal species from [[marching locusts]] to [[Shoaling and schooling|schooling fish]] to [[Flocking (behaviour)|flocking birds]]. Emergent structures are a common strategy found in many animal groups: colonies of ants, mounds built by termites, swarms of bees, shoals/schools of fish, flocks of birds, and herds/packs of mammals.<br />
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Swarming is a well-known behaviour in many animal species from marching locusts to schooling fish to flocking birds. Emergent structures are a common strategy found in many animal groups: colonies of ants, mounds built by termites, swarms of bees, shoals/schools of fish, flocks of birds, and herds/packs of mammals.<br />
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'''群集 Swarming''' 在许多动物物种中是一种普遍的行为,从蝗虫群到鱼群,再到鸟群。涌现结构是许多动物群体中常见的策略: 蚁群,白蚁筑成的蚁丘、蜜蜂群、浅滩或鱼群、鸟群和哺乳动物群落。<br />
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An example to consider in detail is an [[ant colony]]. The queen does not give direct orders and does not tell the ants what to do. Instead, each ant reacts to stimuli in the form of chemical scent from larvae, other ants, intruders, food and buildup of waste, and leaves behind a chemical trail, which, in turn, provides a stimulus to other ants. Here each ant is an autonomous unit that reacts depending only on its local environment and the genetically encoded rules for its variety of ant. Despite the lack of centralized decision making, ant colonies exhibit complex behavior and have even demonstrated the ability to solve geometric problems. For example, colonies routinely find the maximum distance from all colony entrances to dispose of dead bodies.<ref>Steven Johnson. 2001. [[Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software]]</ref><br />
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An example to consider in detail is an ant colony. The queen does not give direct orders and does not tell the ants what to do. Instead, each ant reacts to stimuli in the form of chemical scent from larvae, other ants, intruders, food and buildup of waste, and leaves behind a chemical trail, which, in turn, provides a stimulus to other ants. Here each ant is an autonomous unit that reacts depending only on its local environment and the genetically encoded rules for its variety of ant. Despite the lack of centralized decision making, ant colonies exhibit complex behavior and have even demonstrated the ability to solve geometric problems. For example, colonies routinely find the maximum distance from all colony entrances to dispose of dead bodies.<br />
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需要详细考虑的一个例子是蚁群。蚁后不会直接下达命令,也不会告诉蚂蚁该做什么。相反,每只蚂蚁对来自幼虫、其他蚂蚁、入侵者、食物和排泄物的化学气味的刺激作出反应,并留下化学痕迹,这反过来刺激其他蚂蚁。在这里,每只蚂蚁都是一个自主的单元,它们的反应仅仅取决于它们所处的局部环境和它们的蚂蚁种类的遗传编码规则。尽管缺乏集中化的决策,蚁群仍能表现出复杂的行为,甚至被证明具有解决几何问题的能力。例如,蚁群会按照一定的例行规则找到距离所有蚁群入口的最大距离来处理尸体。<br />
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It appears that environmental factors may play a role in influencing emergence. Research suggests induced emergence of the bee species [[Macrotera portalis]]. In this species, the bees emerge in a pattern consistent with rainfall. Specifically, the pattern of emergence is consistent with southwestern deserts' late summer rains and lack of activity in the spring.<ref name="Danforth2">{{cite journal|last1=Danforth|first1=Bryan|title=Female Foraging and Intranest Behavior of a Communal Bee, Perdita portalis (Hymenoptera: Andrenidae)|journal=Annals of the Entomological Society of America|date=1991|volume=84|issue=5|pages=537–48|doi= 10.1093/aesa/84.5.537}}</ref><br />
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It appears that environmental factors may play a role in influencing emergence. Research suggests induced emergence of the bee species Macrotera portalis. In this species, the bees emerge in a pattern consistent with rainfall. Specifically, the pattern of emergence is consistent with southwestern deserts' late summer rains and lack of activity in the spring.<br />
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似乎环境因素可能在影响涌现方面发挥作用,比如'''大翅目 Macrotera Portalis '''的蜜蜂。在这个物种中,蜜蜂以与降雨量一致的模式出现。具体来说,出现的模式与西南部沙漠春季和夏末的降雨情况相一致。<br />
--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]([[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]) late summer rains and lack of activity in the spring 翻译为 春季和夏末的降雨情况<br />
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====Organization of life 生命的组织====<br />
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A broader example of emergent properties in biology is viewed in the [[biological organisation]] of life, ranging from the [[subatomic]] level to the entire [[biosphere]]. For example, individual [[atom]]s can be combined to form [[molecule]]s such as [[polypeptide]] chains, which in turn [[Protein folding|fold]] and refold to form [[protein]]s, which in turn create even more complex structures. These proteins, assuming their functional status from their spatial conformation, interact together and with other molecules to achieve higher biological functions and eventually create an [[organism]]. Another example is how cascade [[phenotype]] reactions, as detailed in [[chaos theory]], arise from individual genes mutating respective positioning.<ref>[[Neil Campbell (scientist)|Campbell]], Neil A., and Jane B. Reece. ''Biology''. 6th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2002.</ref> At the highest level, all the [[biocoenosis|biological communities]] in the world form the biosphere, where its human participants form societies, and the complex interactions of meta-social systems such as the stock market.<br />
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A broader example of emergent properties in biology is viewed in the biological organisation of life, ranging from the subatomic level to the entire biosphere. For example, individual atoms can be combined to form molecules such as polypeptide chains, which in turn fold and refold to form proteins, which in turn create even more complex structures. These proteins, assuming their functional status from their spatial conformation, interact together and with other molecules to achieve higher biological functions and eventually create an organism. Another example is how cascade phenotype reactions, as detailed in chaos theory, arise from individual genes mutating respective positioning. At the highest level, all the biological communities in the world form the biosphere, where its human participants form societies, and the complex interactions of meta-social systems such as the stock market.<br />
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从生命的生物组织,从亚原子水平到整个生物圈,我们可以看到生物涌现特性的一个更广泛的例子。例如,单个原子可以结合形成多肽链之类的分子,多肽链再折叠形成蛋白质,而蛋白质又形成更复杂的结构。这些蛋白质,从它们的空间构象中获得它们的功能状态,并与其他分子相互作用,实现更高的生物功能,最终创造出一个生物体。另一个例子是'''级联表型反应 Cascade Phenotype Reactions''',如混沌理论中详细描述的,级联表型反应产生于个体基因在特定位置的变异。在最高层次上,世界上所有的生物群落形成了生物圈,其中,人类形成了人类社会,并形成了诸如股票市场等元社会系统的复杂相互作用。<br />
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====Emergence of mind 思想的出现====<br />
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Among the considered phenomena in the evolutionary account of life, as a continuous history, marked by stages at which fundamentally new forms have appeared - the origin of sapiens intelligence.<ref>[https://global.britannica.com/science/emergence-science Emergence // Encyclopædia Britannica, 2017]</ref> The emergence of mind and its evolution is researched and considered as a separate phenomenon in a special system knowledge called [[noogenesis]].<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259390703_Eryomin_A.L._Noogenesis_and_Theory_of_Intellect._Krasnodar_2005.__356_p.__._.____.___2005.__356_ Eryomin A.L. '''Noogenesis and Theory of Intellect'''. Krasnodar, 2005. 356 pp.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031233209/http://www.researchgate.net/publication/259390703_Eryomin_A.L._Noogenesis_and_Theory_of_Intellect._Krasnodar_2005.__356_p.__._.____.___2005.__356_ |date=2014-10-31 }}</ref><br />
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Among the considered phenomena in the evolutionary account of life, as a continuous history, marked by stages at which fundamentally new forms have appeared - the origin of sapiens intelligence. The emergence of mind and its evolution is researched and considered as a separate phenomenon in a special system knowledge called noogenesis.<br />
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智人智力的起源在进化论所考虑的现象中很重要,它是一个连续的历史,以出现新形式为标志。<br />
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--[[用户:嘉树|嘉树]]([[用户讨论:嘉树|讨论]]) 第一句增加(很重要)<br />
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心智的涌现及其演化被认为是一个独立的现象,这一特殊的知识系统被称为'''人脑发生 Noogenesis'''。<br />
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==In humanity在人类学中 ==<br />
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===Spontaneous order 自发秩序===<br />
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{{see also|Spontaneous order|Self-organization}}<br />
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Groups of human beings, left free to each regulate themselves, tend to produce [[spontaneous order]], rather than the meaningless chaos often feared. This has been observed in society at least since [[Zhuang Zhou|Chuang Tzu]] in ancient China. Human beings are the basic elements of social systems, which perpetually interact and create, maintain, or untangle mutual social bonds. Social bonds in social systems are perpetually changing in the sense of the ongoing reconfiguration of their structure.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Social systems|last=Luhmann, N.|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1995|isbn=|location=Stanford|pages=}}</ref> A classic [[traffic]] [[roundabout]] is also a good example, with cars moving in and out with such effective organization that some modern cities have begun replacing stoplights at problem intersections with traffic circles [http://www.terrain.org/articles/2/siegman.htm], and getting better results. [[Open-source software]] and [[Wiki]] projects form an even more compelling illustration.<br />
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Groups of human beings, left free to each regulate themselves, tend to produce spontaneous order, rather than the meaningless chaos often feared. This has been observed in society at least since Chuang Tzu in ancient China. Human beings are the basic elements of social systems, which perpetually interact and create, maintain, or untangle mutual social bonds. Social bonds in social systems are perpetually changing in the sense of the ongoing reconfiguration of their structure. A classic traffic roundabout is also a good example, with cars moving in and out with such effective organization that some modern cities have begun replacing stoplights at problem intersections with traffic circles [http://www.terrain.org/articles/2/siegman.htm], and getting better results. Open-source software and Wiki projects form an even more compelling illustration.<br />
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群居生活的人,会由市场产生一种自发的秩序,任其自由地调节自己,在“看不见的手”的引导下自发地实现个人利益的极大化,而不是人们常常害怕的那种毫无意义的混乱。至少从中国古代的庄子以来,这种现象就已经存在于社会中了。人类是社会系统的基本要素,社会系统不断地相互作用:创造、维持或割断相互之间的社会联系。社会系统中的社会纽带随着其结构的不断重构而不断变化。一个经典的环形交叉路口也是一个很好的例子,十分有效的组织汽车进进出出,以至于一些现代城市已经开始用环形交叉路口的红绿灯取代在交通圈中的问题十字路口的红绿灯,并取得了更好的结果。<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])with cars moving in and out with such effective organization that some modern cities have begun replacing stoplights at problem intersections with traffic circles 没有搜到 problem intersections对应的专有名词 问题十字路口暂时直译;交通圈是指各种中心地的交通吸引范围。以各条交通线路上的交通流分界点所包围的范围来表示。无论客流、货流或车流等都具有向各种量级中心地汇集的特征,通过寻找各个交通线上下行方向发生明显变化的交通流变流点,将这些点相连所划定的范围即构成一级交通圈,圈内各条线路上的交通流共同指向一个中心地。 是不是可以换为“十字路口问题”?<br />
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开源软件和 Wiki 项目提供了一个更加引人注目的例子。<br />
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--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])补充解释:自发秩序原理指市场控制是不必要的,因为市场本身能够产生一种自发的秩序——每个人都在“看不见的手”的引导下自发地实现个人利益的极大化。<br />
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Emergent processes or behaviors can be seen in many other places, such as cities, [[cabal]] and [[market-dominant minority]] phenomena in economics, organizational phenomena in [[computer simulation]]s and [[cellular automata]]. Whenever there is a multitude of individuals interacting, an order emerges from disorder; a pattern, a decision, a structure, or a change in direction occurs.<ref>Miller, Peter. 2010. The Smart Swarm: How understanding flocks, schools, and colonies can make us better at communicating, decision making, and getting things done. New York: Avery.</ref><br />
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Emergent processes or behaviors can be seen in many other places, such as cities, cabal and market-dominant minority phenomena in economics, organizational phenomena in computer simulations and cellular automata. Whenever there is a multitude of individuals interacting, an order emerges from disorder; a pattern, a decision, a structure, or a change in direction occurs.<br />
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涌现过程或行为可以在许多其他地方看到,如城市、(政治)阴谋和在经济学,组织现象、计算机模拟和元胞自动机中占市场主导地位的少数群体。<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])两个in 是不是代表其有包含关系 该句不确定<br />
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无论何时,只要有大量的个体相互作用,一种秩序就会从混乱中产生(无序就会产生秩序;)一种模式、一种决定、一种结构或方向的改变就会发生。<br />
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====Economics经济学====<br />
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The [[stock market]] (or any market for that matter) is an example of emergence on a grand scale. As a whole it precisely regulates the relative security prices of companies across the world, yet it has no leader; when no [[Economic planning|central planning]] is in place, there is no one entity which controls the workings of the entire market. Agents, or investors, have knowledge of only a limited number of companies within their portfolio, and must follow the regulatory rules of the market and analyse the transactions individually or in large groupings. Trends and patterns emerge which are studied intensively by [[technical analysis|technical analysts]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}.<br />
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The stock market (or any market for that matter) is an example of emergence on a grand scale. As a whole it precisely regulates the relative security prices of companies across the world, yet it has no leader; when no central planning is in place, there is no one entity which controls the workings of the entire market. Agents, or investors, have knowledge of only a limited number of companies within their portfolio, and must follow the regulatory rules of the market and analyse the transactions individually or in large groupings. Trends and patterns emerge which are studied intensively by technical analysts..<br />
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股票市场(或任何市场)就是一个大规模涌现的例子。作为一个整体,它精确地调节着世界上各地公司的相对安全价格,然而它没有领导者; 当没有中央计划的时候,就没有一个实体控制着整个市场的运作。经纪人或投资者只了解其投资组合中有限的几家公司,他们必须遵守市场的监管规则,对交易进行单独或大规模的分析。趋势和模式的出现则是由技术分析师深入研究的。<br />
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====World Wide Web and the Internet万维网与互联网====<br />
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The [[World Wide Web]] is a popular example of a decentralized system exhibiting emergent properties. There is no central organization rationing the number of links, yet the number of links pointing to each page follows a [[power law]] in which a few pages are linked to many times and most pages are seldom linked to. A related property of the network of links in the World Wide Web is that almost any pair of pages can be connected to each other through a relatively short chain of links. Although relatively well known now, this property was initially unexpected in an unregulated network. It is shared with many other types of networks called [[small-world network]]s. {{Harv|Barabasi, Jeong, & Albert|1999|pp=130–31}}<br />
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The World Wide Web is a popular example of a decentralized system exhibiting emergent properties. There is no central organization rationing the number of links, yet the number of links pointing to each page follows a power law in which a few pages are linked to many times and most pages are seldom linked to. A related property of the network of links in the World Wide Web is that almost any pair of pages can be connected to each other through a relatively short chain of links. Although relatively well known now, this property was initially unexpected in an unregulated network. It is shared with many other types of networks called small-world networks. <br />
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万维网是一个分散系统展示涌现属性的大众例子。没有中央组织限制链接的数量,但是指向每个页面的链接数量遵循幂律分布,即少数页面被多次链接,而大多数页面很少被链接。万维网链接网络的一个相关特性是,几乎任何一对页面都可以通过相对较短的链接链相互连接。虽然这个特性现在已经被大众所熟悉,但是这个特性最初在不受控制的网络中是意想不到的。它与许多其他类型的网络共享,称为小世界网络。<br />
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Internet traffic can also exhibit some seemingly emergent properties. In the congestion control mechanism, [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] flows can become globally synchronized at bottlenecks, simultaneously increasing and then decreasing throughput in coordination. Congestion, widely regarded as a nuisance, is possibly an emergent property of the spreading of bottlenecks across a network in high traffic flows which can be considered as a phase transition [see review of related research in {{Harv|Smith|2008|pp=1–31}}].<br />
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Internet traffic can also exhibit some seemingly emergent properties. In the congestion control mechanism, TCP flows can become globally synchronized at bottlenecks, simultaneously increasing and then decreasing throughput in coordination. Congestion, widely regarded as a nuisance, is possibly an emergent property of the spreading of bottlenecks across a network in high traffic flows which can be considered as a phase transition [see review of related research in ].<br />
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互联网流量也可以表现出一些看似涌现的特性。<br />
在拥塞控制机制中,TCP 流可以在瓶颈处实现全局同步,在协调中同时增加和减少吞吐量<br />
拥塞,被广泛认为是一种滋扰,可能是一个涌现的特性,在高流量的网络中传播的瓶颈可以被认为是一个阶段的转变(见相关研究的评论)。<br />
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Another important example of emergence in web-based systems is [[social bookmarking]] (also called collaborative tagging). In social bookmarking systems, users assign tags to resources shared with other users, which gives rise to a type of information organisation that emerges from this crowdsourcing process. Recent research which analyzes empirically the complex dynamics of such systems<ref name="TWEB-ref" >Valentin Robu, Harry Halpin, Hana Shepherd [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1594173.1594176 Emergence of consensus and shared vocabularies in collaborative tagging systems], ACM Transactions on the Web (TWEB), Vol. 3(4), article 14, ACM Press, September 2009.</ref> has shown that consensus on stable distributions and a simple form of [[Folksonomy|shared vocabularies]] does indeed emerge, even in the absence of a central controlled vocabulary. Some believe that this could be because users who contribute tags all use the same language, and they share similar semantic structures underlying the choice of words. The convergence in social tags may therefore be interpreted as the emergence of structures as people who have similar semantic interpretation collaboratively index online information, a process called semantic imitation.<ref>{{Citation<br />
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Another important example of emergence in web-based systems is social bookmarking (also called collaborative tagging). In social bookmarking systems, users assign tags to resources shared with other users, which gives rise to a type of information organisation that emerges from this crowdsourcing process. Recent research which analyzes empirically the complex dynamics of such systems has shown that consensus on stable distributions and a simple form of shared vocabularies does indeed emerge, even in the absence of a central controlled vocabulary. Some believe that this could be because users who contribute tags all use the same language, and they share similar semantic structures underlying the choice of words. The convergence in social tags may therefore be interpreted as the emergence of structures as people who have similar semantic interpretation collaboratively index online information, a process called semantic imitation.<ref>{{Citation<br />
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另一个出现在基于web系统中的重要例子是社会书签(也称为协作标签)。'''社会化书签 Social Bookmark'''是指用户可以将网站随时加入自己的网络书签中;用多个关键词标示和整理书签,并与人共享。<br />
--~~~补充<br />
在社会化书签系统中,用户为与其他用户共享的资源分配标签,这就产生了一种从众包过程中产生的信息组织。最近对这种系统的复杂动力学进行实证分析的研究表明,即使在缺乏中央控制词汇表的情况下,也确实可以出现对稳定分布和一种简单形式的共享词汇表的共识。<br />
--~~~不太理解这句话<br />
一些人认为,这可能是因为提供标签的用户都使用同一种语言,而且他们在选择词汇时具有相似的语义结构。因此,社交标签的趋同可以解释为具有相似语义解释的人协同索引在线信息的结构的出现,这一过程称为语义模仿<br />
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| last = Fu | first = Wai-Tat<br />
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| last = Fu | first = Wai-Tat<br />
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| title = A Semantic Imitation Model of Social Tagging<br />
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| title = A Semantic Imitation Model of Social Tagging<br />
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社会标签的语义模仿模型<br />
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| journal = Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Social Computing<br />
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| journal = Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Social Computing<br />
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美国电气和电子工程师协会会议论文集<br />
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| pages = 66–72<br />
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第66-72页<br />
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| date = August 2009<br />
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| date = August 2009<br />
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2009年8月<br />
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| url = http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1633745<br />
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| url = http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1633745<br />
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Http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1633745<br />
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| doi = 10.1109/CSE.2009.382<br />
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| doi = 10.1109/CSE.2009.382<br />
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10.1109 / CSE. 2009<br />
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| last2 = Kannampallil<br />
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| last2 = Kannampallil<br />
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2 Kannampallil<br />
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| first2 = Thomas George<br />
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| first2 = Thomas George<br />
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第二名: 托马斯 · 乔治<br />
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| last3 = Kang<br />
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| last3 = Kang<br />
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| first3 = Ruogu<br />
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| first3 = Ruogu<br />
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| isbn = 978-1-4244-5334-4 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation<br />
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| isbn = 978-1-4244-5334-4 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation<br />
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978-1-4244-5334-4}<br />
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| last = Fu | first = Wai-Tat<br />
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| title = Semantic Imitation in Social Tagging<br />
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| title = Semantic Imitation in Social Tagging<br />
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社会标签中的语义模仿<br />
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| journal = ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction<br />
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| journal = ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction<br />
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计算机-人机交互学报<br />
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| year = 2010<br />
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2010年<br />
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| doi = 10.1145/1806923.1806926<br />
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| doi = 10.1145/1806923.1806926<br />
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10.1145 / 1806923.1806926<br />
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| last2 = Kannampallil<br />
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第二名: 托马斯<br />
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====Architecture and cities建筑与城市====<br />
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[[File:Bangkok skytrain sunset.jpg|thumb|right|300px| Traffic patterns in cities can be seen as an example of [[spontaneous order]]城市的交通模式可以看作是[[自发秩序]]的一个例子{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}]]<br />
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Traffic patterns in cities can be seen as an example of [[spontaneous order]]<br />
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城市的交通模式可以看作是[[自发秩序]]的一个例子<br />
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Emergent structures appear at many different [[integrative level|levels of organization]] or as [[spontaneous order]]. Emergent [[self-organization]] appears frequently in [[city|cities]] where no planning or zoning entity predetermines the layout of the city. {{Harv|Krugman|1996|pp=9–29}} The interdisciplinary study of emergent behaviors is not generally considered a [[wikt:Homogeneous|homogeneous]] field, but divided across its application or problem [[function domain|domains]].<br />
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Emergent structures appear at many different levels of organization or as spontaneous order. Emergent self-organization appears frequently in cities where no planning or zoning entity predetermines the layout of the city. The interdisciplinary study of emergent behaviors is not generally considered a homogeneous field, but divided across its application or problem domains.<br />
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涌现结构在许多不同层次的组织或自发秩序中出现。涌现性自组织经常出现在没有规划或分区实体预先决定城市布局的城市中。对于涌现行为的跨学科研究通常不被认为是一个单一的领域,而是被划分到跨其应用或问题的领域中。<br />
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Architects may not design all the pathways of a complex of buildings. Instead they might let usage patterns emerge and then place pavement where pathways have become worn, such as a [[desire path]].<br />
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Architects may not design all the pathways of a complex of buildings. Instead they might let usage patterns emerge and then place pavement where pathways have become worn, such as a desire path.<br />
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建筑师可能不会设计一个建筑群的所有通道。相反,他们可能会让“通路”自发涌现:让人们自由选择走出道路,然后在道路已经磨损的地方铺设路面,比如“心选小路”。'''心选小路 Desire Path''',也叫牛道 Cow Path或者羊道 Goat Track ,指行人或自行车频繁经过而形成的一条小路。这种小路通常是往返于两地之间距离最短且最易找到的路。一般情况下,正式修建的道路绕远、路中间有沟,或者压根没有正式道路的地方就会出现“心选小路”。<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]]) usage patterns emerge 意译 添加补充<br />
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The on-course action and vehicle progression of the [[DARPA Grand Challenge#2007 Urban Challenge|2007 Urban Challenge]] could possibly be regarded as an example of [[cybernetic]] emergence. Patterns of road use, indeterministic obstacle clearance times, etc. will work together to form a complex emergent pattern that can not be deterministically planned in advance.<br />
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The on-course action and vehicle progression of the 2007 Urban Challenge could possibly be regarded as an example of cybernetic emergence. Patterns of road use, indeterministic obstacle clearance times, etc. will work together to form a complex emergent pattern that can not be deterministically planned in advance.<br />
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“2007年城市挑战”(2007 Urban Challenge)的行进方向和车辆进展,可能被视为控制论出现的一个例子。道路使用模式,不确定的障碍物清除时间等将共同工作,形成一个复杂的涌现模式,它不能事先确定计划。<br />
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The architectural school of [[Christopher Alexander]] takes a deeper approach to emergence, attempting to rewrite the process of urban growth itself in order to affect form, establishing a new methodology of planning and design tied to traditional practices, an [http://emergenturbanism.com/2009/03/23/the-journey-to-emergence/ Emergent Urbanism]. Urban emergence has also been linked to theories of urban complexity {{Harv|Batty|2005}} and urban evolution.{{Harv|Marshall|2009}}<br />
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The architectural school of Christopher Alexander takes a deeper approach to emergence, attempting to rewrite the process of urban growth itself in order to affect form, establishing a new methodology of planning and design tied to traditional practices, an [http://emergenturbanism.com/2009/03/23/the-journey-to-emergence/ Emergent Urbanism]. Urban emergence has also been linked to theories of urban complexity and urban evolution.<br />
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克里斯托佛·亚历山大的建筑学派对涌现采取了更深入的方法,n order to affect form,试图重写城市发展本身的发展过程,以建立一个与传统实践相联系的规划和设计的新方法论:一个[http://emergenturbanism.com/2009/03/23/The-journey-to-emergence/ 涌现的城市主义]。城市的涌现也与城市复杂性和城市演化的理论联系在一起。<br />
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Building ecology is a conceptual framework for understanding architecture and the built environment as the interface between the dynamically interdependent elements of buildings, their occupants, and the larger environment. Rather than viewing buildings as inanimate or static objects, building ecologist Hal Levin views them as interfaces or intersecting domains of living and non-living systems.<ref name="microbe.net">{{cite web |url=http://www.microbe.net/fact-sheet-building-ecology/ |title=Fact Sheet: Building Ecology |accessdate=2011-08-04 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203182235/http://www.microbe.net/fact-sheet-building-ecology/ |archivedate=2012-02-03 |date=2011-05-26 }}</ref> The microbial ecology of the indoor environment is strongly dependent on the building materials, occupants, contents, environmental context and the indoor and outdoor climate. The strong relationship between atmospheric chemistry and indoor air quality and the chemical reactions occurring indoors. The chemicals may be nutrients, neutral or biocides for the microbial organisms. The microbes produce chemicals that affect the building materials and occupant health and well being. Humans manipulate the ventilation, temperature and humidity to achieve comfort with the concomitant effects on the microbes that populate and evolve.<ref name="microbe.net"/><ref>http://www.microbe.net {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723210118/http://www.microbe.net/ |date=2011-07-23 }}</ref><ref>http://buildingecology.com {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808024931/http://www.buildingecology.com/ |date=2011-08-08 }}</ref><br />
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Building ecology is a conceptual framework for understanding architecture and the built environment as the interface between the dynamically interdependent elements of buildings, their occupants, and the larger environment. Rather than viewing buildings as inanimate or static objects, building ecologist Hal Levin views them as interfaces or intersecting domains of living and non-living systems. The microbial ecology of the indoor environment is strongly dependent on the building materials, occupants, contents, environmental context and the indoor and outdoor climate. The strong relationship between atmospheric chemistry and indoor air quality and the chemical reactions occurring indoors. The chemicals may be nutrients, neutral or biocides for the microbial organisms. The microbes produce chemicals that affect the building materials and occupant health and well being. Humans manipulate the ventilation, temperature and humidity to achieve comfort with the concomitant effects on the microbes that populate and evolve.<br />
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建筑生态学是一种概念框架,用于理解建筑和建筑环境之间动态相互依存的要素,包括建筑、居住者和更大的环境。<br />
建筑生态学家'''哈尔·莱文 Hal Levin''' 并没有把建筑看作是无生命的或静态的物体,而是把它们看作是有生命和无生命系统的界面或交叉领域。<br />
室内环境的微生物生态学强烈依赖于建筑材料、居住者、内容、环境背景和室内外气候。大气化学与室内空气质量及室内发生的化学反应密切相关。这些化学物质可能是微生物的营养物质、中性物质或生物杀灭剂。这些微生物产生的化学物质会影响建筑材料与居民健康。<br />
人类操纵通风、温度和湿度以达到舒适的环境,同时对居住和进化的微生物产生影响。<br />
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Eric Bonabeau's attempt to define emergent phenomena is through traffic: "traffic jams are actually very complicated and mysterious. On an individual level, each driver is trying to get somewhere and is following (or breaking) certain rules, some legal (the speed limit) and others societal or personal (slow down to let another driver change into your lane). But a traffic jam is a separate and distinct entity that emerges from those individual behaviors. [[Gridlock]] on a highway, for example, can travel backward for no apparent reason, even as the cars are moving forward." He has also likened emergent phenomena to the analysis of market trends and employee behavior.<ref>Bonabeau E. Predicting the Unpredictable. Harvard Business Review [serial online]. March 2002. 80(3):109–16. Available from: Business Source Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed February 1, 2012.</ref><br />
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Eric Bonabeau's attempt to define emergent phenomena is through traffic: "traffic jams are actually very complicated and mysterious. On an individual level, each driver is trying to get somewhere and is following (or breaking) certain rules, some legal (the speed limit) and others societal or personal (slow down to let another driver change into your lane). But a traffic jam is a separate and distinct entity that emerges from those individual behaviors. Gridlock on a highway, for example, can travel backward for no apparent reason, even as the cars are moving forward." He has also likened emergent phenomena to the analysis of market trends and employee behavior.<br />
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Eric Bonabeau 试图通过交通来定义涌现现象: “交通堵塞实际上是非常复杂和神秘的。在个人层面上,每个司机都试图到达某个地方,并遵守(或打破)某些规则,一些是合法的(限速) ,另一些是社会的或个人的(减速让另一个司机进入你的车道)。但是,交通堵塞是一个独立的、不同的实体,从这些个人行为中突现出来。例如,高速公路上的交通堵塞可能无缘无故地向后延伸,即使车辆在向前行驶。”他还把涌现现象比作对市场趋势和员工行为的分析。<br />
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Computational emergent phenomena have also been utilized in architectural design processes, for example for formal explorations and experiments in digital materiality.<ref>Roudavski, Stanislav and Gwyllim Jahn (2012). 'Emergent Materiality though an Embedded Multi-Agent System', in 15th Generative Art Conference, ed. by Celestino Soddu (Lucca, Italy: Domus Argenia), pp. 348–63<br />
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Computational emergent phenomena have also been utilized in architectural design processes, for example for formal explorations and experiments in digital materiality.<ref>Roudavski, Stanislav and Gwyllim Jahn (2012). 'Emergent Materiality though an Embedded Multi-Agent System', in 15th Generative Art Conference, ed. by Celestino Soddu (Lucca, Italy: Domus Argenia), pp. 348–63<br />
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{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/2368574 |title=Emergent Materiality though an Embedded Multi-Agent System |accessdate=2017-11-01 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523233743/http://www.academia.edu/2368574/Emergent_Materiality_though_an_Embedded_Multi-Agent_System |archivedate=2015-05-23 |last1=Roudavski |first1=Stanislav }}<br />
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计算涌现现象也被应用于建筑设计过程中,例如在数字物质性方面的正式探索和实验。<br />
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===Computer AI===<br />
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电脑人工智能<br />
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Some artificially intelligent (AI) computer applications utilize emergent behavior for animation. One example is [[Boids]], which mimics the [[swarming behavior]] of birds.<br />
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Some artificially intelligent (AI) computer applications utilize emergent behavior for animation. One example is Boids, which mimics the swarming behavior of birds.<br />
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一些人工智能(AI)计算机应用程序利用涌现行为进行动画制作。一个例子是Boids,它模仿鸟类的群体行为。<br />
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===Language语言===<br />
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It has been argued that the structure and regularity of [[language]] [[grammar]], or at least [[language change]], is an emergent phenomenon {{Harv|Hopper|1998}}. While each speaker merely tries to reach his or her own communicative goals, he or she uses language in a particular way. If enough speakers behave in that way, language is changed {{Harv|Keller|1994}}. In a wider sense, the norms of a language, i.e. the linguistic conventions of its speech society, can be seen as a system emerging from long-time participation in communicative problem-solving in various social circumstances {{Harv|Määttä|2000}}.<br />
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It has been argued that the structure and regularity of language grammar, or at least language change, is an emergent phenomenon . While each speaker merely tries to reach his or her own communicative goals, he or she uses language in a particular way. If enough speakers behave in that way, language is changed . In a wider sense, the norms of a language, i.e. the linguistic conventions of its speech society, can be seen as a system emerging from long-time participation in communicative problem-solving in various social circumstances .<br />
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语言语法的结构和规律,或者至少是语言变化,是一种涌现现象。虽然每个说话人只是试图达到自己的交际目的,但他或她使用语言的方式是特定的。如果有足够多的人这样做,语言就会改变。从更广泛的意义上讲,语言规范,即语言社会的语言习惯,可以看作是在各种社会环境下长期参与交际问题解决的一个系统。<br />
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===Emergent change processes涌现的变化过程===<br />
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Within the field of group facilitation and organization development, there have been a number of new group processes that are designed to maximize emergence and self-organization, by offering a minimal set of effective initial conditions. Examples of these processes include [[SEED-SCALE]], [[appreciative inquiry]], Future Search, the world cafe or [[knowledge cafe]], [[Open Space Technology]], and others (Holman, 2010<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Holman|first=Peggy|date=December 2010 – January 2011|title=Engaging Emergence: Turning Upheaval into Opportunity|url=http://peggyholman.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/211001pkSystems-Thinkerarticle.pdf|journal=Pegasus Communication: The Systems Thinker|volume=21|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130418075443/http://peggyholman.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/211001pkSystems-Thinkerarticle.pdf|archivedate=2013-04-18}}</ref>).<br />
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Within the field of group facilitation and organization development, there have been a number of new group processes that are designed to maximize emergence and self-organization, by offering a minimal set of effective initial conditions. Examples of these processes include SEED-SCALE, appreciative inquiry, Future Search, the world cafe or knowledge cafe, Open Space Technology, and others (Holman, 2010).<br />
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在群体促进和组织发展的领域内,已经有一些新的群体过程,意在通过提供一组最小的有效初始条件去最大限度地实现涌现和自组织。这些过程的例子包括SEED-SCALE、赏识调查、未来搜索、世界咖啡馆或知识咖啡馆、开放空间技术等(Holman, 2010)。<br />
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== See also ==<br />
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{{cite journal |author1=O'Connor, Timothy |author2=Wong, Hong Yu |title=Emergent Properties|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edition) |editor1=Edward N. Zalta |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/properties-emergent/ |date=February 28, 2012}}<br />
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进一步阅读<br />
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* Alexander, V. N. (2011). ''The Biologist’s Mistress: Rethinking Self-Organization in Art, Literature and Nature''. Litchfield Park AZ: Emergent Publications.<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Bateson | first=Gregory | authorlink = Gregory Bateson | title = Steps to an Ecology of Mind | year = 1972 | publisher = Ballantine Books | isbn = 978-0-226-03905-3}}<br />
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* Blitz, David. (1992). ''Emergent Evolution: Qualitative Novelty and the Levels of Reality''. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Bunge | first=Mario Augusto | authorlink = Mario Bunge | title = Emergence and Convergence: Qualitiative Novelty and the Unity of Knowledge | publisher = Toronto: University of Toronto Press| year = 2003}}<br />
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* Chalmers, David J. (2002). "Strong and Weak Emergence" http://consc.net/papers/emergence.pdf Republished in P. Clayton and P. Davies, eds. (2006) ''The Re-Emergence of Emergence''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
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* [[Philip Clayton]] & [[Paul Davies]] (eds.) (2006). ''The Re-Emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />
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* Corning, Peter A. (2005). "Holistic Darwinism: Synergy, Cybernetics and the Bioeconomics of Evolution." Chicago: University of Chicago Press.<br />
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* Felipe Cucker and [[Stephen Smale]] (2007), The Japanese Journal of Mathematics, [http://ttic.uchicago.edu/~smale/papers/math-of-emergence.pdf ''The Mathematics of Emergence'']<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Marshall | first=Stephen | title = Cities Design and Evolution | year = 2009 | publisher = Routledge | isbn = 978-0-415-42329-8 | quote = {{ISBN|0-415-42329-5}} }}<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Smith | first = Reginald D. | title = The Dynamics of Internet Traffic: Self-Similarity, Self-Organization, and Complex Phenomena | year = 2008 | arxiv = 0807.3374|bibcode = 2008arXiv0807.3374S | doi=10.1142/S0219525911003451 | volume=14 | issue = 6 | journal=Advances in Complex Systems | pages=905–949}}<br />
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* Solé, Ricard and Goodwin, Brian (2000) Signs of life: how complexity pervades biology, Basic Books, New York<br />
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* Jakub Tkac & [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jiri_Kroc Jiri Kroc] (2017), Cellular Automaton Simulation of Dynamic Recrystallization: Introduction into Self-Organization and Emergence (Software) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316989956_Cellular_Automaton_Simulation_of_Dynamic_Recrystallization_Introduction_into_Self-Organization_and_Emergence?ev=prf_high] [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317013011_Self-Organization_Video_Sequence_Depicting_Numerical_Experiments_with_Cellular_Automaton_Model_of_Dynamic_Recrystallization_with_source-code_link "Video - Simulation of DRX"]<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Wan | first=Poe Yu-ze | title =Emergence à la Systems Theory: Epistemological Totalausschluss or Ontological Novelty? | journal=Philosophy of the Social Sciences | volume=41 | issue=2 | pages = 178–210 | year = 2011 | doi=10.1177/0048393109350751}}<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Wan | first = Poe Yu-ze | title = Reframing the Social: Emergentist Systemism and Social Theory | publisher = Ashgate Publishing | year = 2011 | url = http://www.ashgate.com/isbn/9781409411529 | access-date = 2012-02-13 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130311101716/http://www.ashgate.com/isbn/9781409411529 | archive-date = 2013-03-11 | url-status = dead }}<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Weinstock | first=Michael | authorlink = Michael Weinstock | title = The Architecture of Emergence - the evolution of form in Nature and Civilisation | year = 2010 |publisher = John Wiley and Sons |isbn = 978-0-470-06633-1}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20110912083233/http://www.architectureofemergence.com/]<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Wolfram | first=Stephen | authorlink = Stephen Wolfram | title = A New Kind of Science | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-1-57955-008-0| title-link=A New Kind of Science }}<br />
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* {{Citation | last = Young | first=Louise B. | title = The Unfinished Universe | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-19-508039-1}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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==External links==<br />
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外部链接<br />
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{{commons|Emergence}}<br />
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* {{cite IEP |url-id=emergenc}}<br />
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* {{cite SEP |url-id=properties-emergent |title=Emergent Properties}}<br />
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* {{PhilPapers|category|emergence}}<br />
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* {{InPho|taxonomy|2216}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190321161246/http://www.emergentuniverse.org/ The Emergent Universe]: An interactive introduction to emergent phenomena, from ant colonies to Alzheimer's.<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20021205100114/http://llk.media.mit.edu/projects/emergence/ Exploring Emergence]: An introduction to emergence using [[Cellular automaton|CA]] and [[Conway's Game of Life]] from the [[MIT Media Lab]]<br />
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* [http://isce.edu/ ISCE group]: Institute for the Study of Coherence and Emergence.<br />
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* [http://neocybernetics.com/lecture3/ Towards modeling of emergence]: lecture slides from Helsinki University of Technology<br />
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* [http://biomimetic-architecture.com Biomimetic Architecture – Emergence applied to building and construction]<br />
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* [http://studiesinemergentorder.org Studies in Emergent Order]: Studies in Emergent Order (SIEO) is an open-access journal<br />
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* [http://consc.net/papers/granada.html Emergence]<br />
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* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16W7c0mb-rE Emergence – How Stupid Things Become Smart Together] – [[YouTube]] video by [[Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell]]<br />
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* [https://www.d-iep.org/diep DIEP]: Dutch Institute for Emergent Phenomena<br />
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范畴: 混沌理论<br />
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范畴: 认识论中的概念<br />
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范畴: 形而上学中的概念<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Emergence]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[涌现/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BA%B3%E4%BB%80%E5%9D%87%E8%A1%A1&diff=17917纳什均衡2020-11-05T12:48:32Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由水流心不竞初译,未经审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{short description|Solution concept of a non-cooperative game involving two or more players for given conditions}}<br />
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{{简短说明 |在给定条件下包含两个或多个参与者的非合作对策的解概念}}<br />
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{{Infobox equilibrium <br />
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{{Infobox equilibrium <br />
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{{Infobox equilibrium<br />
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|name=Nash equilibrium<br />
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|name=Nash equilibrium<br />
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纳什均衡点<br />
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| subsetof= [[Rationalizability]], [[Epsilon-equilibrium]], [[Correlated equilibrium]]<br />
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| subsetof= Rationalizability, Epsilon-equilibrium, Correlated equilibrium<br />
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| 子集 = 理性化,ε-均衡,相关平衡<br />
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| supersetof = [[Evolutionarily stable strategy]], [[Subgame perfect equilibrium]], [[Perfect Bayesian equilibrium]], [[Trembling hand perfect equilibrium]], [[Nash equilibrium#Stability|Stable Nash equilibrium]], [[Strong Nash equilibrium]], [[Cournot equilibrium]]<br />
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| supersetof = Evolutionarily stable strategy, Subgame perfect equilibrium, Perfect Bayesian equilibrium, Trembling hand perfect equilibrium, Stable Nash equilibrium, Strong Nash equilibrium, Cournot equilibrium<br />
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| supersetof = Evolutionarily stable strategy, Subgame perfect equilibrium, Perfect Bayesian equilibrium, Trembling hand perfect equilibrium, Stable Nash equilibrium, Strong Nash equilibrium, Cournot equilibrium<br />
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|supersetof=进化稳定策略、子博弈完全均衡、完全贝叶斯均衡、颤抖之手完美均衡、稳定纳什均衡、强纳什均衡、古诺均衡<br />
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--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])这种在模板内的不必译出<br />
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| discoverer=[[John Forbes Nash Jr.]]<br />
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| discoverer=John Forbes Nash Jr.<br />
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发现者 = 约翰·福布斯·纳什。<br />
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| usedfor=All [[non-cooperative game]]s<br />
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| usedfor = 所有非合作对策<br />
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In [[game theory]], the '''Nash equilibrium''', named after the mathematician [[John Forbes Nash Jr.]], is a proposed [[solution concept|solution]] of a [[non-cooperative game]] involving two or more players in which each player is assumed to know the equilibrium strategies of the other players, and no player has anything to gain by changing only their own strategy.<ref name="Osborne">{{Cite book |title=A Course in Game Theory |last=Osborne |first=Martin J. |last2=Rubinstein |first2=Ariel |date=12 Jul 1994 |publisher=MIT |isbn=9780262150415 |location=Cambridge, MA |page=14 |author-link2=Ariel Rubinstein}}</ref><br />
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In game theory, the Nash equilibrium, named after the mathematician John Forbes Nash Jr., is a proposed solution of a non-cooperative game involving two or more players in which each player is assumed to know the equilibrium strategies of the other players, and no player has anything to gain by changing only their own strategy.<br />
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在博弈论中,'''<font color="#ff8000"> 纳什均衡点Nash equilibrium</font>''',以数学家'''<font color="#ff8000"> 约翰·福布斯·纳什John Forbes Nash Jr.</font>'''命名的博弈模型是一种非合作博弈的解法,其中每个参与者都被假定知道其他参与者的均衡策略,没有一个参与者只改变自己的策略就能得到任何好处。<br />
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If each player has chosen a strategy—an action plan choosing its own action based on what it has seen happen so far in the game—and no player can increase its own expected payoff by changing its strategy while the other players keep theirs unchanged, then the current set of strategy choices constitutes a Nash equilibrium.<br />
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If each player has chosen a strategy—an action plan choosing its own action based on what it has seen happen so far in the game—and no player can increase its own expected payoff by changing its strategy while the other players keep theirs unchanged, then the current set of strategy choices constitutes a Nash equilibrium.<br />
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如果每个玩家都选择了一个策略---- 一个行动计划,根据游戏中到目前为止发生的情况选择自己的行动---- 没有玩家可以通过改变策略来提高自己的预期收益,而其他玩家则保持自己的策略不变,那么当前的一组策略选择就构成了一个'''<font color="#ff8000"> 纳什均衡点</font>'''。<br />
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If two players [[Alice and Bob]] choose strategies A and B, (A, B) is a Nash equilibrium if Alice has no other strategy available that does better than A at maximizing her payoff in response to Bob choosing B, and Bob has no other strategy available that does better than B at maximizing his payoff in response to Alice choosing A. In a game in which Carol and Dan are also players, (A, B, C, D) is a Nash equilibrium if A is Alice's best response to (B, C, D), B is Bob's best response to (A, C, D), and so forth.<br />
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If two players Alice and Bob choose strategies A and B, (A, B) is a Nash equilibrium if Alice has no other strategy available that does better than A at maximizing her payoff in response to Bob choosing B, and Bob has no other strategy available that does better than B at maximizing his payoff in response to Alice choosing A. In a game in which Carol and Dan are also players, (A, B, C, D) is a Nash equilibrium if A is Alice's best response to (B, C, D), B is Bob's best response to (A, C, D), and so forth.<br />
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如果两个玩家 Alice 和 Bob 选择策略A 和 B, (A, B) 是一个纳什均衡点,如果 Alice 没有比 A 更好的策略来最大化回报,而 Bob 选择 B,Bob 没有比 B 更好的策略来最大化回报,而 Alice 选择 A。在一个 Carol 和 Dan 都是玩家的游戏中,(A, B, C, D)是纳什均衡点,如果 A 是 Alice 对(B, C, D)的最佳对策,B 是 Bob 对(A, C, D)的最佳对策,等等。<br />
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Nash showed that there is a Nash equilibrium for every finite game: see further the article on [[Strategy (game theory)|strategy]].<br />
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Nash showed that there is a Nash equilibrium for every finite game: see further the article on strategy.<br />
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展示了每一个有限的游戏都有一个纳什均衡点: 详见关于策略的文章。<br />
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==Applications应用==<br />
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Game theorists use Nash equilibrium to analyze the outcome of the [[strategy|strategic interaction]] of several [[decision making|decision makers]]. In a strategic interaction, the outcome for each decision-maker depends on the decisions of the others as well as their own. The simple insight underlying Nash's idea is that one cannot predict the choices of multiple decision makers if one analyzes those decisions in isolation. Instead, one must ask what each player would do taking into account what she/he expects the others to do. Nash equilibrium requires that their choices be consistent: no player wishes to undo their decision given what the others are deciding. <br />
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Game theorists use Nash equilibrium to analyze the outcome of the strategic interaction of several decision makers. In a strategic interaction, the outcome for each decision-maker depends on the decisions of the others as well as their own. The simple insight underlying Nash's idea is that one cannot predict the choices of multiple decision makers if one analyzes those decisions in isolation. Instead, one must ask what each player would do taking into account what she/he expects the others to do. Nash equilibrium requires that their choices be consistent: no player wishes to undo their decision given what the others are deciding. <br />
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博弈论者使用'''<font color="#ff8000"> 纳什均衡点</font>'''分析了几个决策者的战略互动的结果。在战略互动中,每个决策者的决策结果取决于其他决策者的决策以及他们自己的决策。纳什的想法背后的简单见解是,如果一个人孤立地分析多个决策者的决策,那么他就无法预测多个决策者的选择。相反,考虑到每个玩家期望其他人做什么,你必须问每个玩家会做什么。'''<font color="#ff8000"> 纳什均衡点</font>'''需要他们的选择是一致的: 没有玩家希望取消他们的决定给予其他人的决定。<br />
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这个概念已经被用来分析诸如战争和军备竞赛等敌对情况(见囚徒困境) ,以及如何通过反复互动来缓和冲突(见以牙还牙)。它也被用来研究不同偏好的人们在多大程度上可以合作,以及他们是否愿意冒险达到合作的结果(见性别战)。它被用来研究技术标准的采用,以及银行挤兑和货币危机的发生(见协调博弈)。其他应用包括交通流量(见 Wardrop 原理) ,如何组织拍卖(见拍卖理论) ,教育过程中多方努力的结果,监管立法,如环境法规(见公地悲剧) ,自然资源管理,市场营销策略分析,甚至在足球中罚球(见匹配便士) ,能源系统,交通系统,疏散问题和无线通信。<br />
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The concept has been used to analyze hostile situations like wars and arms races<ref>Schelling, Thomas, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7RkL4Z8Yg5AC&dq=thoma+schelling+strategy+of+conflict&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=xuSjSbK-I4-O_gai_ticBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPP13,M1 The Strategy of Conflict]'', copyright 1960, 1980, Harvard University Press, {{isbn|0-674-84031-3}}.</ref> (see [[prisoner's dilemma]]), and also how conflict may be mitigated by repeated interaction (see [[tit-for-tat]]). It has also been used to study to what extent people with different preferences can cooperate (see [[Battle of the sexes (game theory)|battle of the sexes]]), and whether they will take risks to achieve a cooperative outcome (see [[stag hunt]]). It has been used to study the adoption of [[technical standard]]s,{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} and also the occurrence of [[bank run]]s and [[Currency crisis|currency crises]] (see [[coordination game]]). Other applications include traffic flow (see [[Wardrop's principle]]), how to organize auctions (see [[auction theory]]), the outcome of efforts exerted by multiple parties in the education process,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1162/REST_a_00013| title = Must Try Harder: Evaluating the Role of Effort in Educational Attainment| journal = Review of Economics and Statistics| volume = 92| issue = 3| pages = 577| year = 2010| last1 = De Fraja | first1 = G. | last2 = Oliveira | first2 = T. | last3 = Zanchi | first3 = L. }}</ref> regulatory legislation such as environmental regulations (see [[tragedy of the commons]]),<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996.tb00338.x| title = Game Theory and the Politics of Global Warming: The State of Play and Beyond| journal = Political Studies| volume = 44| issue = 5| pages = 850–871| year = 1996| last1 = Ward | first1 = H. }},</ref> natural resource management,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/icesjms/fsx062| title = Risks and benefits of catching pretty good yield in multispecies mixed fisheries |<br />
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The concept has been used to analyze hostile situations like wars and arms races (see prisoner's dilemma), and also how conflict may be mitigated by repeated interaction (see tit-for-tat). It has also been used to study to what extent people with different preferences can cooperate (see battle of the sexes), and whether they will take risks to achieve a cooperative outcome (see stag hunt). It has been used to study the adoption of technical standards, and also the occurrence of bank runs and currency crises (see coordination game). Other applications include traffic flow (see Wardrop's principle), how to organize auctions (see auction theory), the outcome of efforts exerted by multiple parties in the education process, regulatory legislation such as environmental regulations (see tragedy of the commons), natural resource management, analysing strategies in marketing, even penalty kicks in football (see matching pennies), energy systems, transportation systems, evacuation problems and wireless communications.<br />
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journal = ICES Journal of Marine Science | volume = 74 | issue = 8 | pages = 2097–2106 | year = 2017| last1 = Thorpe | first1 = Robert B. | last2 = Jennings | first2 = Simon | last3 = Dolder | first3 = Paul J. | doi-access = free }},</ref> analysing strategies in marketing,<ref>{{Cite web|title = Marketing Lessons from Dr. Nash - Andrew Frank|url = http://blogs.gartner.com/andrew_frank/2015/05/25/marketing-lessons-from-dr-nash/|accessdate = 2015-08-30|date = 2015-05-25}}</ref> even penalty kicks in [[association football|football]] (see [[matching pennies]]),<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1257/00028280260344678| title = Testing Mixed-Strategy Equilibria when Players Are Heterogeneous: The Case of Penalty Kicks in Soccer| journal = American Economic Review| volume = 92| issue = 4| pages = 1138| year = 2002| last1 = Chiappori | first1 = P. -A. | last2 = Levitt | first2 = S. | last3 = Groseclose | first3 = T. | url = http://pricetheory.uchicago.edu/levitt/Papers/ChiapporiGrosecloseLevitt2002.pdf| citeseerx = 10.1.1.178.1646}}</ref> energy systems, transportation systems, evacuation problems<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Djehiche|first=B.|last2=Tcheukam|first2=A.|last3=Tembine|first3=H.|date=2017|title=A Mean-Field Game of Evacuation in Multilevel Building|journal=IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control|volume=62|issue=10|pages=5154–5169|doi=10.1109/TAC.2017.2679487|issn=0018-9286}}</ref> and wireless communications.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Djehiche|first=Boualem|last2=Tcheukam|first2=Alain|last3=Tembine|first3=Hamidou|date=2017-09-27|title=Mean-Field-Type Games in Engineering|journal= AIMS Electronics and Electrical Engineering|volume=1|pages=18–73|language=en|doi=10.3934/ElectrEng.2017.1.18|arxiv=1605.03281}}</ref><br />
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==History历史==<br />
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Nash equilibrium is named after American mathematician John Forbes Nash, Jr. The same idea was used in a particular application in 1838 by Antoine Augustin Cournot in his theory of oligopoly. In Cournot's theory, each of several firms choose how much output to produce to maximize its profit. The best output for one firm depends on the outputs of the others. A Cournot equilibrium occurs when each firm's output maximizes its profits given the output of the other firms, which is a pure-strategy Nash equilibrium. Cournot also introduced the concept of best response dynamics in his analysis of the stability of equilibrium. Cournot did not use the idea in any other applications, however, or define it generally.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 纳什均衡点</font>'''是以美国数学家约翰·福布斯·纳什命名的。1838年,'''<font color="#ff8000"> 安托万·奥古斯丁·库尔诺特Antoine Augustin Cournot</font>'''在他的寡头垄断理论中使用了同样的思想。根据 Cournot 的理论,几家公司中的每一家都会选择生产多少产品以实现利润最大化。一个公司的最佳产出取决于其他公司的产出。一个古诺均衡发生在每个企业的产出最大化其利润给定其他企业的产出时,这是一个纯策略的纳什均衡点。古诺还在其均衡稳定性分析中引入了最佳响应动力学的概念。然而,古诺并没有在其他任何应用程序中使用这个概念,或者对其进行一般性定义。<br />
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Nash equilibrium is named after American mathematician [[John Forbes Nash, Jr.|John Forbes Nash, Jr]]. The same idea was used in a particular application in 1838 by [[Antoine Augustin Cournot]] in his theory of [[oligopoly]].<ref>Cournot A. (1838) Researches on the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth</ref> In Cournot's theory, each of several firms choose how much output to produce to maximize its profit. The best output for one firm depends on the outputs of the others. A [[Cournot equilibrium]] occurs when each firm's output maximizes its profits given the output of the other firms, which is a [[pure strategy|pure-strategy]] Nash equilibrium. Cournot also introduced the concept of [[best response]] dynamics in his analysis of the stability of equilibrium. Cournot did not use the idea in any other applications, however, or define it generally.<br />
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The modern game-theoretic concept of Nash equilibrium is instead defined in terms of mixed strategies, where players choose a probability distribution over possible actions (rather than choosing a deterministic action to be played with certainty). The concept of a mixed-strategy equilibrium was introduced by John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern in their 1944 book The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. However, their analysis was restricted to the special case of zero-sum games. They showed that a mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium will exist for any zero-sum game with a finite set of actions. The contribution of Nash in his 1951 article "Non-Cooperative Games" was to define a mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium for any game with a finite set of actions and prove that at least one (mixed-strategy) Nash equilibrium must exist in such a game. The key to Nash's ability to prove existence far more generally than von Neumann lay in his definition of equilibrium. According to Nash, "an equilibrium point is an n-tuple such that each player's mixed strategy maximizes his payoff if the strategies of the others are held fixed. Thus each player's strategy is optimal against those of the others." Just putting the problem in this framework allowed Nash to employ the Kakutani fixed-point theorem in his 1950 paper, and a variant upon it in his 1951 paper used the Brouwer fixed-point theorem to prove that there had to exist at least one mixed strategy profile that mapped back into itself for finite-player (not necessarily zero-sum) games; namely, a strategy profile that did not call for a shift in strategies that could improve payoffs.<br />
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现代游戏理论的概念纳什均衡点是用混合策略来定义的,玩家选择一个概率分布而不是可能的行动(而不是选择一个确定性的行动)。混合策略均衡的概念是由约翰·冯·诺伊曼和奥斯卡·摩根斯腾在他们1944年出版的《博弈论与经济行为》一书中提出的。然而,他们的分析仅限于零和博弈的特殊情况。他们证明了一个混合策略的纳什均衡点对于任何零和博弈都是存在的。纳什在1951年的文章《非合作博弈》中定义了一个混合策略纳什均衡点,并证明了在这样的博弈中至少存在一个混合策略纳什均衡点。与冯 · 诺依曼相比,纳什能够更广泛地证明存在性的关键在于他对均衡的定义。按照 Nash 的说法,“一个平衡点是一个 n 元组,如果其他参与人的策略保持不变,那么每个参与人的混合策略使他的收益最大化。因此,每个玩家的策略都是相对于其他玩家的最优策略。”仅仅把这个问题放在这个框架中,Nash 就可以在他1950年的论文中使用角谷静夫不动点定理模型,在他1951年的论文中使用布劳威尔不动点定理模型来证明至少存在一个混合策略模型,这个模型可以映射回有限参与人(不一定是零和游戏)的博弈中,也就是说,一个策略模型不要求改变可以提高收益的策略。<br />
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The modern game-theoretic concept of Nash equilibrium is instead defined in terms of [[mixed strategy|mixed strategies]], where players choose a probability distribution over possible actions (rather than choosing a deterministic action to be played with certainty). The concept of a mixed-strategy equilibrium was introduced by [[John von Neumann]] and [[Oskar Morgenstern]] in their 1944 book ''The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior''. However, their analysis was restricted to the special case of [[zero-sum]] games. They showed that a mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium will exist for any zero-sum game with a finite set of actions.<ref>J. Von Neumann, O. Morgenstern, ''[https://archive.org/stream/theoryofgamesand030098mbp#page/n5/mode/2up Theory of Games and Economic Behavior]'', copyright 1944, 1953, Princeton University Press</ref> The contribution of Nash in his 1951 article "Non-Cooperative Games" was to define a mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium for any game with a finite set of actions and prove that at least one (mixed-strategy) Nash equilibrium must exist in such a game. The key to Nash's ability to prove existence far more generally than von Neumann lay in his definition of equilibrium. According to Nash, "an equilibrium point is an n-tuple such that each player's mixed strategy maximizes his payoff if the strategies of the others are held fixed. Thus each player's strategy is optimal against those of the others." Just putting the problem in this framework allowed Nash to employ the [[Kakutani fixed-point theorem]] in his 1950 paper, and a variant upon it in his 1951 paper used the [[Brouwer fixed-point theorem]] to prove that there had to exist at least one mixed strategy profile that mapped back into itself for finite-player (not necessarily zero-sum) games; namely, a strategy profile that did not call for a shift in strategies that could improve payoffs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carmona |first=Guilherme |first2=Konrad |last2=Podczeck |year=2009|title=On the Existence of Pure Strategy Nash Equilibria in Large Games |ssrn=882466 |journal=[[Journal of Economic Theory]] |volume=144 |issue=3 |pages=1300–1319 |doi=10.1016/j.jet.2008.11.009 |url=http://fesrvsd.fe.unl.pt/WPFEUNL/WP2008/wp531.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Since the development of the Nash equilibrium concept, game theorists have discovered that it makes misleading predictions (or fails to make a unique prediction) in certain circumstances. They have proposed many related solution concepts (also called 'refinements' of Nash equilibria) designed to overcome perceived flaws in the Nash concept. One particularly important issue is that some Nash equilibria may be based on threats that are not 'credible'. In 1965 Reinhard Selten proposed subgame perfect equilibrium as a refinement that eliminates equilibria which depend on non-credible threats. Other extensions of the Nash equilibrium concept have addressed what happens if a game is repeated, or what happens if a game is played in the absence of complete information. However, subsequent refinements and extensions of Nash equilibrium share the main insight on which Nash's concept rests: the equilibrium is a set of strategies such that each player's strategy is optimal given the choices of the others.<br />
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随着纳什均衡点概念的发展,博弈论者发现它在某些情况下会做出误导性的预测(或者不能做出独特的预测)。他们提出了许多相关的解决方案概念(也称为纳什均衡的“精炼”) ,旨在克服纳什概念中的缺陷。一个特别重要的问题是,某些纳什均衡可能是基于不可信的威胁。1965年 Reinhard Selten 提出了一种改进的'''<font color="#ff8000"> 子博弈精炼均衡Subgame perfect equilibrium</font>''',它消除了依赖于非可信威胁的均衡。纳什均衡点概念的其他扩展解决了如果一个游戏重复发生了什么,或者如果一个游戏在没有完整信息的情况下发生了什么。然而,随后对纳什均衡点的改进和扩展共享了纳什概念所依赖的主要洞察力: 均衡是一组策略,这样每个参与者的策略在其他人的选择下都是最优的。<br />
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Since the development of the Nash equilibrium concept, game theorists have discovered that it makes misleading predictions (or fails to make a unique prediction) in certain circumstances. They have proposed many related [[solution concept]]s (also called 'refinements' of Nash equilibria) designed to overcome perceived flaws in the Nash concept. One particularly important issue is that some Nash equilibria may be based on threats that are not '[[credibility|credible]]'. In 1965 [[Reinhard Selten]] proposed [[subgame perfect equilibrium]] as a refinement that eliminates equilibria which depend on [[non-credible threats]]. Other extensions of the Nash equilibrium concept have addressed what happens if a game is [[Repeated game|repeated]], or what happens if a game is played in the [[Global game|absence of complete information]]. However, subsequent refinements and extensions of Nash equilibrium share the main insight on which Nash's concept rests: the equilibrium is a set of strategies such that each player's strategy is optimal given the choices of the others.<br />
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==Definitions定义==<br />
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===Nash Equilibrium纳什均衡===<br />
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Informally, a strategy profile is a Nash equilibrium if no player can do better by unilaterally changing their strategy. To see what this means, imagine that each player is told the strategies of the others. Suppose then that each player asks themselves: "Knowing the strategies of the other players, and treating the strategies of the other players as set in stone, can I benefit by changing my strategy?"<br />
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非正式地说,如果没有参与者能够单方面改变他们的策略,那么策略配置文件就是一个'''<font color="#ff8000"> 纳什均衡点</font>'''。要理解这意味着什么,想象一下,每个玩家都被告知其他玩家的策略。然后假设每个玩家都问自己: “知道其他玩家的策略,并且把其他玩家的策略当作一成不变的东西,我能通过改变策略而受益吗? ”<br />
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Informally, a strategy profile is a Nash equilibrium if no player can do better by unilaterally changing their strategy. To see what this means, imagine that each player is told the strategies of the others. Suppose then that each player asks themselves: "Knowing the strategies of the other players, and treating the strategies of the other players as set in stone, can I benefit by changing my strategy?"<br />
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If any player could answer "Yes", then that set of strategies is not a Nash equilibrium. But if every player prefers not to switch (or is indifferent between switching and not) then the strategy profile is a Nash equilibrium. Thus, each strategy in a Nash equilibrium is a best response to all other strategies in that equilibrium.<br />
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如果任何一个玩家都能回答“是” ,那么这套策略就不是'''<font color="#ff8000"> 纳什均衡点</font>'''。但是如果每个玩家都不愿意切换(或者对切换和不切换无所谓) ,那么这个策略就是一个纳什均衡点。因此,纳什均衡点中的每个策略都是对均衡中所有其他策略的最佳回应。<br />
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If any player could answer "Yes", then that set of strategies is not a Nash equilibrium. But if every player prefers not to switch (or is indifferent between switching and not) then the strategy profile is a Nash equilibrium. Thus, each strategy in a Nash equilibrium is a [[best response]] to all other strategies in that equilibrium.<ref name="preliminaries">{{cite web|last=von Ahn|first=Luis|date=|title=Preliminaries of Game Theory|url=http://www.scienceoftheweb.org/15-396/lectures_f11/lecture09.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018035629if_/http://scienceoftheweb.org/15-396/lectures_f11/lecture09.pdf|archive-date=2011-10-18|accessdate=2008-11-07|website=}}</ref><br />
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The Nash equilibrium may sometimes appear non-rational in a third-person perspective. This is because a Nash equilibrium is not necessarily Pareto optimal.<br />
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从第三人称的角度来看,纳什均衡点有时可能显得非理性。这是因为'''<font color="#ff8000"> 纳什均衡点</font>'''不一定是'''<font color="#ff8000"> 帕累托最优</font>'''的。<br />
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The Nash equilibrium may sometimes appear non-rational in a third-person perspective. This is because a Nash equilibrium is not necessarily [[Pareto efficiency|Pareto optimal]].<br />
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The Nash equilibrium may also have non-rational consequences in sequential games because players may "threaten" each other with non-rational moves. For such games the subgame perfect Nash equilibrium may be more meaningful as a tool of analysis.<br />
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纳什均衡点在连续博弈中也可能产生非理性的后果,因为玩家可能会用非理性的举动“威胁”彼此。对于这样的游戏来说,子游戏的完美纳什均衡点作为分析工具可能更有意义。<br />
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The Nash equilibrium may also have non-rational consequences in [[sequential game]]s because players may "threaten" each other with non-rational moves. For such games the [[subgame perfect Nash equilibrium]] may be more meaningful as a tool of analysis.<br />
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=== Strict/Weak Equilibrium 严格/弱平衡===<br />
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Suppose that in the Nash equilibrium, each player asks themselves: "Knowing the strategies of the other players, and treating the strategies of the other players as set in stone, would I suffer a loss by changing my strategy?"<br />
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假设在纳什均衡点游戏中,每个玩家都会问自己: “如果知道其他玩家的策略,并且把其他玩家的策略当作一成不变的东西,我会因为改变策略而遭受损失吗? ”<br />
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Suppose that in the Nash equilibrium, each player asks themselves: "Knowing the strategies of the other players, and treating the strategies of the other players as set in stone, would I suffer a loss by changing my strategy?"<br />
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If every player's answer is "Yes", then the equilibrium is classified as a strict Nash equilibrium. <br />
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如果每个参与者的答案都是肯定的,那么这个均衡就被划分为一个严格的纳什均衡点。<br />
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If every player's answer is "Yes", then the equilibrium is classified as a ''strict Nash equilibrium''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hoylab.cornell.edu/nash.html|title=Nash Equilibria|website=hoylab.cornell.edu|access-date=2019-12-08}}</ref> <br />
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If instead, for some player, there is exact equality between the strategy in Nash equilibrium and some other strategy that gives exactly the same payout (i.e. this player is indifferent between switching and not), then the equilibrium is classified as a weak Nash equilibrium.<br />
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如果相反,对于某些玩家来说,纳什均衡点的策略和其他策略给出的回报完全相同(例如:。这个参与人在切换和不切换之间是无关紧要的) ,那么这个均衡被划分为弱纳什均衡点。<br />
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If instead, for some player, there is exact equality between the strategy in Nash equilibrium and some other strategy that gives exactly the same payout (i.e. this player is indifferent between switching and not), then the equilibrium is classified as a ''weak Nash equilibrium''.<br />
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A game can have a pure-strategy or a mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium. (In the latter a pure strategy is chosen stochastically with a fixed probability).<br />
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一个游戏可以有纯策略或者混合策略的纳什均衡点。(在后一种情况下,为随机选择一个具有固定概率的纯策略)。<br />
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A game can have a [[Pure strategy|pure-strategy]] or a [[Mixed strategy|mixed-strategy]] Nash equilibrium. (In the latter a pure strategy is chosen [[stochastic]]ally with a fixed [[probability]]).<br />
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===Nash's Existence Theorem纳什存在定理===<br />
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Nash proved that if we allow mixed strategies (where a player chooses probabilities of using various pure strategies), then every game with a finite number of players in which each player can choose from finitely many pure strategies has at least one Nash equilibrium (which might be a pure strategy for each player or might be a probability distribution over strategies for each player).<br />
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纳什证明,如果我们允许混合策略(参与者选择使用各种纯策略的概率) ,那么每个参与者数量有限且每个参与者可以从有限多个纯策略中选择的博弈都至少有一个纳什均衡点(这可能是每个参与者的纯策略,也可能是每个参与者的纯策略概率分布)。<br />
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Nash proved that if we allow [[strategy (game theory)#Pure and mixed strategies|mixed strategies]] (where a player chooses probabilities of using various pure strategies), then every game with a finite number of players in which each player can choose from finitely many pure strategies has at least one Nash equilibrium (which might be a pure strategy for each player or might be a probability distribution over strategies for each player).<br />
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Nash equilibria need not exist if the set of choices is infinite and noncompact. An example is a game where two players simultaneously name a number and the player naming the larger number wins. Another example is where each of two players chooses a real number strictly less than 5 and the winner is whoever has the biggest number; no biggest number strictly less than 5 exists (if the number could equal 5, the Nash equilibrium would have both players choosing 5 and tying the game). However, a Nash equilibrium exists if the set of choices is compact with each player's payoff continuous in the strategies of all the players. An example, in which the equilibrium is a mixture of continuously many pure strategies, is a game where two players simultaneously pick a real number between 0 and 1 (inclusive) and player one's winnings (paid by the second player) equal the square root of the distance between the two numbers.<br />
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如果选择集是无限的和非紧凑的,那么纳什均衡就不存在。一个例子是一个游戏,两个玩家同时说出一个数字,而说出较大数字的玩家获胜。另一个例子是,每个玩家选择一个实数严格小于5的数字,获胜者是拥有最大数字的人; 没有严格小于5的最大数字存在(如果数字可以等于5,纳什均衡点将有两个玩家选择5并平局)。然而,如果所有参与者的策略中,每个参与者的选择集与每个参与者的收益紧密相关,则存在一个纳什均衡点。一个例子,其中的均衡是连续的许多纯策略的混合物,是一个博弈,其中两个玩家同时选择一个介于0和1之间的实数(包括在内) ,并且玩家一的奖金(由第二个玩家支付)等于两个数字之间距离的平方根。<br />
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Nash equilibria need not exist if the set of choices is infinite and noncompact. An example is a game where two players simultaneously name a number and the player naming the larger number wins. Another example is where each of two players chooses a real number strictly less than 5 and the winner is whoever has the biggest number; no biggest number strictly less than 5 exists (if the number could equal 5, the Nash equilibrium would have both players choosing 5 and tying the game). However, a Nash equilibrium exists if the set of choices is [[compact space|compact]] with each player's payoff continuous in the strategies of all the players.<ref>MIT OpenCourseWare. 6.254: Game Theory with Engineering Applications, Spring 2010. [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-254-game-theory-with-engineering-applications-spring-2010/lecture-notes/MIT6_254S10_lec06.pdf Lecture 6: Continuous and Discontinuous Games].</ref> An example, in which the equilibrium is a mixture of continuously many pure strategies, is a game where two players simultaneously pick a real number between 0 and 1 (inclusive) and player one's winnings (paid by the second player) equal the square root of the distance between the two numbers.<br />
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== Examples 样例==<br />
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=== Coordination game 协调博弈===<br />
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{{Main|Coordination game}}<br />
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{| align=right border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" class="wikitable"<br />
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{ | align = right border = “1” cellpadding = “4” cellspacing = “0” style = “ margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: # f9f9f9; border: 1px # solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95% ; class = “ wikable”<br />
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{| align=right border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" class="wikitable"<br />
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|+ align=bottom |A sample coordination game showing relative payoff for player 1 (row) / player 2 (column) with each combination<br />
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| + align = bottom | 一个样本协调博弈,显示每个组合对参与人1(行)/参与人2(列)的相对收益<br />
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|+ align=bottom |''A sample coordination game showing relative payoff for player 1 (row) / player 2 (column) with each combination<br />
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!style="width: 90px"|Player 2 adopts strategy A<br />
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! style = “ width: 90px” | Player 2采用策略 a<br />
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!style="width: 90px"|Player 2 adopts strategy A<br />
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! style = “ width: 90px” | Player 2采用策略 b<br />
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The coordination game is a classic (symmetric) two player, two strategy game, with an example payoff matrix shown to the right. The players should thus coordinate, both adopting strategy A, to receive the highest payoff; i.e., 4. If both players chose strategy B though, there is still a Nash equilibrium. Although each player is awarded less than optimal payoff, neither player has incentive to change strategy due to a reduction in the immediate payoff (from 2 to 1).<br />
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协调博弈是一个经典的(对称的)两个参与人、两个策略的博弈,右边显示了一个支付矩阵的例子。因此,参与者应该协调,都采用策略 A,以获得最高的回报,也就是说,4。如果两个玩家都选择了 B 策略,那么仍然有一个纳什均衡点。虽然每个参与人的回报都低于最优回报,但是由于直接回报减少(从2减少到1) ,两个参与人都没有改变策略的动机。<br />
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The ''coordination game'' is a classic ([[symmetric game|symmetric]]) two player, two [[strategy (game theory)|strategy]] game, with an example [[payoff matrix]] shown to the right. The players should thus coordinate, both adopting strategy A, to receive the highest payoff; i.e., 4. If both players chose strategy B though, there is still a Nash equilibrium. Although each player is awarded less than optimal payoff, neither player has incentive to change strategy due to a reduction in the immediate payoff (from 2 to 1).<br />
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A famous example of this type of game was called the stag hunt; in the game two players may choose to hunt a stag or a rabbit, the former providing more meat (4 utility units) than the latter (1 utility unit). The caveat is that the stag must be cooperatively hunted, so if one player attempts to hunt the stag, while the other hunts the rabbit, she/he will fail in hunting (0 utility units), whereas if they both hunt it they will split the payoff (2, 2). The game hence exhibits two equilibria at (stag, stag) and (rabbit, rabbit) and hence the players' optimal strategy depend on their expectation on what the other player may do. If one hunter trusts that the other will hunt the stag, they should hunt the stag; however if they suspect that the other will hunt the rabbit, they should hunt the rabbit. This game was used as an analogy for social cooperation, since much of the benefit that people gain in society depends upon people cooperating and implicitly trusting one another to act in a manner corresponding with cooperation.<br />
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这类游戏的一个著名的例子是猎鹿,在游戏中,两个玩家可以选择猎鹿或猎兔,前者提供比后者更多的肉(4个实用单位)(1个实用单位)。需要注意的是,这只鹿必须被合作猎杀,所以如果一个参与者试图猎杀鹿,而另一个参与者猎杀兔子,她/他将在猎杀中失败(0个实用单位) ,而如果他们都猎杀鹿,他们将分享收益(2,2)。这个博弈因此展现了两个均衡(雄鹿,雄鹿)和(兔子,兔子) ,因此玩家的最佳策略取决于他们对另一个玩家可能做什么的期望。如果一个猎人相信另一个会猎鹿,他们就应该猎鹿; 但是如果他们怀疑另一个会猎兔,他们就应该猎兔。这种游戏被用来作为社会合作的类比,因为人们在社会中获得的大部分利益取决于人们之间的合作和相互间的隐性信任,以与合作相对应的方式行事。<br />
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A famous example of this type of game was called the [[stag hunt]]; in the game two players may choose to hunt a stag or a rabbit, the former providing more meat (4 utility units) than the latter (1 utility unit). The caveat is that the stag must be cooperatively hunted, so if one player attempts to hunt the stag, while the other hunts the rabbit, she/he will fail in hunting (0 utility units), whereas if they both hunt it they will split the payoff (2, 2). The game hence exhibits two equilibria at (stag, stag) and (rabbit, rabbit) and hence the players' optimal strategy depend on their expectation on what the other player may do. If one hunter trusts that the other will hunt the stag, they should hunt the stag; however if they suspect that the other will hunt the rabbit, they should hunt the rabbit. This game was used as an analogy for social cooperation, since much of the benefit that people gain in society depends upon people cooperating and implicitly trusting one another to act in a manner corresponding with cooperation.<br />
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Another example of a coordination game is the setting where two technologies are available to two firms with comparable products, and they have to elect a strategy to become the market standard. If both firms agree on the chosen technology, high sales are expected for both firms. If the firms do not agree on the standard technology, few sales result. Both strategies are Nash equilibria of the game.<br />
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协调博弈的另一个例子是这样一种情况,两个拥有类似产品的公司可以获得两种技术,他们必须选择一种策略来成为市场标准。如果两家公司都同意所选择的技术,那么两家公司的销售额都会很高。如果公司不同意标准技术,销售结果很少。这两个策略都是博弈的纳什均衡。<br />
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Another example of a coordination game is the setting where two technologies are available to two firms with comparable products, and they have to elect a strategy to become the market standard. If both firms agree on the chosen technology, high sales are expected for both firms. If the firms do not agree on the standard technology, few sales result. Both strategies are Nash equilibria of the game.<br />
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Driving on a road against an oncoming car, and having to choose either to swerve on the left or to swerve on the right of the road, is also a coordination game. For example, with payoffs 10 meaning no crash and 0 meaning a crash, the coordination game can be defined with the following payoff matrix:<br />
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在道路上面对迎面而来的车辆行驶,必须在左侧转弯或在右侧转弯之间做出选择,这也是一个协调博弈。例如,收益为10意味着没有崩溃,0意味着崩溃,协调博弈可以用下面的收益矩阵来定义:<br />
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Driving on a road against an oncoming car, and having to choose either to swerve on the left or to swerve on the right of the road, is also a coordination game. For example, with payoffs 10 meaning no crash and 0 meaning a crash, the coordination game can be defined with the following payoff matrix:<br />
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{| align=left border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%" class="wikitable"<br />
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{ | align = left border = “1” cellpadding = “4” cellspacing = “0” style = “ margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: # f9f9f9; border: 1px # solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95% ” class = “ wikable”<br />
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{| align=left border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%" class="wikitable"<br />
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|+ align=bottom |The driving game<br />
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| + align = bottom | The driving game<br />
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|+ align=bottom |''The driving game''<br />
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! <br />
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!<br />
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! {{diagonal split header|Driver 1 | Driver 2}}<br />
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!Drive on the Left<br />
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! 左边开车<br />
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!Drive on the Left<br />
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!Drive on the Right<br />
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! 向右开车<br />
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!Drive on the Right<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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!Drive on the Left<br />
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! 左边开车<br />
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!Drive on the Left<br />
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|{{diagonal split header|10| 10|transparent}}<br />
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|{{diagonal split header|0| 0|transparent}}<br />
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!Drive on the Right<br />
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! 向右开车<br />
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!Drive on the Right<br />
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|{{diagonal split header|0| 0|transparent}}<br />
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|{{diagonal split header|10| 10|transparent}}<br />
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In this case there are two pure-strategy Nash equilibria, when both choose to either drive on the left or on the right. If we admit mixed strategies (where a pure strategy is chosen at random, subject to some fixed probability), then there are three Nash equilibria for the same case: two we have seen from the pure-strategy form, where the probabilities are (0%, 100%) for player one, (0%, 100%) for player two; and (100%, 0%) for player one, (100%, 0%) for player two respectively. We add another where the probabilities for each player are (50%, 50%).<br />
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在这种情况下,存在两个纯策略纳什均衡,当两者都选择左侧或右侧驱动时。如果我们承认混合策略(在某些固定的概率下,纯策略是随机选择的) ,那么对于同样的情况有三个纳什均衡: 我们从纯策略形式中看到的两个纳什均衡,其中参与人一的概率为(0% ,100%) ,参与人二的概率为(0% ,100%) ; 参与人一的概率为(100% ,0%) ,参与人二的概率分别为(100% ,0%)。我们在每个玩家的概率是(50% ,50%)的情况下再加一个。<br />
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In this case there are two pure-strategy Nash equilibria, when both choose to either drive on the left or on the right. If we admit [[mixed strategy|mixed strategies]] (where a pure strategy is chosen at random, subject to some fixed probability), then there are three Nash equilibria for the same case: two we have seen from the pure-strategy form, where the probabilities are (0%, 100%) for player one, (0%, 100%) for player two; and (100%, 0%) for player one, (100%, 0%) for player two respectively. We add another where the probabilities for each player are (50%, 50%).<br />
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{{Clear left}}<br />
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=== Prisoner's dilemma 囚徒困境===<br />
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{{Main|Prisoner's dilemma}}<br />
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{| align=right border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; text-align:center" class="wikitable"<br />
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{ | align = right border = “1” cellpadding = “4” cellspacing = “0” style = “ margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: # f9f9f9; border: 1px # solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95% ; text-align: center = “ wikable”<br />
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{| align=right border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; text-align:center" class="wikitable"<br />
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|+ align=bottom | Example PD payoff matrix<br />
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| + align = bottom | 示例 PD 支付矩阵<br />
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|+ align=bottom | ''Example PD payoff matrix<br />
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! <br />
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!<br />
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! {{diagonal split header|Prisoner 1 | Prisoner 2}}<br />
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!scope="col" style="color: #900"|Cooperate (with other)<br />
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! scope = “ col” style = “ color: # 900” | (与其他人)合作<br />
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!scope="col" style="color: #900"|Cooperate (with other)<br />
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!scope="col" style="color: #900"|Defect (betray other)<br />
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! scope = “ col” style = “ color: # 900” | Defect (背叛他人)<br />
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!scope="col" style="color: #900"|Defect (betray other)<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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!scope="row" style="color: #009"|Cooperate (with other)<br />
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! 范围 = “行”风格 = “颜色: # 009” | 合作(与其他人)<br />
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!scope="row" style="color: #009"|Cooperate (with other)<br />
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|<span style="color: #009">−1</span>, <span style="color: #900">−1</span><br />
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|<span style="color: #009">−1</span>, <span style="color: #900">−1</span><br />
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|<span style="color: #009">−1</span>, <span style="color: #900">−1</span><br />
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|<span style="color: #009">−3</span>, <span style="color: #900">0</span><br />
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|<span style="color: #009">−3</span>, <span style="color: #900">0</span><br />
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|<span style="color: #009">−3</span>, <span style="color: #900">0</span><br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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!scope="row" style="color: #009"|Defect (betray other)<br />
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! scope = “ row” style = “ color: # 009” | Defect (背叛他人)<br />
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!scope="row" style="color: #009"|Defect (betray other)<br />
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|<span style="color: #009">0</span>, <span style="color: #900">−3</span><br />
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|<span style="color: #009">0</span>, <span style="color: #900">−3</span><br />
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|<span style="color: #009">0</span>, <span style="color: #900">−3</span><br />
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|<span style="color: #009">−2</span>, <span style="color: #900">−2</span><br />
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|<span style="color: #009">−2</span>, <span style="color: #900">−2</span><br />
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|<span style="color: #009">−2</span>, <span style="color: #900">−2</span><br />
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|}<br />
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|}<br />
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|}<br />
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Imagine two prisoners held in separate cells, interrogated simultaneously, and offered deals (lighter jail sentences) for betraying their fellow criminal. They can "cooperate" (with the other prisoner) by not snitching, or "defect" by betraying the other. However, there is a catch; if both players defect, then they both serve a longer sentence than if neither said anything. Lower jail sentences are interpreted as higher payoffs (shown in the table).<br />
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想象一下,两个犯人被关在不同的牢房里,同时接受审讯,并且提出交易(减轻刑罚) ,因为他们背叛了自己的同伙。他们可以通过不告密来“合作”(与其他囚犯合作) ,或者通过背叛其他囚犯来“叛逃”。然而,这里有一个陷阱: 如果两个球员都叛变了,那么他们服刑的时间都会比双方都不说话的时间要长。较低的监禁刑罚被解释为较高的回报(如表所示)。<br />
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Imagine two prisoners held in separate cells, interrogated simultaneously, and offered deals (lighter jail sentences) for betraying their fellow criminal. They can "cooperate" (with the other prisoner) by not snitching, or "defect" by betraying the other. However, there is a catch; if both players defect, then they both serve a longer sentence than if neither said anything. Lower jail sentences are interpreted as higher payoffs (shown in the table).<br />
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The prisoner's dilemma has a similar matrix as depicted for the coordination game, but the maximum reward for each player (in this case, a minimum loss of 0) is obtained only when the players' decisions are different. Each player improves their own situation by switching from "cooperating" to "defecting", given knowledge that the other player's best decision is to "defect". The prisoner's dilemma thus has a single Nash equilibrium: both players choosing to defect.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000"> 囚徒困境Prisoner's dilemma</font>'''具有与协调博弈相似的矩阵,但是只有当参与者的决策不同时,每个参与者的最大报酬(在这种情况下,最小损失为0)才能得到。每个玩家通过从“合作”到“叛逃”来改善自己的处境,因为他们知道另一个玩家的最佳决定是“叛逃”。因此,囚徒困境只有一个纳什均衡点: 双方都选择叛逃。<br />
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The prisoner's dilemma has a similar matrix as depicted for the coordination game, but the maximum reward for each player (in this case, a minimum loss of 0) is obtained only when the players' decisions are different. Each player improves their own situation by switching from "cooperating" to "defecting", given knowledge that the other player's best decision is to "defect". The prisoner's dilemma thus has a single Nash equilibrium: both players choosing to defect.<br />
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What has long made this an interesting case to study is the fact that this scenario is globally inferior to "both cooperating". That is, both players would be better off if they both chose to "cooperate" instead of both choosing to defect. However, each player could improve their own situation by breaking the mutual cooperation, no matter how the other player possibly (or certainly) changes their decision.<br />
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长期以来使这一情况成为值得研究的有趣案例的原因是,这种情况在全球范围内不如”双方合作”。也就是说,如果双方都选择“合作” ,而不是双方都选择背叛,那么双方都会过得更好。然而,每个玩家都可以通过打破相互合作来改善自己的处境,不管其他玩家可能(或肯定)如何改变他们的决定。<br />
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What has long made this an interesting case to study is the fact that this scenario is globally inferior to "both cooperating". That is, both players would be better off if they both chose to "cooperate" instead of both choosing to defect. However, each player could improve their own situation by breaking the mutual cooperation, no matter how the other player possibly (or certainly) changes their decision.<br />
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=== Network traffic 网络流量===<br />
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{{See also|Braess's paradox}}<br />
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Sample network graph. Values on edges are the travel time experienced by a 'car' traveling down that edge. is the number of cars traveling via that edge.<br />
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网络图示例。边缘上的值是一辆汽车沿着边缘行驶所经历的行驶时间。就是经过那个边缘的车辆数量。<br />
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[[File:Nash graph equilibrium.png|thumb|250px|Sample network graph. Values on edges are the travel time experienced by a 'car' traveling down that edge. {{mvar|x}} is the number of cars traveling via that edge.]]<br />
[[文件:纳什图平衡.png|thumb | 250px |网络图示例。边缘上的值是“汽车”沿该边缘行驶所经历的行驶时间。{{mvar|x}} 是通过该边缘行驶的汽车数量。]]<br />
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An application of Nash equilibria is in determining the expected flow of traffic in a network. Consider the graph on the right. If we assume that there are "cars" traveling from A to D, what is the expected distribution of traffic in the network?<br />
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纳什均衡的一个应用是确定网络中的预期流量。看看右边的图表。如果我们假设有从 a 到 d 的“汽车” ,网络中预期的流量分布是什么?<br />
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An application of Nash equilibria is in determining the expected flow of traffic in a network. Consider the graph on the right. If we assume that there are {{mvar|x}} "cars" traveling from A to D, what is the expected distribution of traffic in the network?<br />
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This situation can be modeled as a "game" where every traveler has a choice of 3 strategies, where each strategy is a route from A to D (either , , or ). The "payoff" of each strategy is the travel time of each route. In the graph on the right, a car travelling via experiences travel time of , where is the number of cars traveling on edge . Thus, payoffs for any given strategy depend on the choices of the other players, as is usual. However, the goal, in this case, is to minimize travel time, not maximize it. Equilibrium will occur when the time on all paths is exactly the same. When that happens, no single driver has any incentive to switch routes, since it can only add to their travel time. For the graph on the right, if, for example, 100 cars are travelling from A to D, then equilibrium will occur when 25 drivers travel via , 50 via , and 25 via . Every driver now has a total travel time of 3.75 (to see this, note that a total of 75 cars take the edge, and likewise, 75 cars take the edge).<!-- 25 drivers travel via ABD and 50 via ABCD, so 75 cars travel on edge AB. Similarly, 75 cars travel on edge CD. It takes (1 + 75/100) + 2 = 3.75 to travel via ABD. The travel time of the other routes is the same. --><br />
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这种情况可以被模拟为一个“游戏” ,每个旅行者都有3个策略可供选择,每个策略都是从 A 到 D 的路线(或者,或者)。每个策略的“回报”是每条路线的行程时间。在右边的图表中,一辆汽车经历的旅行时间是,哪里是在边上旅行的汽车的数量。因此,任何给定策略的收益都取决于其他参与者的选择,这是很正常的。然而,在这种情况下,目标是最小化旅行时间,而不是最大化。当所有路径上的时间完全相同时,平衡就会出现。当这种情况发生时,没有一个司机有任何动机改变路线,因为这只能增加他们的旅行时间。对于右边的图表,如果,例如,100辆汽车从 A 到 D,那么平衡将发生在25个司机经过,50个经过,和25个经过。现在,每个司机的总旅行时间为3.75(注意,总共有75辆车占据优势,同样,75辆车占据优势)。<!——25名司机使用 ABD,50名司机使用 ABCD,因此75辆汽车行驶在 AB 边缘。同样,75辆汽车行驶在边缘 CD 上。通过 ABD 旅行需要(1 + 75/100) + 2 = 3.75。其他路线的行程时间是相同的。--><br />
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This situation can be modeled as a "game" where every traveler has a choice of 3 strategies, where each strategy is a route from A to D (either {{math|ABD}}, {{math|ABCD}}, or {{math|ACD}}). The "payoff" of each strategy is the travel time of each route. In the graph on the right, a car travelling via {{math|ABD}} experiences travel time of {{math|(1+''x''/100)+2}}, where {{mvar|x}} is the number of cars traveling on edge {{math|AB}}. Thus, payoffs for any given strategy depend on the choices of the other players, as is usual. However, the goal, in this case, is to minimize travel time, not maximize it. Equilibrium will occur when the time on all paths is exactly the same. When that happens, no single driver has any incentive to switch routes, since it can only add to their travel time. For the graph on the right, if, for example, 100 cars are travelling from A to D, then equilibrium will occur when 25 drivers travel via {{math|ABD}}, 50 via {{math|ABCD}}, and 25 via {{math|ACD}}. Every driver now has a total travel time of 3.75 (to see this, note that a total of 75 cars take the {{math|AB}} edge, and likewise, 75 cars take the {{math|CD}} edge).<!-- 25 drivers travel via ABD and 50 via ABCD, so 75 cars travel on edge AB. Similarly, 75 cars travel on edge CD. It takes (1 + 75/100) + 2 = 3.75 to travel via ABD. The travel time of the other routes is the same. --><br />
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Notice that this distribution is not, actually, socially optimal. If the 100 cars agreed that 50 travel via and the other 50 through , then travel time for any single car would actually be 3.5, which is less than 3.75. This is also the Nash equilibrium if the path between B and C is removed, which means that adding another possible route can decrease the efficiency of the system, a phenomenon known as Braess's paradox.<br />
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注意,这种分布实际上并不是社会最优的。如果100辆车同意50辆经过,其他50辆经过,那么任何一辆车的旅行时间实际上是3.5,小于3.75。如果 b 和 c 之间的路径被移除,这也是纳什均衡点,这意味着增加另一条可能的路径会降低系统的效率,这种现象被称为 Braess 悖论。<br />
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Notice that this distribution is not, actually, socially optimal. If the 100 cars agreed that 50 travel via {{math|ABD}} and the other 50 through {{math|ACD}}, then travel time for any single car would actually be 3.5, which is less than 3.75. This is also the Nash equilibrium if the path between B and C is removed, which means that adding another possible route can decrease the efficiency of the system, a phenomenon known as [[Braess's paradox]].<br />
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=== Competition game 竞赛游戏===<br />
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{| align=right border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" class="wikitable"<br />
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{ | align = right border = “1” cellpadding = “1” cellspacing = “0” style = “ margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: # f9f9f9; border: 1px # solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95% ; class = “ wikable”<br />
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{| align=right border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" class="wikitable"<br />
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|+ align=bottom |A competition game<br />
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| + align = bottom | a competition game<br />
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|+ align=bottom |''A competition game''<br />
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! <br />
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!<br />
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! {{diagonal split header|<br />Player 1|Player 2}}<br />
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! Choose '0'<br />
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!选择「0」<br />
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! Choose '0'<br />
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! Choose '1'<br />
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!选择「1」<br />
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! Choose '1'<br />
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! Choose '2'<br />
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!选择「2」<br />
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! Choose '2'<br />
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! Choose '3'<br />
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!选择“3”<br />
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! Choose '3'<br />
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|-<br />
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! Choose '0'<br />
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!选择「0」<br />
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! Choose '0'<br />
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|align=center style="background: #ffb1ba"|0, 0<br />
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| align = center style = “ background: # ffb1ba” | 0,0<br />
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|align=center style="background: #ffb1ba"|''0'', ''0''<br />
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|align=center|2, −2<br />
<br />
|align=center|2, −2<br />
<br />
|align=center|''2'', ''−2''<br />
<br />
|align=center|2, −2<br />
<br />
|align=center|2, −2<br />
<br />
|align=center|''2'', ''−2''<br />
<br />
|align=center|2, −2<br />
<br />
|align=center|2, −2<br />
<br />
|align=center|''2'', ''−2''<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
<br />
! Choose '1'<br />
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!选择「1」<br />
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! Choose '1'<br />
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|align=center|−2, 2<br />
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|align=center|−2, 2<br />
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|align=center|''−2'', ''2''<br />
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|align=center|1, 1<br />
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1,1<br />
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|align=center|''1'', ''1''<br />
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|align=center style="background: #d264ff"|3, −1<br />
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|align=center style="background: #d264ff"|3, −1<br />
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|align=center style="background: #d264ff"|''3'', ''−1''<br />
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|align=center|3, −1<br />
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|align=center|3, −1<br />
<br />
|align=center|''3'', ''−1''<br />
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|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
! Choose '2'<br />
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!选择「2」<br />
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! Choose '2'<br />
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|align=center|−2, 2<br />
<br />
|align=center|−2, 2<br />
<br />
|align=center|''−2'', ''2''<br />
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|align=center style="background: #cedff2;"|−1, 3<br />
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|align=center style="background: #cedff2;"|−1, 3<br />
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|align=center style="background: #cedff2;"|''−1'', ''3''<br />
<br />
|align=center style="background: #66ff66;"|2, 2<br />
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| align = center style = “ background: # 66ff66; ” | 2,2<br />
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|align=center style="background: #66ff66;"|''2'', ''2''<br />
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|align=center|4, 0<br />
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4,0<br />
<br />
|align=center|''4'', ''0''<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
<br />
! Choose '3'<br />
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!选择“3”<br />
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! Choose '3'<br />
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|align=center|−2, 2<br />
<br />
|align=center|−2, 2<br />
<br />
|align=center|''−2'', ''2''<br />
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|align=center|−1, 3<br />
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|align=center|−1, 3<br />
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|align=center|''−1'', ''3''<br />
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|align=center|0, 4<br />
<br />
0,4<br />
<br />
|align=center|''0'', ''4''<br />
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|align=center|3, 3<br />
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3,3<br />
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|align=center|''3'', ''3''<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This can be illustrated by a two-player game in which both players simultaneously choose an integer from 0 to 3 and they both win the smaller of the two numbers in points. In addition, if one player chooses a larger number than the other, then they have to give up two points to the other.<br />
<br />
这可以用一个两人游戏来说明,在这个游戏中,两个玩家同时选择一个从0到3的整数,并且他们都赢得两个数字中较小的一个点。另外,如果一个玩家选择了一个比另一个更大的数字,那么他们必须放弃两分给另一个。<br />
<br />
This can be illustrated by a two-player game in which both players simultaneously choose an integer from 0 to 3 and they both win the smaller of the two numbers in points. In addition, if one player chooses a larger number than the other, then they have to give up two points to the other.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This game has a unique pure-strategy Nash equilibrium: both players choosing 0 (highlighted in light red). Any other strategy can be improved by a player switching their number to one less than that of the other player. In the adjacent table, if the game begins at the green square, it is in player 1's interest to move to the purple square and it is in player 2's interest to move to the blue square. Although it would not fit the definition of a competition game, if the game is modified so that the two players win the named amount if they both choose the same number, and otherwise win nothing, then there are 4 Nash equilibria: (0,0), (1,1), (2,2), and (3,3).<br />
<br />
这个游戏有一个独特的纯策略纳什均衡点: 两个玩家都选择0(用淡红色突出显示)。任何其他的策略都可以通过一个玩家把他们的数字换成比另一个玩家更小的数字来改进。在相邻的桌子上,如果游戏从绿色的方块开始,那么参与人1的兴趣转移到紫色的方块上,参与人2的兴趣转移到蓝色的方块上。虽然它不符合竞争博弈的定义,但是如果对博弈进行修改,使得两个参与者在选择相同数字的情况下都赢得指定的金额,那么就有4个纳什均衡: (0,0) ,(1,1) ,(2,2)和(3,3)。<br />
<br />
This game has a unique pure-strategy Nash equilibrium: both players choosing 0 (highlighted in light red). Any other strategy can be improved by a player switching their number to one less than that of the other player. In the adjacent table, if the game begins at the green square, it is in player 1's interest to move to the purple square and it is in player 2's interest to move to the blue square. Although it would not fit the definition of a competition game, if the game is modified so that the two players win the named amount if they both choose the same number, and otherwise win nothing, then there are 4 Nash equilibria: (0,0), (1,1), (2,2), and (3,3).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Nash equilibria in a payoff matrix 收益矩阵中的纳什均衡===<br />
<br />
There is an easy numerical way to identify Nash equilibria on a payoff matrix. It is especially helpful in two-person games where players have more than two strategies. In this case formal analysis may become too long. This rule does not apply to the case where mixed (stochastic) strategies are of interest. The rule goes as follows: if the first payoff number, in the payoff pair of the cell, is the maximum of the column of the cell and if the second number is the maximum of the row of the cell - then the cell represents a Nash equilibrium.<br />
<br />
有一种简单的数值方法可以确定支付矩阵中的纳什均衡。在双人游戏中,如果玩家有两个以上的策略,这种方法尤其有用。在这种情况下,正式的分析可能会变得太长。这个规则不适用于混合(随机)策略有利益的情况。规则是这样的: 如果单元格的支付对中的第一个支付数是该单元格列的最大值,如果第二个支付数是该单元格行的最大值,那么该单元格表示一个纳什均衡点。<br />
<br />
There is an easy numerical way to identify Nash equilibria on a payoff matrix. It is especially helpful in two-person games where players have more than two strategies. In this case formal analysis may become too long. This rule does not apply to the case where mixed (stochastic) strategies are of interest. '''The rule goes as follows: if the first payoff number, in the payoff pair of the cell, is the maximum of the column of the cell and if the second number is the maximum of the row of the cell - then the cell represents a Nash equilibrium.'''<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{| align="left" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" class="wikitable"<br />
<br />
{ | align = “ left” border = “1” cellpadding = “4” cellspacing = “0” style = “ margin: 1em; background: # f9f9f9; border: 1px # aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95% ; class = “ wikable”<br />
<br />
{| align="left" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" class="wikitable"<br />
<br />
|++ align=bottom |A payoff matrix – Nash equilibria in bold<br />
<br />
| + align = bottom | 一个回报矩阵-纳什均衡用粗体表示<br />
<br />
|++ align=bottom |''A payoff matrix – Nash equilibria in bold''<br />
<br />
! <br />
<br />
!<br />
<br />
! {{diagonal split header|<br />Player 1|Player 2}}<br />
<br />
!Option A<br />
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! 选项 a<br />
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!Option A<br />
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!Option B<br />
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! 选项 b<br />
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!Option B<br />
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!Option C<br />
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! 选项 c<br />
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!Option C<br />
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|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
!Option A<br />
<br />
! 选项 a<br />
<br />
!Option A<br />
<br />
|align=center|0, 0<br />
<br />
0,0<br />
<br />
|align=center|0, 0<br />
<br />
|align=center|25, 40<br />
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25,40<br />
<br />
|align=center|'''25, 40'''<br />
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|align=center|5, 10<br />
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5,10<br />
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|align=center|5, 10<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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!Option B<br />
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! 选项 b<br />
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!Option B<br />
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|align=center|40, 25<br />
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40,25<br />
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|align=center|'''40, 25'''<br />
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|align=center|0, 0<br />
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0,0<br />
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|align=center|0, 0<br />
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|align=center|5, 15<br />
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5,15<br />
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|align=center|5, 15<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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!Option C<br />
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! 选项 c<br />
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!Option C<br />
<br />
|align=center|10, 5<br />
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10,5<br />
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|align=center|10, 5<br />
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|align=center|15, 5<br />
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15,5<br />
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|align=center|15, 5<br />
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|align=center|10, 10<br />
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10,10<br />
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|align=center|'''10, 10'''<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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|}<br />
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|}<br />
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|}<br />
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We can apply this rule to a 3×3 matrix:<br />
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我们可以把这个规则应用到3 × 3矩阵上:<br />
<br />
We can apply this rule to a 3×3 matrix:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Using the rule, we can very quickly (much faster than with formal analysis) see that the Nash equilibria cells are (B,A), (A,B), and (C,C). Indeed, for cell (B,A) 40 is the maximum of the first column and 25 is the maximum of the second row. For (A,B) 25 is the maximum of the second column and 40 is the maximum of the first row. Same for cell (C,C). For other cells, either one or both of the duplet members are not the maximum of the corresponding rows and columns.<br />
<br />
使用这个规则,我们可以很快(比正式分析快得多)看到纳什均衡细胞是(B,A), (A,B), 和 (C,C)。实际上,对于单元格(B,A)40是第一列的最大值,25是第二行的最大值。对于(A,B)25是第二列的最大值,40是第一行的最大值。单元格(C,C)也是如此。对于其他单元格,一个或两个 duplet 成员都不是相应行和列的最大值。<br />
<br />
Using the rule, we can very quickly (much faster than with formal analysis) see that the Nash equilibria cells are (B,A), (A,B), and (C,C). Indeed, for cell (B,A) 40 is the maximum of the first column and 25 is the maximum of the second row. For (A,B) 25 is the maximum of the second column and 40 is the maximum of the first row. Same for cell (C,C). For other cells, either one or both of the duplet members are not the maximum of the corresponding rows and columns.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
This said, the actual mechanics of finding equilibrium cells is obvious: find the maximum of a column and check if the second member of the pair is the maximum of the row. If these conditions are met, the cell represents a Nash equilibrium. Check all columns this way to find all NE cells. An N×N matrix may have between 0 and N×N pure-strategy Nash equilibria.<br />
<br />
也就是说,找到平衡单元的实际机制是显而易见的: 找到一列的最大值,然后检查一对单元的第二个成员是否是行的最大值。如果满足这些条件,则该细胞表示一个纳什均衡点。检查所有列这种方式,找到所有的 NE 细胞。一个 n × n 矩阵可能存在0到 n × n 纯策略纳什均衡。<br />
<br />
This said, the actual mechanics of finding equilibrium cells is obvious: find the maximum of a column and check if the second member of the pair is the maximum of the row. If these conditions are met, the cell represents a Nash equilibrium. Check all columns this way to find all NE cells. An N×N matrix may have between 0 and N×N [[pure strategy|pure-strategy]] Nash equilibria.<br />
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< ! -- 宽屏布局修正 -- > <br />
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{{clear}}<!-- layout fix for wide screens --><br />
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<br />
== Stability 稳定性==<br />
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The concept of stability, useful in the analysis of many kinds of equilibria, can also be applied to Nash equilibria.<br />
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稳定性的概念在分析多种平衡时很有用,也可以应用到纳什均衡中。<br />
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The concept of [[Stability theory|stability]], useful in the analysis of many kinds of equilibria, can also be applied to Nash equilibria.<br />
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<br />
<br />
A Nash equilibrium for a mixed-strategy game is stable if a small change (specifically, an infinitesimal change) in probabilities for one player leads to a situation where two conditions hold:<br />
<br />
一个混合策略博弈的纳什均衡点是稳定的,如果一个玩家的概率发生了微小的变化(具体地说,是极小的变化) ,导致出现两种情况:<br />
<br />
A Nash equilibrium for a mixed-strategy game is stable if a small change (specifically, an infinitesimal change) in probabilities for one player leads to a situation where two conditions hold:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
the player who did not change has no better strategy in the new circumstance<br />
<br />
没有改变的玩家在新环境下没有更好的策略<br />
<br />
# the player who did not change has no better strategy in the new circumstance<br />
<br />
the player who did change is now playing with a strictly worse strategy.<br />
<br />
那个改变了的玩家,现在采用了一个更糟糕的策略。<br />
<br />
# the player who did change is now playing with a strictly worse strategy.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
If these cases are both met, then a player with the small change in their mixed strategy will return immediately to the Nash equilibrium. The equilibrium is said to be stable. If condition one does not hold then the equilibrium is unstable. If only condition one holds then there are likely to be an infinite number of optimal strategies for the player who changed.<br />
<br />
如果这两种情况都满足,那么在混合策略中稍有变化的玩家将立即返回纳什均衡点。这种平衡称为稳定的。如果条件一不成立,那么平衡就是不稳定的。如果只有一个条件成立,那么对于改变策略的玩家来说,可能存在无限多的最优策略。<br />
<br />
If these cases are both met, then a player with the small change in their mixed strategy will return immediately to the Nash equilibrium. The equilibrium is said to be stable. If condition one does not hold then the equilibrium is unstable. If only condition one holds then there are likely to be an infinite number of optimal strategies for the player who changed.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In the "driving game" example above there are both stable and unstable equilibria. The equilibria involving mixed strategies with 100% probabilities are stable. If either player changes their probabilities slightly, they will be both at a disadvantage, and their opponent will have no reason to change their strategy in turn. The (50%,50%) equilibrium is unstable. If either player changes their probabilities (which would neither benefit or damage the expectation of the player who did the change, if the other player's mixed strategy is still (50%,50%)), then the other player immediately has a better strategy at either (0%, 100%) or (100%, 0%).<br />
<br />
在上面的“驱动博弈”的例子中,既有稳定的均衡,也有不稳定的均衡。含有100% 概率的混合策略的均衡是稳定的。如果任何一个玩家稍微改变他们的概率,他们都将处于劣势,而他们的对手将没有理由依次改变他们的策略。(50% ,50%)平衡是不稳定的。如果任何一个玩家改变了他们的概率(这既不会有利于也不会损害改变策略的玩家的期望值,如果另一个玩家的混合策略仍然是(50% ,50%) ,那么另一个玩家立即有一个更好的策略在(0% ,100%)或(100% ,0%)。<br />
<br />
In the "driving game" example above there are both stable and unstable equilibria. The equilibria involving mixed strategies with 100% probabilities are stable. If either player changes their probabilities slightly, they will be both at a disadvantage, and their opponent will have no reason to change their strategy in turn. The (50%,50%) equilibrium is unstable. If either player changes their probabilities (which would neither benefit or damage the [[Expected value|expectation]] of the player who did the change, if the other player's mixed strategy is still (50%,50%)), then the other player immediately has a better strategy at either (0%, 100%) or (100%, 0%).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Stability is crucial in practical applications of Nash equilibria, since the mixed strategy of each player is not perfectly known, but has to be inferred from statistical distribution of their actions in the game. In this case unstable equilibria are very unlikely to arise in practice, since any minute change in the proportions of each strategy seen will lead to a change in strategy and the breakdown of the equilibrium.<br />
<br />
稳定性在纳什均衡的实际应用中是至关重要的,因为每个参与者的混合策略并不是完全知道的,而是必须从他们在博弈中行为的统计分布中推断出来的。在这种情况下,实际上不太可能出现不稳定均衡,因为看到的每种策略的比例的任何微小变化都会导致策略的变化和均衡的崩溃。<br />
<br />
Stability is crucial in practical applications of Nash equilibria, since the mixed strategy of each player is not perfectly known, but has to be inferred from statistical distribution of their actions in the game. In this case unstable equilibria are very unlikely to arise in practice, since any minute change in the proportions of each strategy seen will lead to a change in strategy and the breakdown of the equilibrium.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The Nash equilibrium defines stability only in terms of unilateral deviations. In cooperative games such a concept is not convincing enough. Strong Nash equilibrium allows for deviations by every conceivable coalition. Formally, a strong Nash equilibrium is a Nash equilibrium in which no coalition, taking the actions of its complements as given, can cooperatively deviate in a way that benefits all of its members. However, the strong Nash concept is sometimes perceived as too "strong" in that the environment allows for unlimited private communication. In fact, strong Nash equilibrium has to be Pareto efficient. As a result of these requirements, strong Nash is too rare to be useful in many branches of game theory. However, in games such as elections with many more players than possible outcomes, it can be more common than a stable equilibrium.<br />
<br />
纳什均衡点货币基金组织仅仅用单边偏离来定义稳定性。在合作博弈中,这样的概念是不够令人信服的。强大的纳什均衡点可以允许任何可以想象的联盟出现偏差。从形式上讲,强大的纳什均衡点是一种纳什均衡点,在这种情况下,任何联盟都不能合作地偏离对其所有成员都有利的方向,按照给定的补充行事。然而,强大的纳什概念有时被认为过于“强大” ,因为环境允许无限的私人交流。事实上,强纳什均衡点必须是帕累托有效的。由于这些要求的结果,强纳什在博弈论的许多分支中实在是太稀有了。然而,在诸如选举这样的游戏中,参与者比可能的结果多得多,这种情况可能比稳定的均衡更常见。<br />
<br />
The Nash equilibrium defines stability only in terms of unilateral deviations. In cooperative games such a concept is not convincing enough. [[Strong Nash equilibrium]] allows for deviations by every conceivable coalition.<ref name="CoalitionProof">{{Citation|doi = 10.1016/0022-0531(87)90099-8|title = Coalition-Proof Equilibria I. Concepts|author1=B. D. Bernheim |author2=B. Peleg |author3=M. D. Whinston |journal = Journal of Economic Theory |volume = 42 |year =1987|issue = 1| pages = 1&ndash;12|postscript = .}}</ref> Formally, a strong Nash equilibrium is a Nash equilibrium in which no coalition, taking the actions of its complements as given, can cooperatively deviate in a way that benefits all of its members.<ref name="SNE">{{Cite book |first=R. |last=Aumann |chapter = Acceptable points in general cooperative n-person games |title=Contributions to the Theory of Games |volume=IV | publisher = Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J. |year=1959 |isbn=978-1-4008-8216-8 }}</ref> However, the strong Nash concept is sometimes perceived as too "strong" in that the environment allows for unlimited private communication. In fact, strong Nash equilibrium has to be [[Pareto efficient]]. As a result of these requirements, strong Nash is too rare to be useful in many branches of game theory. However, in games such as elections with many more players than possible outcomes, it can be more common than a stable equilibrium.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
A refined Nash equilibrium known as coalition-proof Nash equilibrium (CPNE) Further, it is possible for a game to have a Nash equilibrium that is resilient against coalitions less than a specified size, k. CPNE is related to the theory of the core.<br />
<br />
另外,对于一个游戏来说,有可能有一个对小于一定规模的联盟具有弹性的纳什均衡点,这个纳什均衡点与核心理论有关。<br />
<br />
A refined Nash equilibrium known as [[coalition-proof Nash equilibrium]] (CPNE)<ref name="CoalitionProof"/> occurs when players cannot do better even if they are allowed to communicate and make "self-enforcing" agreement to deviate. Every correlated strategy supported by [[Dominance (game theory)|iterated strict dominance]] and on the [[Pareto frontier]] is a CPNE.<ref name="CPNE">{{Citation|title = Coalition-Proof Equilibrium|author1=D. Moreno |author2=J. Wooders |journal = Games and Economic Behavior|volume = 17|issue = 1|year =1996| pages = 80&ndash;112 | doi = 10.1006/game.1996.0095|postscript = .|url =http://e-archivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/10016/4408/1/Coalition_GEB_1996_ps.PDF|hdl=10016/4408 }}</ref> Further, it is possible for a game to have a Nash equilibrium that is resilient against coalitions less than a specified size, k. CPNE is related to the [[Core (economics)|theory of the core]].<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Finally in the eighties, building with great depth on such ideas Mertens-stable equilibria were introduced as a solution concept. Mertens stable equilibria satisfy both forward induction and backward induction. In a game theory context stable equilibria now usually refer to Mertens stable equilibria.<br />
<br />
最后,在八十年代,作为解决方案的概念,引入了对这种思想进行深入研究的 mertens 稳定平衡。默顿斯稳定平衡同时满足正向归纳和逆向归纳法。在博弈论中,稳定均衡现在通常指的是 Mertens 稳定均衡。<br />
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Finally in the eighties, building with great depth on such ideas [[Mertens-stable equilibria]] were introduced as a [[solution concept]]. Mertens stable equilibria satisfy both [[forward induction]] and [[backward induction]]. In a [[game theory]] context [[stable equilibria]] now usually refer to Mertens stable equilibria.<br />
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== Occurrence发生 ==<br />
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If a game has a unique Nash equilibrium and is played among players under certain conditions, then the NE strategy set will be adopted. Sufficient conditions to guarantee that the Nash equilibrium is played are:<br />
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如果一个游戏有一个唯一的纳什均衡点,并且在一定条件下在玩家之间进行,那么将采用 NE 策略集。足够的条件,以保证纳什均衡点比赛是:<br />
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If a game has a [[unique (mathematics)|unique]] Nash equilibrium and is played among players under certain conditions, then the NE strategy set will be adopted. Sufficient conditions to guarantee that the Nash equilibrium is played are:<br />
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The players all will do their utmost to maximize their expected payoff as described by the game.<br />
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所有的玩家都会按照游戏所描述的那样,尽最大努力最大化他们的预期收益。<br />
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# The players all will do their utmost to maximize their expected payoff as described by the game.<br />
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The players are flawless in execution.<br />
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玩家们的执行力完美无瑕。<br />
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# The players are flawless in execution.<br />
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The players have sufficient intelligence to deduce the solution.<br />
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玩家们有足够的智慧来推断出解决方案。<br />
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# The players have sufficient intelligence to deduce the solution.<br />
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The players know the planned equilibrium strategy of all of the other players.<br />
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玩家知道所有其他玩家的计划均衡策略。<br />
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# The players know the planned equilibrium strategy of all of the other players.<br />
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The players believe that a deviation in their own strategy will not cause deviations by any other players.<br />
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玩家相信他们自己策略的偏差不会引起其他玩家的偏差。<br />
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# The players believe that a deviation in their own strategy will not cause deviations by any other players.<br />
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There is common knowledge that all players meet these conditions, including this one. So, not only must each player know the other players meet the conditions, but also they must know that they all know that they meet them, and know that they know that they know that they meet them, and so on.<br />
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众所周知,所有的球员都满足这些条件,包括这个条件。因此,每个玩家不仅必须知道其他玩家满足条件,而且还必须知道他们都知道他们满足条件,知道他们知道他们满足条件,等等。<br />
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# There is [[common knowledge (logic)|common knowledge]] that all players meet these conditions, including this one. So, not only must each player know the other players meet the conditions, but also they must know that they all know that they meet them, and know that they know that they know that they meet them, and so on.<br />
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=== Where the conditions are not met 当条件无法满足===<br />
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Examples of game theory problems in which these conditions are not met:<br />
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不符合这些条件的博弈论问题的例子:<br />
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Examples of [[game theory]] problems in which these conditions are not met:<br />
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The first condition is not met if the game does not correctly describe the quantities a player wishes to maximize. In this case there is no particular reason for that player to adopt an equilibrium strategy. For instance, the prisoner's dilemma is not a dilemma if either player is happy to be jailed indefinitely.<br />
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如果博弈没有正确地描述玩家希望最大化的数量,则不满足第一个条件。在这种情况下,该参与人没有特别的理由采取均衡策略。例如,囚徒困境不是一个进退两难的问题,如果任何一方都乐意无限期地被监禁。<br />
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# The first condition is not met if the game does not correctly describe the quantities a player wishes to maximize. In this case there is no particular reason for that player to adopt an equilibrium strategy. For instance, the prisoner's dilemma is not a dilemma if either player is happy to be jailed indefinitely.<br />
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Intentional or accidental imperfection in execution. For example, a computer capable of flawless logical play facing a second flawless computer will result in equilibrium. Introduction of imperfection will lead to its disruption either through loss to the player who makes the mistake, or through negation of the common knowledge criterion leading to possible victory for the player. (An example would be a player suddenly putting the car into reverse in the game of chicken, ensuring a no-loss no-win scenario).<br />
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执行中有意或偶然的缺陷。例如,一台能够完美逻辑运算的计算机面对第二台完美逻辑运算的计算机,将会达到平衡。缺陷的引入将导致其中断,或者造成犯错的玩家的损失,或者通过否定常识标准导致玩家可能的胜利。(举个例子,一个玩家突然把车倒进了鸡肉游戏,以确保不亏不赢的局面)。<br />
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# Intentional or accidental imperfection in execution. For example, a computer capable of flawless logical play facing a second flawless computer will result in equilibrium. Introduction of imperfection will lead to its disruption either through loss to the player who makes the mistake, or through negation of the [[common knowledge (logic)|common knowledge]] criterion leading to possible victory for the player. (An example would be a player suddenly putting the car into reverse in the [[game of chicken]], ensuring a no-loss no-win scenario).<br />
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In many cases, the third condition is not met because, even though the equilibrium must exist, it is unknown due to the complexity of the game, for instance in Chinese chess. Or, if known, it may not be known to all players, as when playing tic-tac-toe with a small child who desperately wants to win (meeting the other criteria).<br />
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在许多情况下,第三个条件是不能满足的,因为即使均衡必须存在,但由于博弈的复杂性,它是未知的,例如在中国象棋中。或者,如果知道的话,也许不是所有的玩家都知道,比如和一个非常想赢的小孩玩井字游戏(符合其他标准)。<br />
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# In many cases, the third condition is not met because, even though the equilibrium must exist, it is unknown due to the complexity of the game, for instance in [[Chinese chess]].<ref>T. L. Turocy, B. Von Stengel, ''[http://www.cdam.lse.ac.uk/Reports/Files/cdam-2001-09.pdf Game Theory]'', copyright 2001, Texas A&M University, London School of Economics, pages 141-144. {{Citation needed span|text=Nash proved that a perfect NE exists for this type of finite [[extensive form game]]|date=April 2010}} – it can be represented as a strategy complying with his original conditions for a game with a NE. Such games may not have unique NE, but at least one of the many equilibrium strategies would be played by hypothetical players having perfect knowledge of all {{Citation needed span|text=10<sup>150</sup> [[game-tree complexity|game trees]]|date=April 2010}}.</ref> Or, if known, it may not be known to all players, as when playing [[tic-tac-toe]] with a small child who desperately wants to win (meeting the other criteria).<br />
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The criterion of common knowledge may not be met even if all players do, in fact, meet all the other criteria. Players wrongly distrusting each other's rationality may adopt counter-strategies to expected irrational play on their opponents’ behalf. This is a major consideration in "chicken" or an arms race, for example.<br />
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即使所有参与者事实上都符合所有其他标准,也可能不符合共同知识的标准。玩家错误地不信任对方的理性,可能会采取反策略,代表对方期待非理性的游戏。例如,在“鸡肉”或军备竞赛中,这是一个主要的考虑因素。<br />
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# The criterion of common knowledge may not be met even if all players do, in fact, meet all the other criteria. Players wrongly distrusting each other's rationality may adopt counter-strategies to expected irrational play on their opponents’ behalf. This is a major consideration in "[[Game of chicken|chicken]]" or an [[arms race]], for example.<br />
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=== Where the conditions are met 当条件满足===<br />
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In his Ph.D. dissertation, John Nash proposed two interpretations of his equilibrium concept, with the objective of showing how equilibrium points<br />
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在他的博士论文中,约翰 · 纳什对他的平衡概念提出了两种解释,目的是展示平衡点是如何达到的<br />
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In his Ph.D. dissertation, John Nash proposed two interpretations of his equilibrium concept, with the objective of showing how equilibrium points<br />
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{{quote|(...) can be connected with observable phenomenon. ''One interpretation is rationalistic: if we assume that players are rational, know the full structure of'' the game, the game is played just once, and there is just one Nash equilibrium, then players will play according to that equilibrium. This idea was formalized by Aumann, R. and A. Brandenburger, 1995, ''Epistemic Conditions for Nash Equilibrium'', Econometrica, 63, 1161-1180 who interpreted each player's mixed strategy as a conjecture about the behaviour of other players and have shown that if the game and the rationality of players is mutually known and these conjectures are commonly know, then the conjectures must be a Nash equilibrium (a common prior assumption is needed for this result in general, but not in the case of two players. In this case, the conjectures need only be mutually known).}}<br />
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{{quote |(…)可以与可观察现象联系起来一种解释是理性主义的:如果我们假设玩家是理性的,知道游戏的全部结构,游戏只玩一次,只有一个纳什均衡,那么玩家将按照这个均衡进行游戏。这一观点由Aumann,R.和A.Brandenburger于1995年正式提出,“纳什均衡的认知条件”,Econometrica,63,1161-1180,他把每个博弈者的混合策略解释为对其他博弈者行为的一种猜想,并且证明了如果博弈和博弈者的理性是相互已知的,并且这些猜想都是已知的,那么这些猜想一定是纳什均衡(一般来说,这个结果需要一个共同的先验假设,但不是两个玩家。在这种情况下,猜想只需要相互知道)}}<br />
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A second interpretation, that Nash referred to by the mass action interpretation, is less demanding on players:<br />
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第二种解释,也就是纳什提到的群众动作解释,对玩家要求较低:<br />
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A second interpretation, that Nash referred to by the mass action interpretation, is less demanding on players:<br />
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{{quote|[i]t is unnecessary to assume that the participants have full knowledge of the total structure of the game, or the ability and inclination to go through any complex reasoning processes. ''What is assumed is that there is a population of participants for each position in the game, which will be played throughout time by participants drawn at random from the different populations. If there is a stable average frequency with which each pure strategy is employed by the ''average member'' of the appropriate population, then this stable average frequency constitutes a mixed strategy Nash equilibrium.''}}<br />
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{{quote|[i]没有必要假设参与者对游戏的整体结构有充分的了解,或者有能力和倾向去经历任何复杂的推理过程假设游戏中的每个位置都有一个参与者群体,这些参与者将在整个时间内由从不同人群中随机抽取的参与者进行游戏。如果存在一个稳定的平均频率,每个纯策略被适当群体的“平均成员”使用,那么这个稳定的平均频率就构成了混合策略纳什均衡}}<br />
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For a formal result along these lines, see Kuhn, H. and et al., 1996, "The Work of John Nash in Game Theory," Journal of Economic Theory, 69, 153–185.<br />
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关于这些方面的正式结果,参见 Kuhn,h. 和等人,1996,“约翰 · 纳什在博弈论中的工作” ,《经济理论杂志》 ,69,153-185。<br />
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For a formal result along these lines, see Kuhn, H. and et al., 1996, "The Work of John Nash in Game Theory," ''Journal of Economic Theory'', 69, 153–185.<br />
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Due to the limited conditions in which NE can actually be observed, they are rarely treated as a guide to day-to-day behaviour, or observed in practice in human negotiations. However, as a theoretical concept in economics and evolutionary biology, the NE has explanatory power. The payoff in economics is utility (or sometimes money), and in evolutionary biology is gene transmission; both are the fundamental bottom line of survival. Researchers who apply games theory in these fields claim that strategies failing to maximize these for whatever reason will be competed out of the market or environment, which are ascribed the ability to test all strategies. This conclusion is drawn from the "stability" theory above. In these situations the assumption that the strategy observed is actually a NE has often been borne out by research.<br />
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由于能够实际观察到 NE 的条件有限,它们很少被当作日常行为的指南,或在人类谈判实践中被观察到。然而,作为经济学和进化生物学中的一个理论概念,NE 具有解释力。经济学的回报是效用(有时是金钱) ,而进化生物学的回报是基因传递; 两者都是生存的基本底线。将博弈论应用于这些领域的研究人员声称,无论出于什么原因,未能最大化这些策略都会在市场或环境之外竞争,因为市场或环境具有测试所有策略的能力。这个结论是从上面的“稳定性”理论得出的。在这些情况下,研究经常证实所观察到的策略实际上是一个 NE 的假设。<br />
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Due to the limited conditions in which NE can actually be observed, they are rarely treated as a guide to day-to-day behaviour, or observed in practice in human negotiations. However, as a theoretical concept in [[economics]] and [[evolutionary biology]], the NE has explanatory power. The payoff in economics is utility (or sometimes money), and in evolutionary biology is gene transmission; both are the fundamental bottom line of survival. Researchers who apply games theory in these fields claim that strategies failing to maximize these for whatever reason will be competed out of the market or environment, which are ascribed the ability to test all strategies. This conclusion is drawn from the "[[Nash equilibrium#Stability|stability]]" theory above. In these situations the assumption that the strategy observed is actually a NE has often been borne out by research.<ref>J. C. Cox, M. Walker, ''[http://excen.gsu.edu/jccox/research/learnplay.pdf Learning to Play Cournot Duoploy Strategies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211182058/http://excen.gsu.edu/jccox/research/learnplay.pdf |date=2013-12-11 }}'', copyright 1997, Texas A&M University, University of Arizona, pages 141-144</ref><br />
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== NE and non-credible threats NE(纳什均衡)与不可信的威胁==<br />
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Extensive and Normal form illustrations that show the difference between SPNE and other NE. The blue equilibrium is not subgame perfect because player two makes a non-credible threat at 2(2) to be unkind (U).<br />
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广泛的和范式插图显示了 SPNE 和其他 NE 的区别。蓝色均衡不是子博弈完美的,因为玩家二在2(2)时做出不可信的威胁是不友善的(u)。<br />
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[[File:SGPNEandPlainNE explainingexample.svg|300px|thumb|Extensive and Normal form illustrations that show the difference between SPNE and other NE. The blue equilibrium is not subgame perfect because player two makes a non-credible threat at 2(2) to be unkind (U).]]<br />
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The Nash equilibrium is a superset of the subgame perfect Nash equilibrium. The subgame perfect equilibrium in addition to the Nash equilibrium requires that the strategy also is a Nash equilibrium in every subgame of that game. This eliminates all non-credible threats, that is, strategies that contain non-rational moves in order to make the counter-player change their strategy.<br />
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纳什均衡点是子游戏完美纳什均衡点的超集。美国子博弈精炼纳什均衡联盟和纳什均衡点联盟都要求这个战略在游戏的每个子游戏中都是一个纳什均衡点。这消除了所有不可信的威胁,也就是说,包含非理性举动的策略,以使对手改变他们的策略。<br />
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The Nash equilibrium is a superset of the subgame perfect Nash equilibrium. The subgame perfect equilibrium in addition to the Nash equilibrium requires that the strategy also is a Nash equilibrium in every subgame of that game. This eliminates all [[non-credible threats]], that is, strategies that contain non-rational moves in order to make the counter-player change their strategy.<br />
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The image to the right shows a simple sequential game that illustrates the issue with subgame imperfect Nash equilibria. In this game player one chooses left(L) or right(R), which is followed by player two being called upon to be kind (K) or unkind (U) to player one, However, player two only stands to gain from being unkind if player one goes left. If player one goes right the rational player two would de facto be kind to her/him in that subgame. However, The non-credible threat of being unkind at 2(2) is still part of the blue (L, (U,U)) Nash equilibrium. Therefore, if rational behavior can be expected by both parties the subgame perfect Nash equilibrium may be a more meaningful solution concept when such dynamic inconsistencies arise.<br />
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右边的图片展示了一个简单的序贯博弈,说明了子博弈不完美纳什均衡的问题。在这个游戏中,一个玩家选择左(l)或右(r) ,然后二号玩家被要求对一号玩家友好(k)或不友好(u) ,然而,二号玩家只能从不友好中获益,如果一号玩家选择左。如果参与人一向右,理性参与人二在子博弈中实际上对她/他很友好。然而,2(2)这个不可信的不友好的威胁仍然是蓝色(l,(u,u))纳什均衡点的一部分。因此,如果双方都能预期到理性行为,那么当这种动态不一致性出现时,子博弈完美纳什均衡点可能是一个更有意义的解决方案概念。<br />
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The image to the right shows a simple sequential game that illustrates the issue with subgame imperfect Nash equilibria. In this game player one chooses left(L) or right(R), which is followed by player two being called upon to be kind (K) or unkind (U) to player one, However, player two only stands to gain from being unkind if player one goes left. If player one goes right the rational player two would de facto be kind to her/him in that subgame. However, The non-credible threat of being unkind at 2(2) is still part of the blue (L, (U,U)) Nash equilibrium. Therefore, if rational behavior can be expected by both parties the subgame perfect Nash equilibrium may be a more meaningful solution concept when such [[dynamic inconsistency|dynamic inconsistencies]] arise.<br />
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==Proof of existence存在的证明==<br />
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=== Proof using the Kakutani fixed-point theorem '''<font color="#ff8000"> Kakutani不动点定理</font>'''的证明===<br />
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Nash's original proof (in his thesis) used Brouwer's fixed-point theorem (e.g., see below for a variant). We give a simpler proof via the Kakutani fixed-point theorem, following Nash's 1950 paper (he credits David Gale with the observation that such a simplification is possible).<br />
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Nash 的原始证明(在他的论文中)使用了 Brouwer 的不动点定理。在1950年 Nash 的论文之后,我们通过角谷静夫不动点定理给出了一个更简单的证明(他相信 David Gale 的观察,这样的简化是可能的)。<br />
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Nash's original proof (in his thesis) used Brouwer's fixed-point theorem (e.g., see below for a variant). We give a simpler proof via the Kakutani fixed-point theorem, following Nash's 1950 paper (he credits [[David Gale]] with the observation that such a simplification is possible).<br />
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To prove the existence of a Nash equilibrium, let <math>r_i(\sigma_{-i})</math> be the best response of player i to the strategies of all other players.<br />
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为了证明纳什均衡点的存在性,让参与人 i 对所有其他参与人的策略做出最佳反应。<br />
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To prove the existence of a Nash equilibrium, let <math>r_i(\sigma_{-i})</math> be the best response of player i to the strategies of all other players.<br />
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<math> r_i(\sigma_{-i}) = \mathop{\underset{\sigma_i}{\operatorname{arg\,max}}} u_i (\sigma_i,\sigma_{-i}) </math><br />
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= mathop { underset { sigma _ i }{ operatorname { arg,max } u _ i (sigma _ i,sigma _ {-i }) </math > <br />
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:<math> r_i(\sigma_{-i}) = \mathop{\underset{\sigma_i}{\operatorname{arg\,max}}} u_i (\sigma_i,\sigma_{-i}) </math><br />
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Here, <math>\sigma \in \Sigma</math>, where <math>\Sigma = \Sigma_i \times \Sigma_{-i}</math>, is a mixed-strategy profile in the set of all mixed strategies and <math> u_i </math> is the payoff function for player i. Define a set-valued function <math>r\colon \Sigma \rightarrow 2^\Sigma </math> such that <math>r = r_i(\sigma_{-i})\times r_{-i}(\sigma_{i}) </math>. The existence of a Nash equilibrium is equivalent to <math>r</math> having a fixed point.<br />
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这里,Sigma </math > Sigma </math > ,其中 < math > Sigma = Sigma _ i 乘以 Sigma _ i } </math > ,是所有混合策略集合中的混合策略轮廓,< math > u _ i </math > 是参与人 i 的收益函数。定义一个集值函数 < math > r colon Sigma right tarrow 2 ^ Sigma </math > 使得 < math > r = r _ i (Sigma _ i })乘以 r _ {-i }(Sigma _ { i }) </math > 。纳什均衡点的存在相当于有一个不动点。<br />
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Here, <math>\sigma \in \Sigma</math>, where <math>\Sigma = \Sigma_i \times \Sigma_{-i}</math>, is a mixed-strategy profile in the set of all mixed strategies and <math> u_i </math> is the payoff function for player i. Define a [[Multivalued function|set-valued function]] <math>r\colon \Sigma \rightarrow 2^\Sigma </math> such that <math>r = r_i(\sigma_{-i})\times r_{-i}(\sigma_{i}) </math>. The existence of a Nash equilibrium is equivalent to <math>r</math> having a fixed point.<br />
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Kakutani's fixed point theorem guarantees the existence of a fixed point if the following four conditions are satisfied.<br />
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如果满足以下四个条件,则 Kakutani 不动点定理保证了不动点的存在性。<br />
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[[Kakutani fixed-point theorem|Kakutani's fixed point theorem]] guarantees the existence of a fixed point if the following four conditions are satisfied.<br />
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<math> \Sigma</math> is compact, convex, and nonempty.<br />
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是紧凑的,凸的,非空的。<br />
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# <math> \Sigma</math> is compact, convex, and nonempty.<br />
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<math>r(\sigma)</math> is nonempty.<br />
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不是空的。<br />
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# <math>r(\sigma)</math> is nonempty.<br />
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<math>r(\sigma)</math> is upper hemicontinuous<br />
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是上半连续的<br />
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# <math>r(\sigma)</math> is [[Hemicontinuity|upper hemicontinuous]]<br />
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<math>r(\sigma)</math> is convex.<br />
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数学是凸的。<br />
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# <math>r(\sigma)</math> is convex.<br />
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Condition 1. is satisfied from the fact that <math>\Sigma</math> is a simplex and thus compact. Convexity follows from players' ability to mix strategies. <math>\Sigma</math> is nonempty as long as players have strategies.<br />
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条件1. 满足 < math > Sigma </math > 是一个单形,因此是紧凑的。凸性取决于玩家混合策略的能力。只要玩家有策略,σ </math > 就不是空的。<br />
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Condition 1. is satisfied from the fact that <math>\Sigma</math> is a simplex and thus compact. Convexity follows from players' ability to mix strategies. <math>\Sigma</math> is nonempty as long as players have strategies.<br />
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Condition 2. and 3. are satisfied by way of Berge's maximum theorem. Because <math> u_i </math> is continuous and compact, <math> r(\sigma_i) </math> is non-empty and upper hemicontinuous.<br />
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条件2和3通过 Berge 最大值定理得到了满足。因为 < math > u _ i </math > 是连续的和紧凑的,< math > r (sigma _ i) </math > 是非空的和上半连续的。<br />
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Condition 2. and 3. are satisfied by way of Berge's [[maximum theorem]]. Because <math> u_i </math> is continuous and compact, <math> r(\sigma_i) </math> is non-empty and [[Hemicontinuity|upper hemicontinuous]].<br />
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Condition 4. is satisfied as a result of mixed strategies. Suppose <math> \sigma_i, \sigma'_i \in r(\sigma_{-i}) </math>, then <math> \lambda \sigma_i + (1-\lambda) \sigma'_i \in r(\sigma_{-i}) </math>. i.e. if two strategies maximize payoffs, then a mix between the two strategies will yield the same payoff.<br />
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混合策略满足条件4。假设 r (sigma _ {-i }) </math > 中的∑ _ i,∑ _ i,那么 r (sigma _ {-i }) </math > λ _ sigma _ i + (1-lambda)∑ _ i </math > 。也就是。如果两个策略的收益最大化,那么两个策略的混合会产生相同的收益。<br />
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Condition 4. is satisfied as a result of mixed strategies. Suppose <math> \sigma_i, \sigma'_i \in r(\sigma_{-i}) </math>, then <math> \lambda \sigma_i + (1-\lambda) \sigma'_i \in r(\sigma_{-i}) </math>. i.e. if two strategies maximize payoffs, then a mix between the two strategies will yield the same payoff.<br />
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<br />
<br />
Therefore, there exists a fixed point in <math> r </math> and a Nash equilibrium.<br />
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因此,在 < math > r </math > 中存在一个不动点和一个纳什均衡点。<br />
<br />
Therefore, there exists a fixed point in <math> r </math> and a Nash equilibrium.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fudenburg |first=Drew |first2=Jean |last2=Tirole |title=Game Theory |location= |publisher=MIT Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-262-06141-4 }}</ref><br />
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When Nash made this point to John von Neumann in 1949, von Neumann famously dismissed it with the words, "That's trivial, you know. That's just a fixed-point theorem." (See Nasar, 1998, p.&nbsp;94.)<br />
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1949年,当 Nash 向约翰·冯·诺伊曼提出这个观点时,von Neumann 用这样的话驳斥了这个观点: “你知道,这是微不足道的。这只是一个不动点定理。”(见 Nasar,1998,p. 94。)<br />
<br />
When Nash made this point to [[John von Neumann]] in 1949, von Neumann famously dismissed it with the words, "That's trivial, you know. That's just a [[fixed-point theorem]]." (See Nasar, 1998, p.&nbsp;94.)<br />
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=== Alternate proof using the [[Brouwer fixed-point theorem]] 用[[Brouwer不动点定理]]的交替证明===<br />
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We have a game <math>G=(N,A,u)</math> where <math>N</math> is the number of players and <math>A = A_1 \times \cdots \times A_N</math> is the action set for the players. All of the action sets <math>A_i</math> are finite. Let <math>\Delta = \Delta_1 \times \cdots \times \Delta_N</math> denote the set of mixed strategies for the players. The finiteness of the <math>A_i</math>s ensures the compactness of <math>\Delta</math>.<br />
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我们有一个游戏<math>G=(N,A,u)</math>,其中<math>N</math> 是玩家的数目,<math>A = A_1 \times \cdots \times A_N</math>是玩家的动作集合。所有的动作集<math>A_i</math>都是有限的。设 <math>\Delta = \Delta_1 \times \cdots \times \Delta_N</math>表示玩家的混合策略集合。<math>A_i</math>s的有限性保证了<math>\Delta</math>的紧凑性。<br />
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We have a game <math>G=(N,A,u)</math> where <math>N</math> is the number of players and <math>A = A_1 \times \cdots \times A_N</math> is the action set for the players. All of the action sets <math>A_i</math> are finite. Let <math>\Delta = \Delta_1 \times \cdots \times \Delta_N</math> denote the set of mixed strategies for the players. The finiteness of the <math>A_i</math>s ensures the compactness of <math>\Delta</math>.<br />
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We can now define the gain functions. For a mixed strategy <math>\sigma \in \Delta</math>, we let the gain for player <math>i</math> on action <math>a \in A_i</math> be<br />
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我们现在可以定义增益函数了。对于 Delta 中的混合策略 <math>\sigma \in \Delta</math>,我们让玩家<math>i</math>在 <math>a \in A_i</math>行动得分为<br />
<br />
We can now define the gain functions. For a mixed strategy <math>\sigma \in \Delta</math>, we let the gain for player <math>i</math> on action <math>a \in A_i</math> be<br />
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<math>\text{Gain}_i(\sigma,a) = \max \{0, u_i(a, \sigma_{-i}) - u_i(\sigma_{i}, \sigma_{-i})\}.</math><br />
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< math > 文本{ Gain } _ i (sigma,a) = max {0,u _ i (a,sigma _ i })-u _ i (sigma _ { i } ,sigma _ i })}。 </math > <br />
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:<math>\text{Gain}_i(\sigma,a) = \max \{0, u_i(a, \sigma_{-i}) - u_i(\sigma_{i}, \sigma_{-i})\}.</math><br />
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The gain function represents the benefit a player gets by unilaterally changing their strategy. We now define <math>g = (g_1,\dotsc,g_N)</math> where<br />
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增益函数代表玩家通过单方面改变策略而获得的收益。我们现在定义了 <math>g = (g_1,\dotsc,g_N)</math> <br />
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The gain function represents the benefit a player gets by unilaterally changing their strategy. We now define <math>g = (g_1,\dotsc,g_N)</math> where<br />
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<math>g_i(\sigma)(a) = \sigma_i(a) + \text{Gain}_i(\sigma,a)</math><br />
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(a) = sigma _ i (a) + text { Gain } _ i (sigma,a) </math > <br />
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:<math>g_i(\sigma)(a) = \sigma_i(a) + \text{Gain}_i(\sigma,a)</math><br />
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for <math>\sigma \in \Delta, a \in A_i</math>. We see that<br />
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在<math>\sigma \in \Delta, a \in A_i</math>,我们看到<br />
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for <math>\sigma \in \Delta, a \in A_i</math>. We see that<br />
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<math>\sum_{a \in A_i} g_i(\sigma)(a) = \sum_{a \in A_i} \sigma_i(a) + \text{Gain}_i(\sigma,a) = 1 + \sum_{a \in A_i} \text{Gain}_i(\sigma,a) > 0.</math><br />
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(a) = sum _ { a in a _ i } g _ i (sigma)(a) = sum _ a in a _ i } sigma _ i (a) + text { Gain } _ i (sigma,a) = 1 + sum _ { a in a _ i } text { Gain } _ i (sigma,a) > 0<br />
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:<math>\sum_{a \in A_i} g_i(\sigma)(a) = \sum_{a \in A_i} \sigma_i(a) + \text{Gain}_i(\sigma,a) = 1 + \sum_{a \in A_i} \text{Gain}_i(\sigma,a) > 0.</math><br />
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<br />
Next we define:<br />
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接下来我们定义:<br />
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Next we define:<br />
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<math>\begin{cases} f = (f_1, \cdots, f_N) : \Delta \to \Delta \\ f_i(\sigma)(a) = \frac{g_i(\sigma)(a)}{\sum_{b \in A_i} g_i(\sigma)(b)} & a \in A_i \end{cases}</math><br />
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F = (f _ 1,cdots,f _ n) : Delta to Delta f _ i (sigma)(a) = frac { g _ i (sigma)(a)}{ sum _ b in a _ i (sigma)(b)} & a in a _ i end { cases } </math > <br />
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:<math>\begin{cases} f = (f_1, \cdots, f_N) : \Delta \to \Delta \\ f_i(\sigma)(a) = \frac{g_i(\sigma)(a)}{\sum_{b \in A_i} g_i(\sigma)(b)} & a \in A_i \end{cases}</math><br />
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It is easy to see that each <math>f_i</math> is a valid mixed strategy in <math>\Delta_i</math>. It is also easy to check that each <math>f_i</math> is a continuous function of <math>\sigma</math>, and hence <math>f</math> is a continuous function. As the cross product of a finite number of compact convex sets, <math>\Delta</math> is also compact and convex. Applying the Brouwer fixed point theorem to <math>f</math> and <math>\Delta</math> we conclude that <math>f</math> has a fixed point in <math>\Delta</math>, call it <math>\sigma^*</math>. We claim that <math>\sigma^*</math> is a Nash equilibrium in <math>G</math>. For this purpose, it suffices to show that<br />
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很容易看出,每一个 <math>f_i</math>都是 <math>\Delta_i</math>中有效的混合策略。检查每个 <math>f_i</math> 是 <math>\sigma</math>的连续函数也很容易,因此 <math>f</math>是一个连续函数。作为有限个紧凸集的叉积,<math>\Delta</math> 也是紧的和凸的。对<math>f</math> 和 <math>\Delta</math>应用布劳威尔不动点定理,我们得出结论: <math>f</math>在<math>\Delta</math>有一个不动点,叫<math>\sigma^*</math>。我们称 <math>\sigma^*</math> 是 <math>G</math>中的纳什均衡点。对于这个目的,只需要说明<br />
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It is easy to see that each <math>f_i</math> is a valid mixed strategy in <math>\Delta_i</math>. It is also easy to check that each <math>f_i</math> is a continuous function of <math>\sigma</math>, and hence <math>f</math> is a continuous function. As the cross product of a finite number of compact convex sets, <math>\Delta</math> is also compact and convex. Applying the Brouwer fixed point theorem to <math>f</math> and <math>\Delta</math> we conclude that <math>f</math> has a fixed point in <math>\Delta</math>, call it <math>\sigma^*</math>. We claim that <math>\sigma^*</math> is a Nash equilibrium in <math>G</math>. For this purpose, it suffices to show that<br />
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<math> \forall i \in \{1, \cdots, N\}, \forall a \in A_i: \quad \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,a) = 0.</math><br />
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{1,cdots,n } ,for all a in a _ i: quad text { Gain } _ i (sigma ^ * ,a) = 0<br />
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:<math> \forall i \in \{1, \cdots, N\}, \forall a \in A_i: \quad \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,a) = 0.</math><br />
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This simply states that each player gains no benefit by unilaterally changing their strategy, which is exactly the necessary condition for a Nash equilibrium.<br />
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这只是说每个玩家单方面改变他们的策略不会获得任何好处,而这正是纳什均衡点的必要条件。<br />
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This simply states that each player gains no benefit by unilaterally changing their strategy, which is exactly the necessary condition for a Nash equilibrium.<br />
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Now assume that the gains are not all zero. Therefore, <math>\exists i \in \{1, \cdots, N\},</math> and <math>a \in A_i</math> such that <math>\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) > 0</math>. Note then that<br />
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现在假设收益并非全部为零。因此,[ math ]存在于[1,cdots,n } ,</math > 和 < math > a </math > 中,以至于 < math > > > text { Gain } i (sigma ^ * ,a) > 0 </math > 。请注意<br />
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Now assume that the gains are not all zero. Therefore, <math>\exists i \in \{1, \cdots, N\},</math> and <math>a \in A_i</math> such that <math>\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) > 0</math>. Note then that<br />
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<math> \sum_{a \in A_i} g_i(\sigma^*, a) = 1 + \sum_{a \in A_i} \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,a) > 1.</math><br />
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< math > sum _ { a in a _ i } g _ i (sigma ^ * ,a) = 1 + sum _ { a in a _ i } text { Gain } _ i (sigma ^ * ,a) > 1. </math > <br />
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:<math> \sum_{a \in A_i} g_i(\sigma^*, a) = 1 + \sum_{a \in A_i} \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,a) > 1.</math><br />
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So let<br />
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所以,让我们<br />
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So let<br />
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<math>C = \sum_{a \in A_i} g_i(\sigma^*, a).</math><br />
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C = sum _ { a in a _ i } g _ i (sigma ^ * ,a) <br />
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:<math>C = \sum_{a \in A_i} g_i(\sigma^*, a).</math><br />
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Also we shall denote <math>\text{Gain}(i,\cdot)</math> as the gain vector indexed by actions in <math>A_i</math>. Since <math>\sigma^*</math> is the fixed point we have:<br />
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此外,我们还将表示 < math > text { Gain }(i,cdot) </math > 作为 < math > a _ i </math > 中按操作索引的增益向量。自从 < math > sigma ^ * </math > 是我们有的固定点:<br />
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Also we shall denote <math>\text{Gain}(i,\cdot)</math> as the gain vector indexed by actions in <math>A_i</math>. Since <math>\sigma^*</math> is the fixed point we have:<br />
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<math>\begin{align}<br />
<br />
1.1.1.2.2.2.2.2.2.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3<br />
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:<math>\begin{align}<br />
<br />
\sigma^* = f(\sigma^*) &\Rightarrow \sigma^*_i = f_i(\sigma^*) \\<br />
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Sigma ^ * = f (sigma ^ *) & right tarrow sigma ^ * i = f _ i (sigma ^ *)<br />
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\sigma^* = f(\sigma^*) &\Rightarrow \sigma^*_i = f_i(\sigma^*) \\<br />
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&\Rightarrow \sigma^*_i = \frac{g_i(\sigma^*)}{\sum_{a \in A_i} g_i(\sigma^*)(a)} \\ [6pt]<br />
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& right tarrow sigma ^ * i = frac { g _ i (sigma ^ *)}{ sum _ { a in a _ i } g _ i (sigma ^ *)(a)}[6 pt ]<br />
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&\Rightarrow \sigma^*_i = \frac{g_i(\sigma^*)}{\sum_{a \in A_i} g_i(\sigma^*)(a)} \\ [6pt]<br />
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&\Rightarrow \sigma^*_i = \frac{1}{C} \left (\sigma^*_i + \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,\cdot) \right ) \\ [6pt]<br />
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& right tarrow sigma ^ * i = frac {1}{ c } left (sigma ^ * i + text { Gain } i (sigma ^ * ,cdot) right)[6 pt ]<br />
<br />
&\Rightarrow \sigma^*_i = \frac{1}{C} \left (\sigma^*_i + \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,\cdot) \right ) \\ [6pt]<br />
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&\Rightarrow C\sigma^*_i = \sigma^*_i + \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,\cdot) \\<br />
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& right tarrow c sigma ^ * _ i = sigma ^ * _ i + text { Gain } _ i (sigma ^ * ,cdot)<br />
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&\Rightarrow C\sigma^*_i = \sigma^*_i + \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,\cdot) \\<br />
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&\Rightarrow \left(C-1\right)\sigma^*_i = \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,\cdot) \\<br />
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& right tarrow left (C-1 right) sigma ^ * _ i = text { Gain } _ i (sigma ^ * ,cdot)<br />
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&\Rightarrow \left(C-1\right)\sigma^*_i = \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,\cdot) \\<br />
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&\Rightarrow \sigma^*_i = \left(\frac{1}{C-1}\right)\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,\cdot).<br />
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& right tarrow sigma ^ * _ i = left (frac {1}{ C-1} right) text { Gain } _ i (sigma ^ * ,cdot).<br />
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&\Rightarrow \sigma^*_i = \left(\frac{1}{C-1}\right)\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,\cdot).<br />
<br />
\end{align}</math><br />
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结束{ align } </math ><br />
<br />
\end{align}</math><br />
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Since <math>C > 1</math> we have that <math>\sigma^*_i</math> is some positive scaling of the vector <math>\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,\cdot)</math>. Now we claim that<br />
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由于 < math > c > 1 </math > 我们知道 < math > sigma ^ * i </math > 是向量 < math > text { Gain } i (sigma ^ * ,cdot) </math > 的某种正比例缩放。现在我们声称<br />
<br />
Since <math>C > 1</math> we have that <math>\sigma^*_i</math> is some positive scaling of the vector <math>\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*,\cdot)</math>. Now we claim that<br />
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<math>\forall a \in A_i: \quad \sigma^*_i(a)(u_i(a_i, \sigma^*_{-i}) - u_i(\sigma^*_i, \sigma^*_{-i})) = \sigma^*_i(a)\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) </math><br />
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对于 a _ i 中的所有 a: quad sigma ^ * _ i (a _ i,sigma ^ * _ {-i })-u _ i (sigma ^ * _ i,sigma ^ * _ {-i }) = sigma ^ * _ i (a) text { Gain } _ i (sigma ^ * * ,a) </math > <br />
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:<math>\forall a \in A_i: \quad \sigma^*_i(a)(u_i(a_i, \sigma^*_{-i}) - u_i(\sigma^*_i, \sigma^*_{-i})) = \sigma^*_i(a)\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) </math><br />
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To see this, we first note that if <math>\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) > 0</math> then this is true by definition of the gain function. Now assume that <math>\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) = 0</math>. By our previous statements we have that<br />
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为了看到这一点,我们首先注意到,如果 < math > text { Gain } _ i (sigma ^ * ,a) > 0 </math > ,那么根据 Gain 函数的定义,这是正确的。现在假设 < math > text { Gain } _ i (sigma ^ * ,a) = 0 </math > 。根据我们之前的陈述,我们已经知道了<br />
<br />
To see this, we first note that if <math>\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) > 0</math> then this is true by definition of the gain function. Now assume that <math>\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) = 0</math>. By our previous statements we have that<br />
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<math>\sigma^*_i(a) = \left(\frac{1}{C-1}\right)\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) = 0 </math><br />
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< math > sigma ^ * i (a) = left (frac {1}{ C-1} right) text { Gain } _ i (sigma ^ * ,a) = 0 </math > <br />
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:<math>\sigma^*_i(a) = \left(\frac{1}{C-1}\right)\text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) = 0 </math><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
and so the left term is zero, giving us that the entire expression is <math>0</math> as needed.<br />
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所以左边的项是零,表示整个表达式是 < math > 0 </math > 。<br />
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and so the left term is zero, giving us that the entire expression is <math>0</math> as needed.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
So we finally have that<br />
<br />
所以我们最终得到了这个<br />
<br />
So we finally have that<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<math>\begin{align}<br />
<br />
1.1.1.2.2.2.2.2.2.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3<br />
<br />
:<math>\begin{align}<br />
<br />
0 &= u_i(\sigma^*_i, \sigma^*_{-i}) - u_i(\sigma^*_i, \sigma^*_{-i}) \\<br />
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0 & = u _ i (sigma ^ * _ i,sigma ^ * _ {-i })-u _ i (sigma ^ * _ i,sigma ^ * _ {-i })<br />
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0 &= u_i(\sigma^*_i, \sigma^*_{-i}) - u_i(\sigma^*_i, \sigma^*_{-i}) \\<br />
<br />
&= \left(\sum_{a \in A_i} \sigma^*_i(a)u_i(a_i, \sigma^*_{-i})\right) - u_i(\sigma^*_i, \sigma^*_{-i}) \\<br />
<br />
& = left (sum _ { a in a _ i } sigma ^ * _ i (a _ i,sigma ^ * _ {-i }) right)-u _ i (sigma ^ * _ i,sigma ^ * _ {-i })<br />
<br />
&= \left(\sum_{a \in A_i} \sigma^*_i(a)u_i(a_i, \sigma^*_{-i})\right) - u_i(\sigma^*_i, \sigma^*_{-i}) \\<br />
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& = \sum_{a \in A_i} \sigma^*_i(a) (u_i(a_i, \sigma^*_{-i}) - u_i(\sigma^*_i, \sigma^*_{-i})) \\ <br />
<br />
& = sum _ { a in a _ i } sigma ^ * _ i (u _ i (a _ i,sigma ^ * _ {-i })-u _ i (sigma ^ * _ i,sigma ^ * _ {-i }))<br />
<br />
& = \sum_{a \in A_i} \sigma^*_i(a) (u_i(a_i, \sigma^*_{-i}) - u_i(\sigma^*_i, \sigma^*_{-i})) \\ <br />
<br />
& = \sum_{a \in A_i} \sigma^*_i(a) \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) && \text{ by the previous statements } \\<br />
<br />
和 = sum _ { a in a _ i } sigma ^ * _ i (a) text { Gain } _ i (sigma ^ * ,a) & text { by the previous statements }<br />
<br />
& = \sum_{a \in A_i} \sigma^*_i(a) \text{Gain}_i(\sigma^*, a) && \text{ by the previous statements } \\<br />
<br />
&= \sum_{a \in A_i} \left( C -1 \right) \sigma^*_i(a)^2 > 0<br />
<br />
& = sum _ { a in a _ i } left (c-1 right) sigma ^ * _ i (a) ^ 2 > 0<br />
<br />
&= \sum_{a \in A_i} \left( C -1 \right) \sigma^*_i(a)^2 > 0<br />
<br />
\end{align}</math><br />
<br />
结束{ align } </math ><br />
<br />
\end{align}</math><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
where the last inequality follows since <math>\sigma^*_i</math> is a non-zero vector. But this is a clear contradiction, so all the gains must indeed be zero. Therefore, <math>\sigma^*</math> is a Nash equilibrium for <math>G</math> as needed.<br />
<br />
最后一个不等式是一个非零向量。但这是一个明显的矛盾,因此所有的收益必然是零。因此,如果需要的话,sigma ^ * </math > 是 < math > g </math > 的纳什均衡点。<br />
<br />
where the last inequality follows since <math>\sigma^*_i</math> is a non-zero vector. But this is a clear contradiction, so all the gains must indeed be zero. Therefore, <math>\sigma^*</math> is a Nash equilibrium for <math>G</math> as needed.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Computing Nash equilibria 计算纳什均衡==<br />
<br />
If a player A has a dominant strategy <math>s_A</math> then there exists a Nash equilibrium in which A plays <math>s_A</math>. In the case of two players A and B, there exists a Nash equilibrium in which A plays <math>s_A</math> and B plays a best response to <math>s_A</math>. If <math>s_A</math> is a strictly dominant strategy, A plays <math>s_A</math> in all Nash equilibria. If both A and B have strictly dominant strategies, there exists a unique Nash equilibrium in which each plays their strictly dominant strategy.<br />
<br />
如果一个玩家A有一个支配策略<math>s_A</math> ,那么存在一个纳什均衡,在这个均衡中A选<math>s_A</math>。在两个博弈者A和B的情况下,存在一个纳什均衡,其中A选<math>s_A</math>,B对<math>s_A</math>的反应最好。如果 <math>s_A</math>是严格占优策略,则A在所有的Nash均衡中扮演<math>s_A</math> 。如果A和B都有严格的占优策略,则存在一个唯一的纳什均衡,在这个均衡中,每个人都发挥各自的严格占优策略。<br />
<br />
If a player A has a [[dominant strategy]] <math>s_A</math> then there exists a Nash equilibrium in which A plays <math>s_A</math>. In the case of two players A and B, there exists a Nash equilibrium in which A plays <math>s_A</math> and B plays a best response to <math>s_A</math>. If <math>s_A</math> is a strictly dominant strategy, A plays <math>s_A</math> in all Nash equilibria. If both A and B have strictly dominant strategies, there exists a unique Nash equilibrium in which each plays their strictly dominant strategy.<br />
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In games with mixed-strategy Nash equilibria, the probability of a player choosing any particular (so pure) strategy can be computed by assigning a variable to each strategy that represents a fixed probability for choosing that strategy. In order for a player to be willing to randomize, their expected payoff for each (pure) strategy should be the same. In addition, the sum of the probabilities for each strategy of a particular player should be 1. This creates a system of equations from which the probabilities of choosing each strategy can be derived.<br />
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在含有混合策略纳什均衡的博弈中,参与者选择任何特定策略(如此纯粹)的概率可以通过为每个策略分配一个变量来计算,该变量表示选择该策略的固定概率。为了使玩家愿意随机化,他们对每个(纯)策略的期望收益应该是相同的。此外,一个特定参与人的每个策略的概率之和应该是1。这就产生了一个方程组,从中可以推导出选择每种策略的概率。<br />
<br />
In games with mixed-strategy Nash equilibria, the probability of a player choosing any particular (so pure) strategy can be computed by assigning a variable to each strategy that represents a fixed probability for choosing that strategy. In order for a player to be willing to randomize, their expected payoff for each (pure) strategy should be the same. In addition, the sum of the probabilities for each strategy of a particular player should be 1. This creates a system of equations from which the probabilities of choosing each strategy can be derived.<ref name="preliminaries" /><br />
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=== Examples 样例===<br />
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{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" class="wikitable floatright"<br />
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{ | border = “1” cellpadding = “4” cellspacing = “0” style = “ margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: # f9f9f9; border: 1px # aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95% ; class = “ wikitable floatright”<br />
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{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" class="wikitable floatright"<br />
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|+ align=bottom |Matching pennies<br />
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| + align = bottom | Matching penny<br />
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|+ align=bottom |''Matching pennies''<br />
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! <br />
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!<br />
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! {{diagonal split header|Player A|Player B}}<br />
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!Player B plays H<br />
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! 玩家 b 扮演 h<br />
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!Player B plays H<br />
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!Player B plays T<br />
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! 玩家 b 玩 t<br />
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!Player B plays T<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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!Player A plays H<br />
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! 参与人 a 扮演 h<br />
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!Player A plays H<br />
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|align=center|−1, +1<br />
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|align=center|−1, +1<br />
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|align=center|−1, +1<br />
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|align=center|+1, −1<br />
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|align=center|+1, −1<br />
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|align=center|+1, −1<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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!Player A plays T<br />
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! 参与人 a 扮演 t<br />
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!Player A plays T<br />
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|align=center|+1, −1<br />
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|align=center|+1, −1<br />
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|align=center|+1, −1<br />
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|align=center|−1, +1<br />
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|align=center|−1, +1<br />
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|align=center|−1, +1<br />
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In the matching pennies game, player A loses a point to B if A and B play the same strategy and wins a point from B if they play different strategies. To compute the mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium, assign A the probability p of playing H and (1−p) of playing T, and assign B the probability q of playing H and (1−q) of playing T.<br />
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在匹配的便士游戏中,如果 A 和 B 采用相同的策略并且如果他们采用不同的策略则赢得 B 的一分,那么 A 就会输给 B 一分。为了计算混合策略纳什均衡点,给 A 赋予 T 的策略 H 和(1-p)的概率 p,给 B 赋予 T 的策略 H 和(1-q)的概率 q。<br />
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In the matching pennies game, player A loses a point to B if A and B play the same strategy and wins a point from B if they play different strategies. To compute the mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium, assign A the probability ''p'' of playing H and (1−''p'') of playing T, and assign B the probability ''q'' of playing H and (1−''q'') of playing T.<br />
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E[payoff for A playing H] = (−1)q + (+1)(1−q) = 1−2q<br />
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E [ a 演奏 h 的收益] = (- 1) q + (+ 1)(1-q) = 1-2q<br />
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:E[payoff for A playing H] = (−1)''q'' + (+1)(1−''q'') = 1−2''q''<br />
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E[payoff for A playing T] = (+1)q + (−1)(1−q) = 2q−1<br />
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E [ a 演奏 t 的收益] = (+ 1) q + (- 1)(1-q) = 2q-1<br />
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:E[payoff for A playing T] = (+1)''q'' + (−1)(1−''q'') = 2''q''−1<br />
<br />
E[payoff for A playing H] = E[payoff for A playing T] ⇒ 1−2q = 2q−1 ⇒ q = 1/2<br />
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E [ a 玩 h 的收益] = e [ a 玩 t 的收益] something 1-2q = 2q-1 something q = 1/2<br />
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:E[payoff for A playing H] = E[payoff for A playing T] ⇒ 1−2''q'' = 2''q''−1 ⇒ ''q'' = 1/2<br />
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E[payoff for B playing H] = (+1)p + (−1)(1−p) = 2p−1<br />
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E [ b 参与 h 的收益] = (+ 1) p + (- 1)(1-p) = 2p-1<br />
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:E[payoff for B playing H] = (+1)''p'' + (−1)(1−''p'') = 2''p''−1<br />
<br />
E[payoff for B playing T] = (−1)p + (+1)(1−p) = 1−2p<br />
<br />
E [ b 参与 t 的收益] = (- 1) p + (+ 1)(1-p) = 1-2p<br />
<br />
:E[payoff for B playing T] = (−1)''p'' + (+1)(1−''p'') = 1−2''p''<br />
<br />
E[payoff for B playing H] = E[payoff for B playing T] ⇒ 2p−1 = 1−2p ⇒ p = 1/2<br />
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E [ b 参与 h 的收益] = e [ b 参与 t 的收益]2p-1 = 1-2p something p = 1/2<br />
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:E[payoff for B playing H] = E[payoff for B playing T] ⇒ 2''p''−1 = 1−2''p'' ⇒ ''p'' = 1/2<br />
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Thus a mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium, in this game, is for each player to randomly choose H or T with p = 1/2 and q = 1/2.<br />
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因此在这个博弈中,一个混合策略的纳什均衡点是让每个参与者随机选择 p = 1/2和 q = 1/2的 h 或 t。<br />
<br />
Thus a mixed-strategy Nash equilibrium, in this game, is for each player to randomly choose H or T with p = 1/2 and q = 1/2.<br />
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== See also 又及==<br />
<br />
{{div col}}<br />
<br />
* {{annotated link|Adjusted winner procedure}}<br />
*{{注释链接 |调整优胜者程序}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Complementarity theory}}<br />
*{{注释链接{互补理论}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Conflict resolution research}}<br />
*{{带注释的链接{冲突解决研究}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Cooperation}}<br />
*{{带注释的链接|合作}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Equilibrium selection}}<br />
*{{带注释的链接|均衡选择}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Evolutionarily stable strategy}} <br />
*{{带注释的链接{进化稳定策略}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Glossary of game theory}}<br />
*{{带注释的链接{博弈论词汇表}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Hotelling's law}}<br />
*{{带注释的链接|霍特林定律}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Manipulated Nash equilibrium}}<br />
*{{带注释的链接{操纵纳什均衡}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Mexican standoff}}<br />
*{{带注释的链接{墨西哥对峙}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Minimax theorem}}<br />
*{{带注释的链接{极小极大定理}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Mutual assured destruction}}<br />
*{{带注释的链接{互保销毁}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Extended Mathematical Programming#Equilibrium Problems|Extended Mathematical Programming for Equilibrium Problems}}<br />
*{{注释链接 |扩展数学规划#均衡问题|均衡问题的扩展数学规划}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Optimum contract and par contract}} <br />
*{{注释链接 |最优契约与par契约}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Self-confirming equilibrium}}<br />
*{{注释链接{自我确认平衡}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Solution concept}}<br />
*{{注释链接|解决方案概念}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Stackelberg competition}}<br />
*{{注释链接|斯塔克伯格竞赛}}<br />
* {{annotated link|Wardrop's principle}}<br />
*{{注释链接 |沃德罗普原理}}<br />
{{div col end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Notes 备注==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist|30em}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References 索引==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Game theory textbooks博弈论教科书===<br />
<br />
{{Refbegin}}<br />
<br />
* Dixit, Avinash, Susan Skeath and David Reiley. Games of Strategy. W.W. Norton & Company. (Third edition in 2009)<br />
*迪克西,阿维纳什,苏珊·斯凯斯和大卫·赖利。战略游戏。W、 诺顿公司。(2009年第三版)<br />
* {{Citation | last1=Dutta | first1=Prajit K. | title=Strategies and games: theory and practice | publisher=[[MIT Press]] | isbn=978-0-262-04169-0 | year=1999}}. Suitable for undergraduate and business students.<br />
*{{引文| last1=Dutta|first1=Prajit K.| title=策略与游戏:理论与实践| publisher=[[MIT Press]]| isbn=978-0-262-04169-0 | year=1999}。适合本科生和商科学生。<br />
* Fudenberg, Drew and [[Jean Tirole]] (1991) ''Game Theory'' MIT Press.<br />
*Fudenberg,Drew和[[Jean Tirole]](1991)“博弈论”,麻省理工学院出版社。<br />
* {{Citation | last2=Shoham | first2=Yoav | last1=Leyton-Brown | first1=Kevin | title=Essentials of Game Theory: A Concise, Multidisciplinary Introduction | publisher=Morgan & Claypool Publishers | isbn=978-1-59829-593-1 | url=http://www.gtessentials.org | year=2008 | location=San Rafael, CA}}. An 88-page mathematical introduction; see Chapter 2. [http://www.morganclaypool.com/doi/abs/10.2200/S00108ED1V01Y200802AIM003 Free online] at many universities.<br />
*{Citation | last2=Shoham | first2=Yoav | last1=Leyton Brown | first1=Kevin | title=Essentials of Game Theory:简明、多学科的介绍| publisher=Morgan&Claypool Publishers | isbn=978-1-59829-593-1 |网址=http://www.gtessentials.org|加利福尼亚州圣年,拉斐尔=1242008年。88页的数学导论;见第二章。[http://www.morganclaypool.com/doi/abs/10.2200/s0108ed1v01y200802aim003免费在线]在许多大学。<br />
* [[Oskar Morgenstern|Morgenstern, Oskar]] and [[John von Neumann]] (1947) ''The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior'' Princeton University Press<br />
*[[Oskar Morgenstern | Morgenstern,Oskar]]和[[John von Neumann]](1947)“博弈论和经济行为”,普林斯顿大学出版社<br />
* {{Citation | last1=Myerson | first1=Roger B. | author1-link=Roger Myerson | title=Game theory: analysis of conflict | publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] | isbn=978-0-674-34116-6 | year=1997}}<br />
*{Citation | last1=Myerson | first1=Roger B.| author1 link=Roger Myerson | title=博弈论:冲突分析| publisher=[[哈佛大学出版社]]| isbn=978-0-674-34116-6 |年份=1997}<br />
* {{Citation | last1=Papayoanou | first1=Paul | author1-link=Paul Papayoanou | title=Game Theory for Business: A Primer in Strategic Gaming | publisher=[[Probabilistic Publishing]] | isbn=978-0964793873 | year=2010}}<br />
*{Citation | last1=Papayoanou | first1=Paul | author1 link=Paul Papayoanou | title=博弈论:战略博弈的入门| publisher=[[概率出版]]| isbn=978-0964793873 | year=2010}<br />
* {{Citation | last1=Rubinstein | first1=Ariel | author1-link=Ariel Rubinstein | last2=Osborne | first2=Martin J. | title=A course in game theory | publisher=[[MIT Press]] | isbn=978-0-262-65040-3 | year=1994}}. A modern introduction at the graduate level.<br />
*{引文| last1=Rubinstein | first1=Ariel | author1 link=Ariel Rubinstein | last2=Osborne | first2=Martin J.| title=博弈论课程| publisher=[[MIT Press]]| isbn=978-0-262-65040-3 | year=1994}。研究生阶段的现代介绍。<br />
* {{Citation | last1=Shoham | first1=Yoav | last2=Leyton-Brown | first2=Kevin | title=Multiagent Systems: Algorithmic, Game-Theoretic, and Logical Foundations | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | isbn=978-0-521-89943-7 | url=http://www.masfoundations.org | year=2009 | location=New York}}. A comprehensive reference from a computational perspective; see Chapter 3. [http://www.masfoundations.org/download.html Downloadable free online].<br />
*{Citation | last1=Shoham | first1=Yoav | last2=Leyton Brown | first2=Kevin | title=多智能体系统:算法、博弈论和逻辑基础| publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]| isbn=978-0-521-89943-7 |网址=http://www.masfoundations.org|年份=2009年|地点=纽约}。从计算角度的综合参考;见第三章。[http://www.masfoundations.org/download.html在线免费下载]。<br />
* {{Citation | last1=Gibbons| first1=Robert | title=Game Theory for Applied Economists | publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] (July 13, 1992) | isbn=978-0-691-00395-5 | year=1992}}. Lucid and detailed introduction to game theory in an explicitly economic context.<br />
*{Citation | last1=Gibbons | first1=Robert | title=应用经济学家的博弈论| publisher=[[Princeton University Press]](1992年7月13日)| isbn=978-0-691-00395-5 | year=1992}。在明确的经济背景下清晰而详细地介绍博弈论。<br />
* {{Citation | last1=Osborne| first1=Martin| title=An introduction to game theory | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | isbn=978-0-19-512895-6 | year=2004}}. Introduction to Nash equilibrium.<br />
*{Citation | last1=Osborne|first1=Martin|title=博弈论导论| publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]| isbn=978-0-19-512895-6 | year=2004}。纳什均衡导论。<br />
* {{Citation | last1=Binmore| first1=Ken| title=Playing for Real: A Text on Game Theory | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | isbn=978-0195300574 | year=2007}}.<br />
*{Citation | last1=Binmore | first1=Ken | title=Playing for Real:博弈论文本| publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]| isbn=978-0195300574 | year=2007}。<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Original Nash papers纳什原创论文===<br />
<br />
{{Refbegin}}<br />
<br />
* [[John Forbes Nash|Nash, John]] (1950) "Equilibrium points in n-person games" ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]'' 36(1):48-49.<br />
*[[John Forbes Nash | Nash,John]](1950)“n人博弈中的均衡点”'[[National Academy of Sciences]]''36(1):48-49。<br />
* [[John Forbes Nash|Nash, John]] (1951) "Non-Cooperative Games" ''[[The Annals of Mathematics]]'' 54(2):286-295.<br />
*约翰·福布斯·纳什·纳什(John Forbes Nash | Nash,John]](1951年)“非合作博弈”'[[数学年鉴]]''54(2):286-295。<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Other references其他文献===<br />
<br />
{{Refbegin}}<br />
<br />
* Mehlmann, A. (2000) ''The Game's Afoot! Game Theory in Myth and Paradox'', [[American Mathematical Society]].<br />
*Mehlmann,A.(2000)“游戏开始了!神话与悖论中的博弈论”,[[American Mathematic Society]]。<br />
* [[Sylvia Nasar|Nasar, Sylvia]] (1998), ''[[A Beautiful Mind (book)|A Beautiful Mind]]'', [[Simon & Schuster]].<br />
*[[Sylvia Nasar | Nasar,Sylvia]](1998年),“[[美丽的心灵(书)|美丽的心灵]]”,[[Simon&Schuster]]。<br />
{{Refend}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
== External links 外部链接==<br />
<br />
* {{springer|title=Nash theorem (in game theory)|id=p/n066040}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090909155608/http://wiki.cc.gatech.edu/theory/index.php/Nash_equilibrium Complete Proof of Existence of Nash Equilibria]<br />
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* [https://unomaha.academia.edu/NAljaddou Simplified Form and Related Results]<br />
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{{Game theory}}<br />
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Nash Equilibrium}}<br />
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Category:Game theory equilibrium concepts<br />
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范畴: 博弈论均衡概念<br />
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[[Category:Game theory equilibrium concepts]]<br />
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Category:Fixed points (mathematics)<br />
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类别: 定点(数学)<br />
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[[Category:Fixed points (mathematics)]]<br />
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Category:1951 in economics<br />
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分类: 1951年经济学<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Nash equilibrium]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[纳什均衡/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<small>此页摘自[[维基百科:英语:纳什均衡]]。它的编辑历史可以在[[纳什均衡/编辑历史记录]]查阅</small></noinclude><br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E8%87%AA%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87%E4%B8%B4%E7%95%8C%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6&diff=17915自组织临界控制2020-11-05T12:44:48Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由Henry翻译。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])类似这样的问题页面后续拿到第一时间向我反映<br />
In [[applied physics]], the concept of '''controlling self-organized criticality''' refers to the control of processes by which a [[self-organized]] system dissipates [[energy]]. The objective of the control is to reduce the probability of occurrence of and size of [[energy dissipation]] bursts, often called ''avalanches'', of self-organized systems. Dissipation of energy in a [[self-organized criticality|self-organized critical]] system into a lower energy state can be costly for society, since it depends on avalanches of all sizes usually following a kind of [[power law]] distribution and large avalanches can be damaging and disruptive.<br />
<br />
In applied physics, the concept of controlling self-organized criticality refers to the control of processes by which a self-organized system dissipates energy. The objective of the control is to reduce the probability of occurrence of and size of energy dissipation bursts, often called avalanches, of self-organized systems. Dissipation of energy in a self-organized critical system into a lower energy state can be costly for society, since it depends on avalanches of all sizes usually following a kind of power law distribution and large avalanches can be damaging and disruptive.<br />
<br />
在应用物理学中,<font color="#ff8000"> 控制自组织临界性Controlling self-organized criticality</font>的概念是指控制自组织系统消耗能量的过程。这种控制的目的是减少自组织系统发生能量耗散爆发(通常称为雪崩)的概率和规模。将一个自我组织的临界系统中的能量耗散转变到较低的能量状态对社会来说可能是代价高昂的,因为它依赖于各种规模的雪崩,这些雪崩通常遵循一种<font color="#ff8000"> 幂律分布Power law distribution</font>,大规模雪崩可能具有破坏性和破坏性。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])<font color="#ff8000"> 控制自组织临界性Controlling self-organized criticality</font>的概念是指控制自组织系统消耗能量的过程。 这句话是不是有重复<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Schemes ==<br />
<br />
== Schemes ==<br />
<br />
计划<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Several strategies have been proposed to deal with the issue of controlling self-organized criticality:<br />
<br />
Several strategies have been proposed to deal with the issue of controlling self-organized criticality:<br />
<br />
有人提出了几个策略来处理控制自组织临界性的问题:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
#''The design of controlled avalanches.'' [[Daniel O. Cajueiro]] and [[Roberto F. S. Andrade]] show that if well-formulated small and medium avalanches are exogenously triggered in the system, the energy of the system is released in a way that large avalanches are rarer.<ref name="cajand10a" /><ref name="cajand10b" /><ref name="cajand10c" /><br />
<br />
The design of controlled avalanches. Daniel O. Cajueiro and Roberto F. S. Andrade show that if well-formulated small and medium avalanches are exogenously triggered in the system, the energy of the system is released in a way that large avalanches are rarer.<br />
<br />
控制雪崩的设计 Daniel O. Cajueiro和Roberto F. S. Andrade的研究表明,如果配方良好的中小规模雪崩是由系统外部触发的,那么系统的能量释放方式将使大规模雪崩更为罕见。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])如果配方良好的中小规模雪崩是由系统外部触发的, 重译<br />
#'' The modification of the degree of interdependence of the network where the avalanche spreads.'' [[Charles D. Brummitt]], [[Raissa M. D'Souza]] and [[E. A. Leicht]] show that the dynamics of self-organized critical systems on [[complex network]]s depend on connectivity of the complex network. They find that while some connectivity is beneficial (since it suppresses the largest cascades in the system), too much connectivity gives space for the development of very large cascades and increases the size of capacity of the system.<ref name=brum12>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
The modification of the degree of interdependence of the network where the avalanche spreads. Charles D. Brummitt, Raissa M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht show that the dynamics of self-organized critical systems on complex networks depend on connectivity of the complex network. They find that while some connectivity is beneficial (since it suppresses the largest cascades in the system), too much connectivity gives space for the development of very large cascades and increases the size of capacity of the system.<ref name=brum12>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
雪崩蔓延地区网络相互依赖程度的修正:Charles D. Brummitt,Raissa M. D'Souza和 E. A. Leicht 证明了复杂网络上自组织临界系统的动力学依赖于复杂网络的连通性。他们发现,虽然有些连通性是有益的(因为它压制了系统中最大的级联) ,但过多的连通性为非常大的级联的发展提供了空间,并增加了系统的容量。<br />
<br />
| author = C. D. Brummitt, R. M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht<br />
<br />
| author = C. D. Brummitt, R. M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht<br />
<br />
作者 c. d. Brummitt,r. m. d’ souza and e. a. Leicht<br />
<br />
| year = 2012<br />
<br />
| year = 2012<br />
<br />
2012年<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades of load in interdependent networks<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades of load in interdependent networks<br />
<br />
在相互依赖的网络中抑制负载级联<br />
<br />
| journal = PNAS<br />
<br />
| journal = PNAS<br />
<br />
美国科学院院刊<br />
<br />
| volume = 109<br />
<br />
| volume = 109<br />
<br />
第109卷<br />
<br />
| pages = E680–E689<br />
<br />
| pages = E680–E689<br />
<br />
| 页 E680-E689<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1073/pnas.1110586109<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1073/pnas.1110586109<br />
<br />
10.1073 / pnas. 1110586109<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
| pmid=22355144<br />
<br />
| pmid=22355144<br />
<br />
22355144<br />
<br />
| pmc=3311366}}</ref><br />
<br />
| pmc=3311366}}</ref><br />
<br />
3311366} / ref<br />
<br />
#'' The modification of the deposition process of the self-organized system.'' [[Pierre-Andre Noel]], Charles D. Brummitt and Raissa M. D'Souza show that it is possible to control the self-organized system by modifying the natural deposition process of the self-organized system adjusting the place where the avalanche starts.<ref name=noel13>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
The modification of the deposition process of the self-organized system. Pierre-Andre Noel, Charles D. Brummitt and Raissa M. D'Souza show that it is possible to control the self-organized system by modifying the natural deposition process of the self-organized system adjusting the place where the avalanche starts.<ref name=noel13>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
自组织系统沉积工艺的改进。 Pierre-Andre Noel、Charles D. Brummitt和Raissa M. D'Souza 指出,通过改变自组织系统的自然沉积过程,调整雪崩开始的位置,可以控制自组织系统。<br />
<br />
| author = P. A. Noel, C. D. Brummitt and R. M. D'Souza<br />
<br />
| author = P. A. Noel, C. D. Brummitt and R. M. D'Souza<br />
<br />
作者 p. a. Noel,c. d. Brummitt and r. m. d’ souza<br />
<br />
| year = 2013<br />
<br />
| year = 2013<br />
<br />
2013年<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality on networks using models that self-organize<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality on networks using models that self-organize<br />
<br />
| 标题使用自组织模型控制网络上的自组织临界性<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review Letters<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review Letters<br />
<br />
物理评论快报<br />
<br />
| volume = 111<br />
<br />
| volume = 111<br />
<br />
第111卷<br />
<br />
| pages = 078701<br />
<br />
| pages = 078701<br />
<br />
078701页<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physrevlett.111.078701<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physrevlett.111.078701<br />
<br />
10.1103 / physrvlett. 111.078701<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
| pmid=23992086}}</ref><br />
<br />
| pmid=23992086}}</ref><br />
<br />
23992086} / ref<br />
<br />
#'' Dynamically modifying the local thresholds of cascading failures.'' In a model of an electric transmission network, Heiko Hoffmann and David W. Payton demonstrated that either randomly upgrading lines (sort of like preventive maintenance) or upgrading broken lines to a random breakage threshold suppresses self-organized criticality.<ref name=hh2014>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
Dynamically modifying the local thresholds of cascading failures. In a model of an electric transmission network, Heiko Hoffmann and David W. Payton demonstrated that either randomly upgrading lines (sort of like preventive maintenance) or upgrading broken lines to a random breakage threshold suppresses self-organized criticality.<ref name=hh2014>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
动态修改级联故障的局部阈值;在一个电力传输网络模型中, Heiko Hoffmann 和 David W. Payton 证明,要么随机升级线路(类似于预防性维护) ,要么将破损线路升级到随机破损阈值抑制自组织临界性。 <br />
--~~~人名第一次出现用中文 后续用英文<br />
2014{ cite journal<br />
<br />
| author = H. Hoffmann and D. W. Payton<br />
<br />
| author = H. Hoffmann and D. W. Payton<br />
<br />
作者 h. 霍夫曼和 d. w. 佩顿<br />
<br />
| year = 2014<br />
<br />
| year = 2014<br />
<br />
2014年<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades in a self-organized-critical model with non-contiguous spread of failures<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades in a self-organized-critical model with non-contiguous spread of failures<br />
<br />
在具有非连续分布故障的自组织临界模型中抑制级联<br />
<br />
| journal = Chaos, Solitons and Fractals<br />
<br />
| journal = Chaos, Solitons and Fractals<br />
<br />
混沌,孤子和分形<br />
<br />
| volume = 67<br />
<br />
| volume = 67<br />
<br />
第67卷<br />
<br />
| pages = 87–93<br />
<br />
| pages = 87–93<br />
<br />
第87-93页<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1016/j.chaos.2014.06.011<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1016/j.chaos.2014.06.011<br />
<br />
10.1016 / j.chaos. 2014.06.011<br />
<br />
| bibcode = 2014CSF....67...87H<br />
<br />
| bibcode = 2014CSF....67...87H<br />
<br />
| bibcode 2014CSF... 67... 87H<br />
<br />
}}</ref> Apparently, these strategies undermine the self-organization of large critical clusters. Here, a critical cluster is a collection of transmission lines that are near the failure threshold and that collapse entirely if triggered.<br />
<br />
}}</ref> Apparently, these strategies undermine the self-organization of large critical clusters. Here, a critical cluster is a collection of transmission lines that are near the failure threshold and that collapse entirely if triggered.<br />
<br />
显然,这些策略破坏了大型关键集群的自我组织。在这里,一个临界集群是一组接近故障阈值的传输线,一旦触发,这些传输线就会完全崩溃。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Applications ==<br />
<br />
== Applications ==<br />
<br />
应用<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
There are several events that arise in nature or society where these ideas of control may help to avoid them:<ref name="cajand10a" /><ref name="cajand10b" /><ref name="cajand10c" /><ref name="brum12" /><ref name="noel13" /><ref name="hh2014" /><br />
<br />
There are several events that arise in nature or society where these ideas of control may help to avoid them:<br />
<br />
在自然界或社会中发生的一些事件中,这些控制观念可能有助于避免它们:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
# [[Flood]] caused by systems of dams and reservoirs or interconnected valleys. <br />
<br />
Flood caused by systems of dams and reservoirs or interconnected valleys. <br />
<br />
由水坝、水库或相互连接的山谷系统造成的洪水。<br />
<br />
# Snow avalanches that take place in snow hills.<br />
<br />
Snow avalanches that take place in snow hills.<br />
<br />
在雪山上发生的雪崩。<br />
<br />
# Forest fires in areas susceptible to a lightning bolt or a match lighting. <br />
<br />
Forest fires in areas susceptible to a lightning bolt or a match lighting. <br />
<br />
易受闪电或火柴照明影响的地区发生的森林火灾。<br />
<br />
# [[Cascading failure|Cascades of load shedding]] that take place in power grids (a type of [[power outage]]). The [[power outage#OPA model|OPA model]] is used to study different techniques for criticality control.<br />
<br />
Cascades of load shedding that take place in power grids (a type of power outage). The OPA model is used to study different techniques for criticality control.<br />
<br />
电网中发生的减载级联(断电的一种形式)。利用OPA模型研究了不同的临界控制技术。<br />
<br />
# [[Cascading failure]] in the internet switching fabric.<br />
<br />
Cascading failure in the internet switching fabric.<br />
<br />
互联网交换结构中的级联故障。<br />
<br />
# [[Ischemic cascade]]s, a series of biochemical reactions releasing toxins during moments of inadequate blood supply.<br />
<br />
Ischemic cascades, a series of biochemical reactions releasing toxins during moments of inadequate blood supply.<br />
<br />
缺血级联反应,在血液供应不足的时刻释放毒素的一系列生化反应。<br />
<br />
# [[Systemic risk]] in financial systems.<br />
<br />
Systemic risk in financial systems.<br />
<br />
金融系统的系统性风险。<br />
<br />
# [[Criticality accident|Excursions in nuclear energy systems]].<br />
<br />
Excursions in nuclear energy systems.<br />
<br />
核能系统的游动。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The failure cascades in electrical transmission and financial sectors occur because economic forces cause these systems to operate near a critical point, where avalanches of indeterminate size become possible.<br />
<br />
The failure cascades in electrical transmission and financial sectors occur because economic forces cause these systems to operate near a critical point, where avalanches of indeterminate size become possible.<br />
<br />
发生电力传输和金融部门的故障级联是因为经济力量使这些系统在临界点附近运行,在那里可能发生规模不确定的雪崩。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
参见<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Abelian sandpile model]]<br />
<br />
阿贝尔沙堆模型<br />
<br />
*[[Complex network]]s<br />
复杂网络<br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Self-organized criticality]]<br />
<br />
自组织临界<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
参考资料<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics]]<br />
<br />
Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics<br />
<br />
类别: 应用和跨学科物理学<br />
<br />
[[Category:Control theory]]<br />
<br />
Category:Control theory<br />
<br />
范畴: 控制理论<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chaos theory]]<br />
<br />
Category:Chaos theory<br />
<br />
范畴: 混沌理论<br />
<br />
[[Category:Self-organization]]<br />
<br />
Category:Self-organization<br />
<br />
类别: 自我组织<br />
<br />
[[Category:Critical phenomena]]<br />
<br />
Category:Critical phenomena<br />
<br />
范畴: 关键现象<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
<br />
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Self-organized criticality control]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[自组织临界控制/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E8%87%AA%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87%E4%B8%B4%E7%95%8C%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6&diff=17913自组织临界控制2020-11-05T12:41:54Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由Henry翻译。<br />
In [[applied physics]], the concept of '''controlling self-organized criticality''' refers to the control of processes by which a [[self-organized]] system dissipates [[energy]]. The objective of the control is to reduce the probability of occurrence of and size of [[energy dissipation]] bursts, often called ''avalanches'', of self-organized systems. Dissipation of energy in a [[self-organized criticality|self-organized critical]] system into a lower energy state can be costly for society, since it depends on avalanches of all sizes usually following a kind of [[power law]] distribution and large avalanches can be damaging and disruptive.<br />
<br />
In applied physics, the concept of controlling self-organized criticality refers to the control of processes by which a self-organized system dissipates energy. The objective of the control is to reduce the probability of occurrence of and size of energy dissipation bursts, often called avalanches, of self-organized systems. Dissipation of energy in a self-organized critical system into a lower energy state can be costly for society, since it depends on avalanches of all sizes usually following a kind of power law distribution and large avalanches can be damaging and disruptive.<br />
<br />
在应用物理学中,<font color="#ff8000"> 控制自组织临界性Controlling self-organized criticality</font>的概念是指控制自组织系统消耗能量的过程。这种控制的目的是减少自组织系统发生能量耗散爆发(通常称为雪崩)的概率和规模。将一个自我组织的临界系统中的能量耗散转变到较低的能量状态对社会来说可能是代价高昂的,因为它依赖于各种规模的雪崩,这些雪崩通常遵循一种<font color="#ff8000"> 幂律分布Power law distribution</font>,大规模雪崩可能具有破坏性和破坏性。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])<font color="#ff8000"> 控制自组织临界性Controlling self-organized criticality</font>的概念是指控制自组织系统消耗能量的过程。 这句话是不是有重复<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Schemes ==<br />
<br />
== Schemes ==<br />
<br />
计划<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Several strategies have been proposed to deal with the issue of controlling self-organized criticality:<br />
<br />
Several strategies have been proposed to deal with the issue of controlling self-organized criticality:<br />
<br />
有人提出了几个策略来处理控制自组织临界性的问题:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
#''The design of controlled avalanches.'' [[Daniel O. Cajueiro]] and [[Roberto F. S. Andrade]] show that if well-formulated small and medium avalanches are exogenously triggered in the system, the energy of the system is released in a way that large avalanches are rarer.<ref name="cajand10a" /><ref name="cajand10b" /><ref name="cajand10c" /><br />
<br />
The design of controlled avalanches. Daniel O. Cajueiro and Roberto F. S. Andrade show that if well-formulated small and medium avalanches are exogenously triggered in the system, the energy of the system is released in a way that large avalanches are rarer.<br />
<br />
控制雪崩的设计 Daniel O. Cajueiro和Roberto F. S. Andrade的研究表明,如果配方良好的中小规模雪崩是由系统外部触发的,那么系统的能量释放方式将使大规模雪崩更为罕见。<br />
<br />
#'' The modification of the degree of interdependence of the network where the avalanche spreads.'' [[Charles D. Brummitt]], [[Raissa M. D'Souza]] and [[E. A. Leicht]] show that the dynamics of self-organized critical systems on [[complex network]]s depend on connectivity of the complex network. They find that while some connectivity is beneficial (since it suppresses the largest cascades in the system), too much connectivity gives space for the development of very large cascades and increases the size of capacity of the system.<ref name=brum12>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
The modification of the degree of interdependence of the network where the avalanche spreads. Charles D. Brummitt, Raissa M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht show that the dynamics of self-organized critical systems on complex networks depend on connectivity of the complex network. They find that while some connectivity is beneficial (since it suppresses the largest cascades in the system), too much connectivity gives space for the development of very large cascades and increases the size of capacity of the system.<ref name=brum12>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
雪崩蔓延地区网络相互依赖程度的修正:Charles D. Brummitt,Raissa M. D'Souza和 E. A. Leicht 证明了复杂网络上自组织临界系统的动力学依赖于复杂网络的连通性。他们发现,虽然有些连通性是有益的(因为它压制了系统中最大的级联) ,但过多的连通性为非常大的级联的发展提供了空间,并增加了系统的容量。<br />
<br />
| author = C. D. Brummitt, R. M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht<br />
<br />
| author = C. D. Brummitt, R. M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht<br />
<br />
作者 c. d. Brummitt,r. m. d’ souza and e. a. Leicht<br />
<br />
| year = 2012<br />
<br />
| year = 2012<br />
<br />
2012年<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades of load in interdependent networks<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades of load in interdependent networks<br />
<br />
在相互依赖的网络中抑制负载级联<br />
<br />
| journal = PNAS<br />
<br />
| journal = PNAS<br />
<br />
美国科学院院刊<br />
<br />
| volume = 109<br />
<br />
| volume = 109<br />
<br />
第109卷<br />
<br />
| pages = E680–E689<br />
<br />
| pages = E680–E689<br />
<br />
| 页 E680-E689<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1073/pnas.1110586109<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1073/pnas.1110586109<br />
<br />
10.1073 / pnas. 1110586109<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
| pmid=22355144<br />
<br />
| pmid=22355144<br />
<br />
22355144<br />
<br />
| pmc=3311366}}</ref><br />
<br />
| pmc=3311366}}</ref><br />
<br />
3311366} / ref<br />
<br />
#'' The modification of the deposition process of the self-organized system.'' [[Pierre-Andre Noel]], Charles D. Brummitt and Raissa M. D'Souza show that it is possible to control the self-organized system by modifying the natural deposition process of the self-organized system adjusting the place where the avalanche starts.<ref name=noel13>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
The modification of the deposition process of the self-organized system. Pierre-Andre Noel, Charles D. Brummitt and Raissa M. D'Souza show that it is possible to control the self-organized system by modifying the natural deposition process of the self-organized system adjusting the place where the avalanche starts.<ref name=noel13>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
自组织系统沉积工艺的改进。 Pierre-Andre Noel、Charles D. Brummitt和Raissa M. D'Souza 指出,通过改变自组织系统的自然沉积过程,调整雪崩开始的位置,可以控制自组织系统。<br />
<br />
| author = P. A. Noel, C. D. Brummitt and R. M. D'Souza<br />
<br />
| author = P. A. Noel, C. D. Brummitt and R. M. D'Souza<br />
<br />
作者 p. a. Noel,c. d. Brummitt and r. m. d’ souza<br />
<br />
| year = 2013<br />
<br />
| year = 2013<br />
<br />
2013年<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality on networks using models that self-organize<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality on networks using models that self-organize<br />
<br />
| 标题使用自组织模型控制网络上的自组织临界性<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review Letters<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review Letters<br />
<br />
物理评论快报<br />
<br />
| volume = 111<br />
<br />
| volume = 111<br />
<br />
第111卷<br />
<br />
| pages = 078701<br />
<br />
| pages = 078701<br />
<br />
078701页<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physrevlett.111.078701<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physrevlett.111.078701<br />
<br />
10.1103 / physrvlett. 111.078701<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
| pmid=23992086}}</ref><br />
<br />
| pmid=23992086}}</ref><br />
<br />
23992086} / ref<br />
<br />
#'' Dynamically modifying the local thresholds of cascading failures.'' In a model of an electric transmission network, Heiko Hoffmann and David W. Payton demonstrated that either randomly upgrading lines (sort of like preventive maintenance) or upgrading broken lines to a random breakage threshold suppresses self-organized criticality.<ref name=hh2014>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
Dynamically modifying the local thresholds of cascading failures. In a model of an electric transmission network, Heiko Hoffmann and David W. Payton demonstrated that either randomly upgrading lines (sort of like preventive maintenance) or upgrading broken lines to a random breakage threshold suppresses self-organized criticality.<ref name=hh2014>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
动态修改级联故障的局部阈值;在一个电力传输网络模型中, Heiko Hoffmann 和 David W. Payton 证明,要么随机升级线路(类似于预防性维护) ,要么将破损线路升级到随机破损阈值抑制自组织临界性。 2014{ cite journal<br />
<br />
| author = H. Hoffmann and D. W. Payton<br />
<br />
| author = H. Hoffmann and D. W. Payton<br />
<br />
作者 h. 霍夫曼和 d. w. 佩顿<br />
<br />
| year = 2014<br />
<br />
| year = 2014<br />
<br />
2014年<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades in a self-organized-critical model with non-contiguous spread of failures<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades in a self-organized-critical model with non-contiguous spread of failures<br />
<br />
在具有非连续分布故障的自组织临界模型中抑制级联<br />
<br />
| journal = Chaos, Solitons and Fractals<br />
<br />
| journal = Chaos, Solitons and Fractals<br />
<br />
混沌,孤子和分形<br />
<br />
| volume = 67<br />
<br />
| volume = 67<br />
<br />
第67卷<br />
<br />
| pages = 87–93<br />
<br />
| pages = 87–93<br />
<br />
第87-93页<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1016/j.chaos.2014.06.011<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1016/j.chaos.2014.06.011<br />
<br />
10.1016 / j.chaos. 2014.06.011<br />
<br />
| bibcode = 2014CSF....67...87H<br />
<br />
| bibcode = 2014CSF....67...87H<br />
<br />
| bibcode 2014CSF... 67... 87H<br />
<br />
}}</ref> Apparently, these strategies undermine the self-organization of large critical clusters. Here, a critical cluster is a collection of transmission lines that are near the failure threshold and that collapse entirely if triggered.<br />
<br />
}}</ref> Apparently, these strategies undermine the self-organization of large critical clusters. Here, a critical cluster is a collection of transmission lines that are near the failure threshold and that collapse entirely if triggered.<br />
<br />
显然,这些策略破坏了大型关键集群的自我组织。在这里,一个临界集群是一组接近故障阈值的传输线,一旦触发,这些传输线就会完全崩溃。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Applications ==<br />
<br />
== Applications ==<br />
<br />
应用<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
There are several events that arise in nature or society where these ideas of control may help to avoid them:<ref name="cajand10a" /><ref name="cajand10b" /><ref name="cajand10c" /><ref name="brum12" /><ref name="noel13" /><ref name="hh2014" /><br />
<br />
There are several events that arise in nature or society where these ideas of control may help to avoid them:<br />
<br />
在自然界或社会中发生的一些事件中,这些控制观念可能有助于避免它们:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
# [[Flood]] caused by systems of dams and reservoirs or interconnected valleys. <br />
<br />
Flood caused by systems of dams and reservoirs or interconnected valleys. <br />
<br />
由水坝、水库或相互连接的山谷系统造成的洪水。<br />
<br />
# Snow avalanches that take place in snow hills.<br />
<br />
Snow avalanches that take place in snow hills.<br />
<br />
在雪山上发生的雪崩。<br />
<br />
# Forest fires in areas susceptible to a lightning bolt or a match lighting. <br />
<br />
Forest fires in areas susceptible to a lightning bolt or a match lighting. <br />
<br />
易受闪电或火柴照明影响的地区发生的森林火灾。<br />
<br />
# [[Cascading failure|Cascades of load shedding]] that take place in power grids (a type of [[power outage]]). The [[power outage#OPA model|OPA model]] is used to study different techniques for criticality control.<br />
<br />
Cascades of load shedding that take place in power grids (a type of power outage). The OPA model is used to study different techniques for criticality control.<br />
<br />
电网中发生的减载级联(断电的一种形式)。利用OPA模型研究了不同的临界控制技术。<br />
<br />
# [[Cascading failure]] in the internet switching fabric.<br />
<br />
Cascading failure in the internet switching fabric.<br />
<br />
互联网交换结构中的级联故障。<br />
<br />
# [[Ischemic cascade]]s, a series of biochemical reactions releasing toxins during moments of inadequate blood supply.<br />
<br />
Ischemic cascades, a series of biochemical reactions releasing toxins during moments of inadequate blood supply.<br />
<br />
缺血级联反应,在血液供应不足的时刻释放毒素的一系列生化反应。<br />
<br />
# [[Systemic risk]] in financial systems.<br />
<br />
Systemic risk in financial systems.<br />
<br />
金融系统的系统性风险。<br />
<br />
# [[Criticality accident|Excursions in nuclear energy systems]].<br />
<br />
Excursions in nuclear energy systems.<br />
<br />
核能系统的游动。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The failure cascades in electrical transmission and financial sectors occur because economic forces cause these systems to operate near a critical point, where avalanches of indeterminate size become possible.<br />
<br />
The failure cascades in electrical transmission and financial sectors occur because economic forces cause these systems to operate near a critical point, where avalanches of indeterminate size become possible.<br />
<br />
发生电力传输和金融部门的故障级联是因为经济力量使这些系统在临界点附近运行,在那里可能发生规模不确定的雪崩。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
参见<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Abelian sandpile model]]<br />
<br />
阿贝尔沙堆模型<br />
<br />
*[[Complex network]]s<br />
复杂网络<br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Self-organized criticality]]<br />
<br />
自组织临界<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
参考资料<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics]]<br />
<br />
Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics<br />
<br />
类别: 应用和跨学科物理学<br />
<br />
[[Category:Control theory]]<br />
<br />
Category:Control theory<br />
<br />
范畴: 控制理论<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chaos theory]]<br />
<br />
Category:Chaos theory<br />
<br />
范畴: 混沌理论<br />
<br />
[[Category:Self-organization]]<br />
<br />
Category:Self-organization<br />
<br />
类别: 自我组织<br />
<br />
[[Category:Critical phenomena]]<br />
<br />
Category:Critical phenomena<br />
<br />
范畴: 关键现象<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
<br />
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Self-organized criticality control]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[自组织临界控制/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E8%87%AA%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87%E4%B8%B4%E7%95%8C%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6&diff=17912自组织临界控制2020-11-05T12:40:31Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由Henry翻译。<br />
In [[applied physics]], the concept of '''controlling self-organized criticality''' refers to the control of processes by which a [[self-organized]] system dissipates [[energy]]. The objective of the control is to reduce the probability of occurrence of and size of [[energy dissipation]] bursts, often called ''avalanches'', of self-organized systems. Dissipation of energy in a [[self-organized criticality|self-organized critical]] system into a lower energy state can be costly for society, since it depends on avalanches of all sizes usually following a kind of [[power law]] distribution and large avalanches can be damaging and disruptive.<ref name=cajand10a><br />
<br />
In applied physics, the concept of controlling self-organized criticality refers to the control of processes by which a self-organized system dissipates energy. The objective of the control is to reduce the probability of occurrence of and size of energy dissipation bursts, often called avalanches, of self-organized systems. Dissipation of energy in a self-organized critical system into a lower energy state can be costly for society, since it depends on avalanches of all sizes usually following a kind of power law distribution and large avalanches can be damaging and disruptive.<ref name=cajand10a>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
在应用物理学中,<font color="#ff8000"> 控制自组织临界性Controlling self-organized criticality</font>的概念是指控制自组织系统消耗能量的过程。这种控制的目的是减少自组织系统发生能量耗散爆发(通常称为雪崩)的概率和规模。将一个自我组织的临界系统中的能量耗散转变到较低的能量状态对社会来说可能是代价高昂的,因为它依赖于各种规模的雪崩,这些雪崩通常遵循一种<font color="#ff8000"> 幂律分布Power law distribution</font>,大规模雪崩可能具有破坏性和破坏性。<br />
--~~~<font color="#ff8000"> 控制自组织临界性Controlling self-organized criticality</font>的概念是指控制自组织系统消耗能量的过程。 这句话是不是有重复<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Schemes ==<br />
<br />
== Schemes ==<br />
<br />
计划<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Several strategies have been proposed to deal with the issue of controlling self-organized criticality:<br />
<br />
Several strategies have been proposed to deal with the issue of controlling self-organized criticality:<br />
<br />
有人提出了几个策略来处理控制自组织临界性的问题:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
#''The design of controlled avalanches.'' [[Daniel O. Cajueiro]] and [[Roberto F. S. Andrade]] show that if well-formulated small and medium avalanches are exogenously triggered in the system, the energy of the system is released in a way that large avalanches are rarer.<ref name="cajand10a" /><ref name="cajand10b" /><ref name="cajand10c" /><br />
<br />
The design of controlled avalanches. Daniel O. Cajueiro and Roberto F. S. Andrade show that if well-formulated small and medium avalanches are exogenously triggered in the system, the energy of the system is released in a way that large avalanches are rarer.<br />
<br />
控制雪崩的设计 Daniel O. Cajueiro和Roberto F. S. Andrade的研究表明,如果配方良好的中小规模雪崩是由系统外部触发的,那么系统的能量释放方式将使大规模雪崩更为罕见。<br />
<br />
#'' The modification of the degree of interdependence of the network where the avalanche spreads.'' [[Charles D. Brummitt]], [[Raissa M. D'Souza]] and [[E. A. Leicht]] show that the dynamics of self-organized critical systems on [[complex network]]s depend on connectivity of the complex network. They find that while some connectivity is beneficial (since it suppresses the largest cascades in the system), too much connectivity gives space for the development of very large cascades and increases the size of capacity of the system.<ref name=brum12>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
The modification of the degree of interdependence of the network where the avalanche spreads. Charles D. Brummitt, Raissa M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht show that the dynamics of self-organized critical systems on complex networks depend on connectivity of the complex network. They find that while some connectivity is beneficial (since it suppresses the largest cascades in the system), too much connectivity gives space for the development of very large cascades and increases the size of capacity of the system.<ref name=brum12>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
雪崩蔓延地区网络相互依赖程度的修正:Charles D. Brummitt,Raissa M. D'Souza和 E. A. Leicht 证明了复杂网络上自组织临界系统的动力学依赖于复杂网络的连通性。他们发现,虽然有些连通性是有益的(因为它压制了系统中最大的级联) ,但过多的连通性为非常大的级联的发展提供了空间,并增加了系统的容量。<br />
<br />
| author = C. D. Brummitt, R. M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht<br />
<br />
| author = C. D. Brummitt, R. M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht<br />
<br />
作者 c. d. Brummitt,r. m. d’ souza and e. a. Leicht<br />
<br />
| year = 2012<br />
<br />
| year = 2012<br />
<br />
2012年<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades of load in interdependent networks<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades of load in interdependent networks<br />
<br />
在相互依赖的网络中抑制负载级联<br />
<br />
| journal = PNAS<br />
<br />
| journal = PNAS<br />
<br />
美国科学院院刊<br />
<br />
| volume = 109<br />
<br />
| volume = 109<br />
<br />
第109卷<br />
<br />
| pages = E680–E689<br />
<br />
| pages = E680–E689<br />
<br />
| 页 E680-E689<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1073/pnas.1110586109<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1073/pnas.1110586109<br />
<br />
10.1073 / pnas. 1110586109<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
| pmid=22355144<br />
<br />
| pmid=22355144<br />
<br />
22355144<br />
<br />
| pmc=3311366}}</ref><br />
<br />
| pmc=3311366}}</ref><br />
<br />
3311366} / ref<br />
<br />
#'' The modification of the deposition process of the self-organized system.'' [[Pierre-Andre Noel]], Charles D. Brummitt and Raissa M. D'Souza show that it is possible to control the self-organized system by modifying the natural deposition process of the self-organized system adjusting the place where the avalanche starts.<ref name=noel13>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
The modification of the deposition process of the self-organized system. Pierre-Andre Noel, Charles D. Brummitt and Raissa M. D'Souza show that it is possible to control the self-organized system by modifying the natural deposition process of the self-organized system adjusting the place where the avalanche starts.<ref name=noel13>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
自组织系统沉积工艺的改进。 Pierre-Andre Noel、Charles D. Brummitt和Raissa M. D'Souza 指出,通过改变自组织系统的自然沉积过程,调整雪崩开始的位置,可以控制自组织系统。<br />
<br />
| author = P. A. Noel, C. D. Brummitt and R. M. D'Souza<br />
<br />
| author = P. A. Noel, C. D. Brummitt and R. M. D'Souza<br />
<br />
作者 p. a. Noel,c. d. Brummitt and r. m. d’ souza<br />
<br />
| year = 2013<br />
<br />
| year = 2013<br />
<br />
2013年<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality on networks using models that self-organize<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality on networks using models that self-organize<br />
<br />
| 标题使用自组织模型控制网络上的自组织临界性<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review Letters<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review Letters<br />
<br />
物理评论快报<br />
<br />
| volume = 111<br />
<br />
| volume = 111<br />
<br />
第111卷<br />
<br />
| pages = 078701<br />
<br />
| pages = 078701<br />
<br />
078701页<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physrevlett.111.078701<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physrevlett.111.078701<br />
<br />
10.1103 / physrvlett. 111.078701<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
| pmid=23992086}}</ref><br />
<br />
| pmid=23992086}}</ref><br />
<br />
23992086} / ref<br />
<br />
#'' Dynamically modifying the local thresholds of cascading failures.'' In a model of an electric transmission network, Heiko Hoffmann and David W. Payton demonstrated that either randomly upgrading lines (sort of like preventive maintenance) or upgrading broken lines to a random breakage threshold suppresses self-organized criticality.<ref name=hh2014>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
Dynamically modifying the local thresholds of cascading failures. In a model of an electric transmission network, Heiko Hoffmann and David W. Payton demonstrated that either randomly upgrading lines (sort of like preventive maintenance) or upgrading broken lines to a random breakage threshold suppresses self-organized criticality.<ref name=hh2014>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
动态修改级联故障的局部阈值;在一个电力传输网络模型中, Heiko Hoffmann 和 David W. Payton 证明,要么随机升级线路(类似于预防性维护) ,要么将破损线路升级到随机破损阈值抑制自组织临界性。 2014{ cite journal<br />
<br />
| author = H. Hoffmann and D. W. Payton<br />
<br />
| author = H. Hoffmann and D. W. Payton<br />
<br />
作者 h. 霍夫曼和 d. w. 佩顿<br />
<br />
| year = 2014<br />
<br />
| year = 2014<br />
<br />
2014年<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades in a self-organized-critical model with non-contiguous spread of failures<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades in a self-organized-critical model with non-contiguous spread of failures<br />
<br />
在具有非连续分布故障的自组织临界模型中抑制级联<br />
<br />
| journal = Chaos, Solitons and Fractals<br />
<br />
| journal = Chaos, Solitons and Fractals<br />
<br />
混沌,孤子和分形<br />
<br />
| volume = 67<br />
<br />
| volume = 67<br />
<br />
第67卷<br />
<br />
| pages = 87–93<br />
<br />
| pages = 87–93<br />
<br />
第87-93页<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1016/j.chaos.2014.06.011<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1016/j.chaos.2014.06.011<br />
<br />
10.1016 / j.chaos. 2014.06.011<br />
<br />
| bibcode = 2014CSF....67...87H<br />
<br />
| bibcode = 2014CSF....67...87H<br />
<br />
| bibcode 2014CSF... 67... 87H<br />
<br />
}}</ref> Apparently, these strategies undermine the self-organization of large critical clusters. Here, a critical cluster is a collection of transmission lines that are near the failure threshold and that collapse entirely if triggered.<br />
<br />
}}</ref> Apparently, these strategies undermine the self-organization of large critical clusters. Here, a critical cluster is a collection of transmission lines that are near the failure threshold and that collapse entirely if triggered.<br />
<br />
显然,这些策略破坏了大型关键集群的自我组织。在这里,一个临界集群是一组接近故障阈值的传输线,一旦触发,这些传输线就会完全崩溃。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Applications ==<br />
<br />
== Applications ==<br />
<br />
应用<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
There are several events that arise in nature or society where these ideas of control may help to avoid them:<ref name="cajand10a" /><ref name="cajand10b" /><ref name="cajand10c" /><ref name="brum12" /><ref name="noel13" /><ref name="hh2014" /><br />
<br />
There are several events that arise in nature or society where these ideas of control may help to avoid them:<br />
<br />
在自然界或社会中发生的一些事件中,这些控制观念可能有助于避免它们:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
# [[Flood]] caused by systems of dams and reservoirs or interconnected valleys. <br />
<br />
Flood caused by systems of dams and reservoirs or interconnected valleys. <br />
<br />
由水坝、水库或相互连接的山谷系统造成的洪水。<br />
<br />
# Snow avalanches that take place in snow hills.<br />
<br />
Snow avalanches that take place in snow hills.<br />
<br />
在雪山上发生的雪崩。<br />
<br />
# Forest fires in areas susceptible to a lightning bolt or a match lighting. <br />
<br />
Forest fires in areas susceptible to a lightning bolt or a match lighting. <br />
<br />
易受闪电或火柴照明影响的地区发生的森林火灾。<br />
<br />
# [[Cascading failure|Cascades of load shedding]] that take place in power grids (a type of [[power outage]]). The [[power outage#OPA model|OPA model]] is used to study different techniques for criticality control.<br />
<br />
Cascades of load shedding that take place in power grids (a type of power outage). The OPA model is used to study different techniques for criticality control.<br />
<br />
电网中发生的减载级联(断电的一种形式)。利用OPA模型研究了不同的临界控制技术。<br />
<br />
# [[Cascading failure]] in the internet switching fabric.<br />
<br />
Cascading failure in the internet switching fabric.<br />
<br />
互联网交换结构中的级联故障。<br />
<br />
# [[Ischemic cascade]]s, a series of biochemical reactions releasing toxins during moments of inadequate blood supply.<br />
<br />
Ischemic cascades, a series of biochemical reactions releasing toxins during moments of inadequate blood supply.<br />
<br />
缺血级联反应,在血液供应不足的时刻释放毒素的一系列生化反应。<br />
<br />
# [[Systemic risk]] in financial systems.<br />
<br />
Systemic risk in financial systems.<br />
<br />
金融系统的系统性风险。<br />
<br />
# [[Criticality accident|Excursions in nuclear energy systems]].<br />
<br />
Excursions in nuclear energy systems.<br />
<br />
核能系统的游动。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The failure cascades in electrical transmission and financial sectors occur because economic forces cause these systems to operate near a critical point, where avalanches of indeterminate size become possible.<br />
<br />
The failure cascades in electrical transmission and financial sectors occur because economic forces cause these systems to operate near a critical point, where avalanches of indeterminate size become possible.<br />
<br />
发生电力传输和金融部门的故障级联是因为经济力量使这些系统在临界点附近运行,在那里可能发生规模不确定的雪崩。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
<br />
参见<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Abelian sandpile model]]<br />
<br />
阿贝尔沙堆模型<br />
<br />
*[[Complex network]]s<br />
复杂网络<br />
<br />
<br />
*[[Self-organized criticality]]<br />
<br />
自组织临界<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
参考资料<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics]]<br />
<br />
Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics<br />
<br />
类别: 应用和跨学科物理学<br />
<br />
[[Category:Control theory]]<br />
<br />
Category:Control theory<br />
<br />
范畴: 控制理论<br />
<br />
[[Category:Chaos theory]]<br />
<br />
Category:Chaos theory<br />
<br />
范畴: 混沌理论<br />
<br />
[[Category:Self-organization]]<br />
<br />
Category:Self-organization<br />
<br />
类别: 自我组织<br />
<br />
[[Category:Critical phenomena]]<br />
<br />
Category:Critical phenomena<br />
<br />
范畴: 关键现象<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
<br />
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Self-organized criticality control]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[自组织临界控制/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E8%87%AA%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87%E4%B8%B4%E7%95%8C%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6&diff=17910自组织临界控制2020-11-05T12:39:26Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由Henry翻译。In [[applied physics]], the concept of '''controlling self-organized criticality''' refers to the control of processes by which a [[self-organized]] system dissipates [[energy]]. The objective of the control is to reduce the probability of occurrence of and size of [[energy dissipation]] bursts, often called ''avalanches'', of self-organized systems. Dissipation of energy in a [[self-organized criticality|self-organized critical]] system into a lower energy state can be costly for society, since it depends on avalanches of all sizes usually following a kind of [[power law]] distribution and large avalanches can be damaging and disruptive.<ref name=cajand10a>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
In applied physics, the concept of controlling self-organized criticality refers to the control of processes by which a self-organized system dissipates energy. The objective of the control is to reduce the probability of occurrence of and size of energy dissipation bursts, often called avalanches, of self-organized systems. Dissipation of energy in a self-organized critical system into a lower energy state can be costly for society, since it depends on avalanches of all sizes usually following a kind of power law distribution and large avalanches can be damaging and disruptive.<ref name=cajand10a>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
在应用物理学中,<font color="#ff8000"> 控制自组织临界性Controlling self-organized criticality</font>的概念是指控制自组织系统消耗能量的过程。这种控制的目的是减少自组织系统发生能量耗散爆发(通常称为雪崩)的概率和规模。将一个自我组织的临界系统中的能量耗散转变到较低的能量状态对社会来说可能是代价高昂的,因为它依赖于各种规模的雪崩,这些雪崩通常遵循一种<font color="#ff8000"> 幂律分布Power law distribution</font>,大规模雪崩可能具有破坏性和破坏性。<br />
--~~~<font color="#ff8000"> 控制自组织临界性Controlling self-organized criticality</font>的概念是指控制自组织系统消耗能量的过程。 这句话是不是有重复<br />
| author = D. O. Cajueiro and R. F. S. Andrade<br />
<br />
| author = D. O. Cajueiro and R. F. S. Andrade<br />
<br />
作者 D. O. Cajueiro 和R. F. S. Andrade<br />
<br />
| year = 2010<br />
<br />
| year = 2010<br />
<br />
2010年<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality in sandpile models<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality in sandpile models<br />
<br />
控制沙堆模型中的自组织临界性<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review E<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review E<br />
<br />
杂志物理评论 e<br />
<br />
| volume = 81<br />
<br />
| volume = 81<br />
<br />
第81卷<br />
<br />
| pages = 015102#R<br />
<br />
| pages = 015102#R<br />
<br />
015102 # r<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physreve.81.015102<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physreve.81.015102<br />
<br />
10.1103 / physicreve. 81.015102<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.6648 |bibcode = 2010PhRvE..81a5102C }}</ref><ref name=cajand10b>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.6648 |bibcode = 2010PhRvE..81a5102C }}</ref><ref name=cajand10b>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
1305.6648 | bibcode 2010PhRvE. . 81 a5102C } / ref name cajand10b { cite journal<br />
<br />
| author = D. O. Cajueiro and R. F. S. Andrade<br />
<br />
| author = D. O. Cajueiro and R. F. S. Andrade<br />
<br />
作者 d. o. Cajueiro 和 R.f. s. Andrade<br />
<br />
| year = 2010<br />
<br />
| year = 2010<br />
<br />
2010年<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality in complex networks<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality in complex networks<br />
<br />
控制复杂网络中的自组织临界性<br />
<br />
| journal = European Physical Journal B<br />
<br />
| journal = European Physical Journal B<br />
<br />
欧洲物理学杂志 b<br />
<br />
| volume = 77<br />
<br />
| volume = 77<br />
<br />
第77卷<br />
<br />
| pages = 291–296<br />
<br />
| pages = 291–296<br />
<br />
第291-296页<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1140/epjb/e2010-00229-8<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1140/epjb/e2010-00229-8<br />
<br />
10.1140 / epjb / e2010-00229-8<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.6656 |bibcode = 2010EPJB...77..291C }}</ref><ref name=cajand10c>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.6656 |bibcode = 2010EPJB...77..291C }}</ref><ref name=cajand10c>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
1305.6656 | bibcode 2010EPJB... 77. . 291 c } / ref name cajand10c { cite journal<br />
<br />
| author = D. O. Cajueiro and R. F. S. Andrade<br />
<br />
| author = D. O. Cajueiro and R. F. S. Andrade<br />
<br />
作者 d. o. Cajueiro 和 R.f. s. Andrade<br />
<br />
| year = 2010<br />
<br />
| year = 2010<br />
<br />
2010年<br />
<br />
| title = Dynamical programming approach for controlling the directed Abelian Dhar-Ramaswamy model<br />
<br />
| title = Dynamical programming approach for controlling the directed Abelian Dhar-Ramaswamy model<br />
<br />
控制有向 Abelian Dhar-Ramaswamy 模型的动态规划方法<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review E<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review E<br />
<br />
杂志物理评论 e<br />
<br />
| volume = 82<br />
<br />
| volume = 82<br />
<br />
第82卷<br />
<br />
| pages = 031108<br />
<br />
| pages = 031108<br />
<br />
031108页<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physreve.82.031108<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physreve.82.031108<br />
<br />
10.1103 / physicreve. 82.031108<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.6668 |bibcode = 2010PhRvE..82c1108C }}</ref><br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.6668 |bibcode = 2010PhRvE..82c1108C }}</ref><br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.6668 |bibcode = 2010PhRvE..82c1108C }}</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Schemes ==<br />
<br />
== Schemes ==<br />
<br />
计划<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Several strategies have been proposed to deal with the issue of controlling self-organized criticality:<br />
<br />
Several strategies have been proposed to deal with the issue of controlling self-organized criticality:<br />
<br />
有人提出了几个策略来处理控制自组织临界性的问题:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
#''The design of controlled avalanches.'' [[Daniel O. Cajueiro]] and [[Roberto F. S. Andrade]] show that if well-formulated small and medium avalanches are exogenously triggered in the system, the energy of the system is released in a way that large avalanches are rarer.<ref name="cajand10a" /><ref name="cajand10b" /><ref name="cajand10c" /><br />
<br />
The design of controlled avalanches. Daniel O. Cajueiro and Roberto F. S. Andrade show that if well-formulated small and medium avalanches are exogenously triggered in the system, the energy of the system is released in a way that large avalanches are rarer.<br />
<br />
控制雪崩的设计 Daniel O. Cajueiro和Roberto F. S. Andrade的研究表明,如果配方良好的中小规模雪崩是由系统外部触发的,那么系统的能量释放方式将使大规模雪崩更为罕见。<br />
<br />
#'' The modification of the degree of interdependence of the network where the avalanche spreads.'' [[Charles D. Brummitt]], [[Raissa M. D'Souza]] and [[E. A. Leicht]] show that the dynamics of self-organized critical systems on [[complex network]]s depend on connectivity of the complex network. They find that while some connectivity is beneficial (since it suppresses the largest cascades in the system), too much connectivity gives space for the development of very large cascades and increases the size of capacity of the system.<ref name=brum12>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
The modification of the degree of interdependence of the network where the avalanche spreads. Charles D. Brummitt, Raissa M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht show that the dynamics of self-organized critical systems on complex networks depend on connectivity of the complex network. They find that while some connectivity is beneficial (since it suppresses the largest cascades in the system), too much connectivity gives space for the development of very large cascades and increases the size of capacity of the system.<ref name=brum12>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
雪崩蔓延地区网络相互依赖程度的修正:Charles D. Brummitt,Raissa M. D'Souza和 E. A. Leicht 证明了复杂网络上自组织临界系统的动力学依赖于复杂网络的连通性。他们发现,虽然有些连通性是有益的(因为它压制了系统中最大的级联) ,但过多的连通性为非常大的级联的发展提供了空间,并增加了系统的容量。<br />
<br />
| author = C. D. Brummitt, R. M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht<br />
<br />
| author = C. D. Brummitt, R. M. D'Souza and E. A. Leicht<br />
<br />
作者 c. d. Brummitt,r. m. d’ souza and e. a. Leicht<br />
<br />
| year = 2012<br />
<br />
| year = 2012<br />
<br />
2012年<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades of load in interdependent networks<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades of load in interdependent networks<br />
<br />
在相互依赖的网络中抑制负载级联<br />
<br />
| journal = PNAS<br />
<br />
| journal = PNAS<br />
<br />
美国科学院院刊<br />
<br />
| volume = 109<br />
<br />
| volume = 109<br />
<br />
第109卷<br />
<br />
| pages = E680–E689<br />
<br />
| pages = E680–E689<br />
<br />
| 页 E680-E689<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1073/pnas.1110586109<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1073/pnas.1110586109<br />
<br />
10.1073 / pnas. 1110586109<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1106.4499 |bibcode = 2012PNAS..109E.680B<br />
<br />
| pmid=22355144<br />
<br />
| pmid=22355144<br />
<br />
22355144<br />
<br />
| pmc=3311366}}</ref><br />
<br />
| pmc=3311366}}</ref><br />
<br />
3311366} / ref<br />
<br />
#'' The modification of the deposition process of the self-organized system.'' [[Pierre-Andre Noel]], Charles D. Brummitt and Raissa M. D'Souza show that it is possible to control the self-organized system by modifying the natural deposition process of the self-organized system adjusting the place where the avalanche starts.<ref name=noel13>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
The modification of the deposition process of the self-organized system. Pierre-Andre Noel, Charles D. Brummitt and Raissa M. D'Souza show that it is possible to control the self-organized system by modifying the natural deposition process of the self-organized system adjusting the place where the avalanche starts.<ref name=noel13>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
自组织系统沉积工艺的改进。 Pierre-Andre Noel、Charles D. Brummitt和Raissa M. D'Souza 指出,通过改变自组织系统的自然沉积过程,调整雪崩开始的位置,可以控制自组织系统。<br />
<br />
| author = P. A. Noel, C. D. Brummitt and R. M. D'Souza<br />
<br />
| author = P. A. Noel, C. D. Brummitt and R. M. D'Souza<br />
<br />
作者 p. a. Noel,c. d. Brummitt and r. m. d’ souza<br />
<br />
| year = 2013<br />
<br />
| year = 2013<br />
<br />
2013年<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality on networks using models that self-organize<br />
<br />
| title = Controlling self-organized criticality on networks using models that self-organize<br />
<br />
| 标题使用自组织模型控制网络上的自组织临界性<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review Letters<br />
<br />
| journal = Physical Review Letters<br />
<br />
物理评论快报<br />
<br />
| volume = 111<br />
<br />
| volume = 111<br />
<br />
第111卷<br />
<br />
| pages = 078701<br />
<br />
| pages = 078701<br />
<br />
078701页<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physrevlett.111.078701<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1103/physrevlett.111.078701<br />
<br />
10.1103 / physrvlett. 111.078701<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
|arxiv = 1305.1877 |bibcode = 2013PhRvL.111g8701N<br />
<br />
| pmid=23992086}}</ref><br />
<br />
| pmid=23992086}}</ref><br />
<br />
23992086} / ref<br />
<br />
#'' Dynamically modifying the local thresholds of cascading failures.'' In a model of an electric transmission network, Heiko Hoffmann and David W. Payton demonstrated that either randomly upgrading lines (sort of like preventive maintenance) or upgrading broken lines to a random breakage threshold suppresses self-organized criticality.<ref name=hh2014>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
Dynamically modifying the local thresholds of cascading failures. In a model of an electric transmission network, Heiko Hoffmann and David W. Payton demonstrated that either randomly upgrading lines (sort of like preventive maintenance) or upgrading broken lines to a random breakage threshold suppresses self-organized criticality.<ref name=hh2014>{{cite journal<br />
<br />
动态修改级联故障的局部阈值;在一个电力传输网络模型中, Heiko Hoffmann 和 David W. Payton 证明,要么随机升级线路(类似于预防性维护) ,要么将破损线路升级到随机破损阈值抑制自组织临界性。 2014{ cite journal<br />
<br />
| author = H. Hoffmann and D. W. Payton<br />
<br />
| author = H. Hoffmann and D. W. Payton<br />
<br />
作者 h. 霍夫曼和 d. w. 佩顿<br />
<br />
| year = 2014<br />
<br />
| year = 2014<br />
<br />
2014年<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades in a self-organized-critical model with non-contiguous spread of failures<br />
<br />
| title = Suppressing cascades in a self-organized-critical model with non-contiguous spread of failures<br />
<br />
在具有非连续分布故障的自组织临界模型中抑制级联<br />
<br />
| journal = Chaos, Solitons and Fractals<br />
<br />
| journal = Chaos, Solitons and Fractals<br />
<br />
混沌,孤子和分形<br />
<br />
| volume = 67<br />
<br />
| volume = 67<br />
<br />
第67卷<br />
<br />
| pages = 87–93<br />
<br />
| pages = 87–93<br />
<br />
第87-93页<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1016/j.chaos.2014.06.011<br />
<br />
| doi=10.1016/j.chaos.2014.06.011<br />
<br />
10.1016 / j.chaos. 2014.06.011<br />
<br />
| bibcode = 2014CSF....67...87H<br />
<br />
| bibcode = 2014CSF....67...87H<br />
<br />
| bibcode 2014CSF... 67... 87H<br />
<br />
}}</ref> Apparently, these strategies undermine the self-organization of large critical clusters. Here, a critical cluster is a collection of transmission lines that are near the failure threshold and that collapse entirely if triggered.<br />
<br />
}}</ref> Apparently, these strategies undermine the self-organization of large critical clusters. Here, a critical cluster is a collection of transmission lines that are near the failure threshold and that collapse entirely if triggered.<br />
<br />
显然,这些策略破坏了大型关键集群的自我组织。在这里,一个临界集群是一组接近故障阈值的传输线,一旦触发,这些传输线就会完全崩溃。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Applications ==<br />
<br />
== Applications ==<br />
<br />
应用<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
There are several events that arise in nature or society where these ideas of control may help to avoid them:<ref name="cajand10a" /><ref name="cajand10b" /><ref name="cajand10c" /><ref name="brum12" /><ref name="noel13" /><ref name="hh2014" /><br />
<br />
There are several events that arise in nature or society where these ideas of control may help to avoid them:<br />
<br />
在自然界或社会中发生的一些事件中,这些控制观念可能有助于避免它们:<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
# [[Flood]] caused by systems of dams and reservoirs or interconnected valleys. <br />
<br />
Flood caused by systems of dams and reservoirs or interconnected valleys. <br />
<br />
由水坝、水库或相互连接的山谷系统造成的洪水。<br />
<br />
# Snow avalanches that take place in snow hills.<br />
<br />
Snow avalanches that take place in snow hills.<br />
<br />
在雪山上发生的雪崩。<br />
<br />
# Forest fires in areas susceptible to a lightning bolt or a match lighting. <br />
<br />
Forest fires in areas susceptible to a lightning bolt or a match lighting. <br />
<br />
易受闪电或火柴照明影响的地区发生的森林火灾。<br />
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# [[Cascading failure|Cascades of load shedding]] that take place in power grids (a type of [[power outage]]). The [[power outage#OPA model|OPA model]] is used to study different techniques for criticality control.<br />
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Cascades of load shedding that take place in power grids (a type of power outage). The OPA model is used to study different techniques for criticality control.<br />
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电网中发生的减载级联(断电的一种形式)。利用OPA模型研究了不同的临界控制技术。<br />
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# [[Cascading failure]] in the internet switching fabric.<br />
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Cascading failure in the internet switching fabric.<br />
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互联网交换结构中的级联故障。<br />
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# [[Ischemic cascade]]s, a series of biochemical reactions releasing toxins during moments of inadequate blood supply.<br />
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Ischemic cascades, a series of biochemical reactions releasing toxins during moments of inadequate blood supply.<br />
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缺血级联反应,在血液供应不足的时刻释放毒素的一系列生化反应。<br />
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# [[Systemic risk]] in financial systems.<br />
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Systemic risk in financial systems.<br />
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金融系统的系统性风险。<br />
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# [[Criticality accident|Excursions in nuclear energy systems]].<br />
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Excursions in nuclear energy systems.<br />
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核能系统的游动。<br />
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The failure cascades in electrical transmission and financial sectors occur because economic forces cause these systems to operate near a critical point, where avalanches of indeterminate size become possible.<br />
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The failure cascades in electrical transmission and financial sectors occur because economic forces cause these systems to operate near a critical point, where avalanches of indeterminate size become possible.<br />
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发生电力传输和金融部门的故障级联是因为经济力量使这些系统在临界点附近运行,在那里可能发生规模不确定的雪崩。<br />
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== See also ==<br />
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== See also ==<br />
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参见<br />
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*[[Abelian sandpile model]]<br />
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阿贝尔沙堆模型<br />
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*[[Complex network]]s<br />
复杂网络<br />
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*[[Self-organized criticality]]<br />
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自组织临界<br />
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== References ==<br />
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== References ==<br />
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参考资料<br />
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{{reflist}}<br />
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[[Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics]]<br />
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Category:Applied and interdisciplinary physics<br />
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类别: 应用和跨学科物理学<br />
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[[Category:Control theory]]<br />
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Category:Control theory<br />
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范畴: 控制理论<br />
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[[Category:Chaos theory]]<br />
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Category:Chaos theory<br />
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范畴: 混沌理论<br />
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[[Category:Self-organization]]<br />
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Category:Self-organization<br />
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类别: 自我组织<br />
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[[Category:Critical phenomena]]<br />
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Category:Critical phenomena<br />
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范畴: 关键现象<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Self-organized criticality control]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[自组织临界控制/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E4%BC%A0%E9%80%92%E5%85%B3%E7%B3%BB&diff=17726传递关系2020-11-01T14:45:04Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,翻译字数共800,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])英文译文缺失 需要补充<br />
{{more citations needed|date=October 2013}}<br />
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In [[mathematics]], a [[homogeneous relation]] {{math|''R''}} over a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] {{math|''X''}} is '''transitive''' if for all elements {{math|''a''}}, {{math|''b''}}, {{math|''c''}} in {{math|''X''}}, whenever {{math|''R''}} relates {{math|''a''}} to {{math|''b''}} and {{math|''b''}} to {{math|''c''}}, then {{math|''R''}} also relates {{math|''a''}} to {{math|''c''}}. Each [[partial order]] as well as each [[equivalence relation]] needs to be transitive.<br />
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In mathematics, a homogeneous relation over a set is transitive if for all elements , , in , whenever relates to and to , then also relates to . Each partial order as well as each equivalence relation needs to be transitive.<br />
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在数学中,一个集合上的齐次关系是可传递的,如果对于所有元素,In,whenever releved to 和 to,then 也 releved to。每个偏序和每个等价关系都需要是可传递的。<br />
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== Definition ==<br />
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{{stack|{{Binary relations}}}}<br />
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A homogeneous relation {{mvar|R}} on the set {{mvar|X}} is a ''transitive relation'' if,<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Eggen|St. Andre|2006|loc=p. 145}}</ref><br />
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A homogeneous relation on the set is a transitive relation if,<br />
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集合上的齐次关系是传递关系,如果,<br />
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:for all {{math|''a'', ''b'', ''c'' ∈ ''X''}}, if {{math|''a R b''}} and {{math|''b R c''}}, then {{math|''a R c''}}.<br />
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for all , if and , then .<br />
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对所有人来说,如果,那么。<br />
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Or in terms of [[first-order logic]]:<br />
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Or in terms of first-order logic:<br />
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或者就一阶逻辑而言:<br />
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:<math>\forall a,b,c \in X: (aRb \wedge bRc) \Rightarrow aRc,</math><br />
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<math>\forall a,b,c \in X: (aRb \wedge bRc) \Rightarrow aRc,</math><br />
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对于 x 中的所有 a,b,c: (aRb 楔形 bRc)右塔罗弧<br />
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where {{math|''a R b''}} is the [[infix notation]] for {{math|(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R''}}.<br />
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where is the infix notation for .<br />
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中缀符号在哪里。<br />
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==Examples==<br />
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As a nonmathematical example, the relation "is an ancestor of" is transitive. For example, if Amy is an ancestor of Becky, and Becky is an ancestor of Carrie, then Amy, too, is an ancestor of Carrie.<br />
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As a nonmathematical example, the relation "is an ancestor of" is transitive. For example, if Amy is an ancestor of Becky, and Becky is an ancestor of Carrie, then Amy, too, is an ancestor of Carrie.<br />
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作为一个非数学的例子,关系“ is an ancestor of”是可传递的。例如,如果艾米是贝基的祖先,而贝基是嘉莉的祖先,那么艾米也是嘉莉的祖先。<br />
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On the other hand, "is the birth parent of" is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the birth parent of Brenda, and Brenda is the birth parent of Claire, then Alice is not the birth parent of Claire. What is more, it is [[antitransitive]]: Alice can ''never'' be the birth parent of Claire.<br />
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On the other hand, "is the birth parent of" is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the birth parent of Brenda, and Brenda is the birth parent of Claire, then Alice is not the birth parent of Claire. What is more, it is antitransitive: Alice can never be the birth parent of Claire.<br />
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另一方面,is the birth parent of 不是一个传递关系,因为如果 Alice 是 Brenda 的生身父母,而 Brenda 是 Claire 的生身父母,那么 Alice 不是 Claire 的生身父母。更重要的是,它是反及物动词: Alice 永远不可能是 Claire 的生身父母。<br />
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"Is greater than", "is at least as great as", and "is equal to" ([[equality (mathematics)|equality]]) are transitive relations on various sets, for instance, the set of real numbers or the set of natural numbers:<br />
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"Is greater than", "is at least as great as", and "is equal to" (equality) are transitive relations on various sets, for instance, the set of real numbers or the set of natural numbers:<br />
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“ Is greater than”、“ Is at least as great as”和“ Is equal to”(相等)是各种集合上的传递关系,例如实数集合或自然数集合:<br />
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: whenever ''x'' &gt; ''y'' and ''y'' &gt; ''z'', then also ''x'' &gt; ''z''<br />
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whenever x &gt; y and y &gt; z, then also x &gt; z<br />
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只要 x > y 和 y > z,那么 x > z<br />
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: whenever ''x'' &ge; ''y'' and ''y'' &ge; ''z'', then also ''x'' &ge; ''z''<br />
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whenever x &ge; y and y &ge; z, then also x &ge; z<br />
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每当 x & ge; y 和 y & ge; z,那么 x & ge; z<br />
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: whenever ''x'' = ''y'' and ''y'' = ''z'', then also ''x'' = ''z''.<br />
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whenever x = y and y = z, then also x = z.<br />
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当 x = y,y = z,那么 x = z。<br />
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More examples of transitive relations:<br />
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More examples of transitive relations:<br />
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更多传递关系的例子:<br />
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* "is a [[subset]] of" (set inclusion, a relation on sets)<br />
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* "divides" ([[divisor|divisibility]], a relation on natural numbers)<br />
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* "implies" ([[material conditional|implication]], symbolized by "⇒", a relation on [[proposition]]s)<br />
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Examples of non-transitive relations:<br />
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Examples of non-transitive relations:<br />
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不传递关系的例子:<br />
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* "is the [[successor function|successor]] of" (a relation on natural numbers)<br />
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* "is a member of the set" (symbolized as "∈")<ref>However, the class of [[von Neumann ordinal]]s is constructed in a way such that ∈ ''is'' transitive when restricted to that class.</ref><br />
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* "is [[perpendicular]] to" (a relation on lines in [[Euclidean geometry]])<br />
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The [[empty relation]] on any set <math>X</math> is transitive<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Eggen|St. Andre|2006|loc=p. 146}}</ref><ref>https://courses.engr.illinois.edu/cs173/sp2011/Lectures/relations.pdf</ref> because there are no elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> such that <math>aRb</math> and <math>bRc</math>, and hence the transitivity condition is [[vacuous truth|vacuously true]]. A relation {{math|''R''}} containing only one [[ordered pair]] is also transitive: if the ordered pair is of the form <math>(x, x)</math> for some <math>x \in X</math> the only such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> are <math>a=b=c=x</math>, and indeed in this case <math>aRc</math>, while if the ordered pair is not of the form <math>(x, x)</math> then there are no such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> and hence <math>R</math> is vacuously transitive.<br />
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The empty relation on any set <math>X</math> is transitive because there are no elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> such that <math>aRb</math> and <math>bRc</math>, and hence the transitivity condition is vacuously true. A relation containing only one ordered pair is also transitive: if the ordered pair is of the form <math>(x, x)</math> for some <math>x \in X</math> the only such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> are <math>a=b=c=x</math>, and indeed in this case <math>aRc</math>, while if the ordered pair is not of the form <math>(x, x)</math> then there are no such elements <math>a,b,c \in X</math> and hence <math>R</math> is vacuously transitive.<br />
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任何集合上的空关系是可传递的,因为 x </math > 中没有元素 < math > a,b,c,以至于 < math > aRb </math > 和 < math > bRc </math > ,因此传递条件是空的。一个只包含一个有序对的关系也是可传递的: 如果有序对是 < math > (x,x) </math > 对于 x </math > 中的某些 < math > x,那么 x </math > 中仅有的这样的元素 a,b,c 是 < math > a = b = c = x </math > ,在这种情况下确实是 < math > aRc </math > ,而如果有序对不是 < math > (x,x) </math > ,那么在 x </math > 中就不存在这样的数学元素 a,b,c,因此数学是虚的。<br />
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== Properties ==<br />
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=== Closure properties ===<br />
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* The [[inverse relation|inverse]] (converse) of a transitive relation is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "is a [[subset]] of" is transitive and "is a [[superset]] of" is its inverse, one can conclude that the latter is transitive as well.<br />
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* The intersection of two transitive relations is always transitive. For instance, knowing that "was born before" and "has the same first name as" are transitive, one can conclude that "was born before and also has the same first name as" is also transitive.<br />
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* The union of two transitive relations need not be transitive. For instance, "was born before or has the same first name as" is not a transitive relation, since e.g. [[Herbert Hoover]] is related to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], which is in turn related to [[Franklin Pierce]], while Hoover is not related to Franklin Pierce.<br />
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* The complement of a transitive relation need not be transitive. For instance, while "equal to" is transitive, "not equal to" is only transitive on sets with at most one element.<br />
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=== Other properties ===<br />
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A transitive relation is [[asymmetric relation|asymmetric]] if and only if it is [[irreflexive relation|irreflexive]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Flaška|first1=V.|last2=Ježek|first2=J.|last3=Kepka|first3=T.|last4=Kortelainen|first4=J.|title=Transitive Closures of Binary Relations I|year=2007|publisher=School of Mathematics - Physics Charles University|location=Prague|page=1|url=http://www.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~jezek/120/transitive1.pdf|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102214049/http://www.karlin.mff.cuni.cz/~jezek/120/transitive1.pdf|archivedate=2013-11-02}} Lemma 1.1 (iv). Note that this source refers to asymmetric relations as "strictly antisymmetric".</ref><br />
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A transitive relation is asymmetric if and only if it is irreflexive.<br />
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传递关系是不对称的当且仅当它是非反射性的。<br />
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A transitive relation need not be [[Reflexive relation|reflexive]]. When it is, it is called a [[preorder]]. For example, on set ''X'' = {1,2,3}:<br />
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A transitive relation need not be reflexive. When it is, it is called a preorder. For example, on set X = {1,2,3}:<br />
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传递关系不一定是反射性的。当它是时,它被称为一个预序。例如,在集合 x = {1,2,3}上:<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3), (3,2){{Hair space}}} is reflexive, but not transitive, as the pair (1,2) is absent,<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (1,3){{Hair space}}} is reflexive as well as transitive, so it is a preorder,<br />
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* ''R'' = {{{Hair space}}(1,1), (2,2), (3,3){{Hair space}}} is reflexive as well as transitive, another preorder.<br />
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==Transitive extensions and transitive closure==<br />
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{{main|Transitive closure}}<br />
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Let {{mvar|R}} be a binary relation on set {{mvar|X}}. The ''transitive extension'' of {{mvar|R}}, denoted {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}}, is the smallest binary relation on {{mvar|X}} such that {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}} contains {{mvar|R}}, and if {{math|(''a'', ''b'') ∈ ''R''}} and {{math|(''b'', ''c'') ∈ ''R''}} then {{math|(''a'', ''c'') ∈ ''R''<sub>1</sub>}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|loc=p. 111}}</ref> For example, suppose {{mvar|X}} is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let {{mvar|R}} be the relation on towns where {{math|(''A'', ''B'') ∈ ''R''}} if there is a road directly linking town {{mvar|A}} and town {{mvar|B}}. This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by {{math|(''A'', ''C'') ∈ ''R''<sub>1</sub>}} if you can travel between towns {{mvar|A}} and {{mvar|C}} by using at most two roads.<br />
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Let be a binary relation on set . The transitive extension of , denoted , is the smallest binary relation on such that contains , and if and then . For example, suppose is a set of towns, some of which are connected by roads. Let be the relation on towns where if there is a road directly linking town and town . This relation need not be transitive. The transitive extension of this relation can be defined by if you can travel between towns and by using at most two roads.<br />
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设是集合上的二元关系。表示的传递扩展是包含和 if 及 then 的最小二进制关系。例如,假设是一组城镇,其中一些由公路连接。如果有一条直接连接城镇的公路,就让它成为城镇之间的关系吧。这个关系不一定是可传递的。这种关系的传递性扩展可以定义为,如果你可以在城镇之间旅行,最多使用两条道路。<br />
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If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if {{mvar|R}} is a transitive relation then {{math|1=''R''<sub>1</sub> = ''R''}}.<br />
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If a relation is transitive then its transitive extension is itself, that is, if is a transitive relation then .<br />
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如果一个关系是可传递的,那么它的可传递扩展就是它自己,也就是说,如果它是一个传递关系。<br />
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The transitive extension of {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}} would be denoted by {{math|''R''<sub>2</sub>}}, and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of {{math|''R''<sub>''i''</sub>}} would be {{math|''R''<sub>''i'' + 1</sub>}}. The ''transitive closure'' of {{mvar|R}}, denoted by {{math|''R''*}} or {{math|''R''<sup>∞</sup>}} is the set union of {{mvar|R}}, {{math|''R''<sub>1</sub>}}, {{math|''R''<sub>2</sub>}}, ... .<ref name=Liu112>{{harvnb|Liu|1985|loc=p. 112}}</ref><br />
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The transitive extension of would be denoted by , and continuing in this way, in general, the transitive extension of would be . The transitive closure of , denoted by or is the set union of , , , ... .<br />
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的传递性扩展可以用来表示,并以这种方式继续下去,一般来说,的传递性扩展可以是。传递闭包的集合,表示或者是,,,... 的集合。<br />
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The transitive closure of a relation is a transitive relation.<ref name=Liu112 /><br />
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The transitive closure of a relation is a transitive relation. However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, equivalence relations – , those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.<br />
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关系的传递闭包就是传递关系。然而,有一个公式可以计算同时具有自反性、对称性和传递性的关系的数量——换句话说,就是等价关系——这些关系具有对称性和传递性,具有对称性、传递性和反对称性,以及具有完全性、传递性和反对称性。Pfeiffer 已经在这个方向上取得了一些进展,将这些性质的组合表示为彼此的关系,但是仍然计算任何一个是困难的。参见。<br />
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The relation "is the birth parent of" on a set of people is not a transitive relation. However, in biology the need often arises to consider birth parenthood over an arbitrary number of generations: the relation "is a birth ancestor of" ''is'' a transitive relation and it is the transitive closure of the relation "is the birth parent of".<br />
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For the example of towns and roads above, {{math|(''A'', ''C'') ∈ ''R''*}} provided you can travel between towns {{mvar|A}} and {{mvar|C}} using any number of roads.<br />
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The [[Rock–paper–scissors game is based on an intransitive and antitransitive relation "x beats y".]]<br />
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[石头-剪刀-布游戏是基于一个不及物和反传递的关系“ x 拍 y”]<br />
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== Relation properties that require transitivity ==<br />
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A relation R is called intransitive if it is not transitive, that is, if xRy and yRz, but not xRz, for some x, y, z.<br />
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如果关系 r 不是传递的,则称之为不传递的,也就是说,对于某些 x,y,z,如果 xRy 和 yRz 是不传递的,则称之为不传递的。<br />
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* [[Preorder]] – a [[reflexive relation|reflexive]] transitive relation<br />
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In contrast, a relation R is called antitransitive if xRy and yRz always implies that xRz does not hold.<br />
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相反,如果 xRy 和 yRz 总是暗示 xRz 不成立,则关系 r 被称为反传递关系。<br />
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* [[Partially ordered set|Partial order]] – an [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] preorder<br />
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For example, the relation defined by xRy if xy is an even number is intransitive, but not antitransitive. The relation defined by xRy if x is even and y is odd is both transitive and antitransitive. <br />
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例如,如果 xy 是偶数,由 xRy 定义的关系是不传递的,而不是反传递的。如果 x 是偶数,y 是奇数,则 xRy 定义的关系既是传递的又是反传递的。<br />
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* [[Total preorder]] – a [[total relation|total]] preorder<br />
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The relation defined by xRy if x is the successor number of y is both intransitive and antitransitive. Unexpected examples of intransitivity arise in situations such as political questions or group preferences.<br />
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如果 x 是 y 的继承数,则 xRy 定义的关系既是不及物关系,又是反及物关系。不及物性的意外例子出现在政治问题或群体偏好等情况下。<br />
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* [[Equivalence relation]] – a [[symmetric relation|symmetric]] preorder<br />
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* [[Strict weak ordering]] – a strict partial order in which incomparability is an equivalence relation<br />
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Generalized to stochastic versions (stochastic transitivity), the study of transitivity finds applications of in decision theory, psychometrics and utility models.<br />
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将及物性推广到随机变量(随机及物性) ,及物性的研究在决策理论、心理测量学和效用模型中都有应用。<br />
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* [[Total ordering]] – a [[total relation|total]], [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] transitive relation<br />
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A quasitransitive relation is another generalization; it is required to be transitive only on its non-symmetric part. Such relations are used in social choice theory or microeconomics.<br />
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拟顺序关系是另一种推广,它只要求在它的非对称部分是可传递的。这种关系被用于社会选择理论或微观经济学。<br />
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==Counting transitive relations==<br />
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No general formula that counts the number of transitive relations on a finite set {{OEIS|id=A006905}} is known.<ref>Steven R. Finch, [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~sfinch/csolve/posets.pdf "Transitive relations, topologies and partial orders"], 2003.</ref> However, there is a formula for finding the number of relations that are simultaneously reflexive, symmetric, and transitive – in other words, [[equivalence relation]]s – {{OEIS|id=A000110}}, those that are symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive, and antisymmetric. Pfeiffer<ref>Götz Pfeiffer, "[http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/journals/JIS/VOL7/Pfeiffer/pfeiffer6.html Counting Transitive Relations]", ''Journal of Integer Sequences'', Vol. 7 (2004), Article 04.3.2.</ref> has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is difficult. See also.<ref>Gunnar Brinkmann and Brendan D. McKay,"[http://cs.anu.edu.au/~bdm/papers/topologies.pdf Counting unlabelled topologies and transitive relations]"</ref><br />
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{{number of relations}}<br />
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== Related properties ==<br />
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[[File:Rock-paper-scissors.svg|alt=Cycle diagram|thumb|The [[Rock–paper–scissors]] game is based on an intransitive and antitransitive relation "''x'' beats ''y''".]]<br />
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A relation ''R'' is called ''[[intransitivity|intransitive]]'' if it is not transitive, that is, if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'', but not ''xRz'', for some ''x'', ''y'', ''z''.<br />
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In contrast, a relation ''R'' is called ''[[antitransitive]]'' if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' always implies that ''xRz'' does not hold.<br />
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For example, the relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''xy'' is an [[even number]] is intransitive,<ref>since e.g. 3''R''4 and 4''R''5, but not 3''R''5</ref> but not antitransitive.<ref>since e.g. 2''R''3 and 3''R''4 and 2''R''4</ref> The relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''x'' is even and ''y'' is [[odd number|odd]] is both transitive and antitransitive.<ref>since ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' can never happen</ref> <br />
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The relation defined by ''xRy'' if ''x'' is the [[successor function|successor]] number of ''y'' is both intransitive<ref>since e.g. 3''R''2 and 2''R''1, but not 3''R''1</ref> and antitransitive.<ref>since, more generally, ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' implies ''x''=''y''+1=''z''+2≠''z''+1, i.e. not ''xRz'', for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z''</ref> Unexpected examples of intransitivity arise in situations such as political questions or group preferences.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2018/11/preferences-are-not-transitive/|title=Preferences are not transitive|last=Drum|first=Kevin|date=November 2018|work=Mother Jones|access-date=2018-11-29}}</ref><br />
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Generalized to stochastic versions (''[[stochastic transitivity]]''), the study of transitivity finds applications of in [[decision theory]], [[psychometrics]] and [[Utilitarianism|utility models]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oliveira|first=I.F.D.|last2=Zehavi|first2=S.|last3=Davidov|first3=O.|date=August 2018|title=Stochastic transitivity: Axioms and models|journal=Journal of Mathematical Psychology|volume=85|pages=25–35|doi=10.1016/j.jmp.2018.06.002|issn=0022-2496}}</ref><br />
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A ''[[quasitransitive relation]]'' is another generalization; it is required to be transitive only on its non-symmetric part. Such relations are used in [[social choice theory]] or [[microeconomics]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Sen | first=A. | authorlink=Amartya Sen | title=Quasi-transitivity, rational choice and collective decisions | zbl=0181.47302 | journal=Rev. Econ. Stud. | volume=36 | issue=3 | pages=381–393 | year=1969 | doi=10.2307/2296434 | ref=harv | jstor=2296434 }}</ref><br />
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==See also==<br />
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* [[Transitive reduction]]<br />
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* [[Nontransitive dice]]<br />
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* [[Rational choice theory#Formal statement|Rational choice theory]]<br />
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* [[Hypothetical syllogism]] &mdash; transitivity of the material conditional<br />
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Category:Elementary algebra<br />
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类别: 初等代数<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Transitive relation]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[传递关系/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%90%88%E6%88%90%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%94%B5%E8%B7%AF&diff=17721合成生物电路2020-11-01T14:38:53Z<p>小趣木木:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,翻译字数共956,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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--[[用户:小趣木木|小趣木木]]([[用户讨论:小趣木木|讨论]])文本缺失 需要补充<br />
{{Synthetic biology}}<br />
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[[File:Lac Operon.svg|thumb|275px|Lac Operon|The ''lac'' operon is a natural biological circuit on which many synthetic circuits are based. Top: Repressed, Bottom: Active. <br /><br />
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[[File:Lac Operon.svg|thumb|275px|Lac Operon|The lac operon is a natural biological circuit on which many synthetic circuits are based. Top: Repressed, Bottom: Active. <br /><br />
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[文件: Lac Operon.svg | thumb | 275px | Lac Operon | Lac Operon | Lac Operon 是一种天然的生物电路,许多合成电路都是以它为基础的。上: 压抑,下: 活跃。< br/><br />
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'''''1'': RNA polymerase, ''2'': Repressor, ''3'': Promoter, ''4'': Operator, ''5'': Lactose, ''6'': ''lacZ'', ''7'': ''lacY'', ''8'': ''lacA''.]]<br />
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1: RNA polymerase, 2: Repressor, 3: Promoter, 4: Operator, 5: Lactose, 6: lacZ, 7: lacY, 8: lacA.]]<br />
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1: RNA 聚合酶,2: 抑制子,3: 启动子,4: 操作者,5: 乳糖,6: lacZ,7: lacY,8: lacA ]<br />
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'''Synthetic biological circuits''' are an application of [[synthetic biology]] where biological parts inside a [[Cell (biology)|cell]] are designed to perform logical functions mimicking those observed in [[electronic circuit]]s. The applications range from simply inducing production to adding a measurable element, like [[Green Fluorescent Protein|GFP]], to an existing [[Gene regulatory network|natural biological circuit]], to implementing completely new systems of many parts.<ref name="Kobayashi">{{cite journal | last1 = Kobayashi | first1 = H. | last2 = Kærn | first2 = M. | last3 = Araki | first3 = M. | last4 = Chung | first4 = K. | last5 = Gardner | first5 = T. S. | last6 = Cantor | first6 = C. R. | last7 = Collins | first7 = J. J. | year = 2004 | title = Programmable cells: Interfacing natural and engineered gene networks | journal = PNAS | volume = 101 | issue = 22| pages = 8414–8419 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0402940101 | pmid=15159530 | pmc=420408}}</ref><br />
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Synthetic biological circuits are an application of synthetic biology where biological parts inside a cell are designed to perform logical functions mimicking those observed in electronic circuits. The applications range from simply inducing production to adding a measurable element, like GFP, to an existing natural biological circuit, to implementing completely new systems of many parts.<br />
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合成生物电路是合成生物学的一种应用,细胞内的生物部件被设计成具有模仿电子电路的逻辑功能。应用范围从简单的诱导生产到添加一个可测量的元素,如绿色荧光蛋白,到现有的自然生物电路,再到实施由许多部分组成的全新系统。<br />
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[[Image:Protein translation.gif|thumb|300px| A [[ribosome]] is a [[biological machine]].]]<br />
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A [[ribosome is a biological machine.]]<br />
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[核糖体是一种生物机器]<br />
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The goal of synthetic biology is to generate an array of tunable and characterized parts, or modules, with which any desirable synthetic biological circuit can be easily designed and implemented.<ref name="SynBioFaq">{{cite web|title=Synthetic Biology: FAQ|url=http://syntheticbiology.org/FAQ.html|work=SyntheticBiology.org|accessdate=21 December 2011|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20021212065409/http://syntheticbiology.org/faq.html|archivedate=12 December 2002}}</ref> These circuits can serve as a method to modify cellular functions, create cellular responses to environmental conditions, or influence cellular development. By implementing rational, controllable logic elements in cellular systems, researchers can use living systems as engineered "[[biological machine]]s" to perform a vast range of useful functions.<ref name="Kobayashi"/><br />
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The goal of synthetic biology is to generate an array of tunable and characterized parts, or modules, with which any desirable synthetic biological circuit can be easily designed and implemented. These circuits can serve as a method to modify cellular functions, create cellular responses to environmental conditions, or influence cellular development. By implementing rational, controllable logic elements in cellular systems, researchers can use living systems as engineered "biological machines" to perform a vast range of useful functions. The second, by Michael Elowitz and Stanislas Leibler, showed that three repressor genes could be connected to form a negative feedback loop termed the Repressilator that produces self-sustaining oscillations of protein levels in E. coli.<br />
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合成生物学的目标是生成一系列可调和特征化的部件或模块,用这些部件或模块,任何理想的合成生物电路都可以轻松地设计和实现。这些电路可以作为一种方法来修改细胞功能,创造细胞响应环境条件,或影响细胞的发展。通过在细胞系统中实现合理、可控的逻辑元素,研究人员可以将活体系统作为工程化的“生物机器”来执行大量有用的功能。迈克尔 · 埃洛维茨(Michael Elowitz)和斯坦尼斯拉斯 · 雷布勒(Stanislas Leibler)的第二项研究表明,三个阻遏基因可以相互联系,形成一个负反馈环路,称为阻遏者(Repressilator) ,它可以在大肠杆菌中产生自我维持的蛋白质水平振荡。<br />
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==History==<br />
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Currently, synthetic circuits are a burgeoning area of research in systems biology with more publications detailing synthetic biological circuits published every year. There has been significant interest in encouraging education and outreach as well: the International Genetically Engineered Machines Competition manages the creation and standardization of BioBrick parts as a means to allow undergraduate and high school students to design their own synthetic biological circuits.<br />
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目前,合成电路是系统生物学研究的一个新兴领域,每年都有更多详细介绍合成生物电路的出版物出版。对于鼓励教育和推广也有很大的兴趣: 国际基因工程机器竞赛管理生物砖零件的创造和标准化,作为允许本科生和高中生设计自己的合成生物电路的一种手段。<br />
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The first natural gene circuit studied in detail was the [[lac operon]]. In studies of [[diauxie|diauxic growth]] of ''[[E. coli]]'' on two-sugar media, [[Jacques Monod]] and [[Francois Jacob]] discovered that ''E.coli'' preferentially consumes the more easily processed [[glucose]] before switching to [[lactose]] metabolism. They discovered that the mechanism that controlled the metabolic "switching" function was a two-part control mechanism on the lac operon. When lactose is present in the cell the [[enzyme]] [[β-galactosidase]] is produced to convert lactose into [[glucose]] or [[galactose]]. When lactose is absent in the cell the lac repressor inhibits the production of the enzyme β-galactosidase to prevent any inefficient processes within the cell.<br />
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The lac operon is used in the [[biotechnology]] industry for production of [[recombinant DNA|recombinant]] [[proteins]] for therapeutic use. The gene or genes for producing an [[exogenous]] protein are placed on a [[plasmid]] under the control of the lac promoter. Initially the cells are grown in a medium that does not contain lactose or other sugars, so the new genes are not expressed. Once the cells reach a certain point in their growth, [[IPTG|Isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)]] is added. IPTG, a molecule similar to lactose, but with a sulfur bond that is not hydrolyzable so that E. Coli does not digest it, is used to activate or "[[Regulation of gene expression#Inducible vs. repressible systems|induce]]" the production of the new protein. Once the cells are induced, it is difficult to remove IPTG from the cells and therefore it is difficult to stop expression.<br />
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Both immediate and long term applications exist for the use of synthetic biological circuits, including different applications for metabolic engineering, and synthetic biology. Those demonstrated successfully include pharmaceutical production, and fuel production. However methods involving direct genetic introduction are not inherently effective without invoking the basic principles of synthetic cellular circuits. For example, each of these successful systems employs a method to introduce all-or-none induction or expression. This is a biological circuit where a simple repressor or promoter is introduced to facilitate creation of the product, or inhibition of a competing pathway. However, with the limited understanding of cellular networks and natural circuitry, implementation of more robust schemes with more precise control and feedback is hindered. Therein lies the immediate interest in synthetic cellular circuits.<br />
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合成生物电路的近期和长期应用都存在,包括代谢工程学和合成生物学的不同应用。这些成功的示范包括制药生产和燃料生产。然而,如果不引用合成细胞电路的基本原理,涉及直接基因导入的方法并不是天生有效的。例如,每个成功的系统都使用一种方法来引入全或非的归纳或表达。这是一个生物电路,其中一个简单的阻遏或启动子介绍,以促进产品的创造,或抑制竞争通路。然而,由于对蜂窝网络和自然电路的了解有限,实施更精确的控制和反馈更健壮的方案受到阻碍。这就是人工合成蜂窝电路的直接利益所在。<br />
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Two early examples of synthetic biological circuits were published in [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] in 2000. One, by Tim Gardner, Charles Cantor, and [[James Collins (bioengineer)|Jim Collins]] working at [[Boston University]], demonstrated a "bistable" switch in ''E. coli''. The switch is turned on by heating the culture of bacteria and turned off by addition of IPTG. They used GFP as a reporter for their system.<ref name="Gardner">Gardner, T.s., Cantor, C.R., Collins, J. Construction of a genetic toggle switch in Escherichia coli. ''Nature'' 403, 339-342 (20 January 2000).</ref> The second, by [[Michael Elowitz]] and [[Stanislas Leibler]], showed that three repressor genes could be connected to form a negative feedback loop termed the [[Repressilator]] that produces self-sustaining oscillations of protein levels in ''E. coli.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stanislas Leibler|last2=Elowitz|first2=Michael B.|date=January 2000|title=A synthetic oscillatory network of transcriptional regulators|journal=Nature|volume=403|issue=6767|pages=335–338|doi=10.1038/35002125|pmid=10659856|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><br />
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Development in understanding cellular circuitry can lead to exciting new modifications, such as cells which can respond to environmental stimuli. For example, cells could be developed that signal toxic surroundings and react by activating pathways used to degrade the perceived toxin. To develop such a cell, it is necessary to create a complex synthetic cellular circuit which can respond appropriately to a given stimulus.<br />
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理解细胞电路的发展可以导致令人兴奋的新修改,例如可以对环境刺激作出反应的细胞。例如,细胞可以通过发出有毒环境的信号,并通过激活用于降解感知毒素的途径来进行反应。为了开发这样一个细胞,有必要创建一个复杂的合成细胞电路,可以适当地响应给定的刺激。<br />
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Currently, synthetic circuits are a burgeoning area of research in [[systems biology]] with more publications detailing synthetic biological circuits published every year.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Purnick | first1 = Priscilla E. M. | last2 = Weis | first2 = Ron | year = 2009 | title = The second wave of synthetic biology: from modules to systems | url = | journal = Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology | volume = 10 | issue = 6| pages = 410–422 | doi = 10.1038/nrm2698 | pmid=19461664}}</ref> There has been significant interest in encouraging education and outreach as well: the International Genetically Engineered Machines Competition<ref>International Genetically Engineered Machines (iGem) http://igem.org/Main_Page</ref> manages the creation and standardization of [[BioBrick]] parts as a means to allow undergraduate and high school students to design their own synthetic biological circuits.<br />
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Given synthetic cellular circuits represent a form of control for cellular activities, it can be reasoned that with complete understanding of cellular pathways, "plug and play" synthetic cells can be developed implementing only the pathways necessary for cell survival reproduction. From this cell, to be thought of as a minimal genome cell, one can add pieces from the toolbox to create a well defined pathway with appropriate synthetic circuitry for an effective feedback system. Because of the basic ground up construction method, and the proposed database of mapped circuitry pieces, techniques mirroring those used to model computer or electronic circuits can be used to redesign cells and model cells for easy troubleshooting and predictive behavior and yields.<br />
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鉴于合成细胞电路代表了一种控制细胞活动的形式,可以推断,只要完全了解细胞通路,就可以开发出只执行细胞生存繁殖所必需的通路的“即插即用”合成细胞。从这个细胞,被认为是一个最小的基因组细胞,一个人可以添加工具箱的片段,创造一个良好定义的路径与合适的合成电路为一个有效的反馈系统。由于基本的基础构造方法,以及提议的映射电路片数据库,镜像用于模拟计算机或电子电路的技术可用于重新设计单元和模型单元,以便于故障排除和预测行为和产量。<br />
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== Interest and goals ==<br />
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Both immediate and long term applications exist for the use of synthetic biological circuits, including different applications for [[metabolic engineering]], and [[synthetic biology]]. Those demonstrated successfully include pharmaceutical production,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ro | first1 = D.-K. | last2 = Paradise | first2 = E.M. | last3 = Ouellet | first3 = M. | last4 = Fisher | first4 = K.J. | last5 = Newman | first5 = K.L. | last6 = Ndungu | first6 = J.M. | last7 = Ho | first7 = K.A. | last8 = Eachus | first8 = R.A. | last9 = Ham | first9 = T.S. | last10 = Kirby | first10 = J. | last11 = Chang | first11 = M.C.Y. | last12 = Withers | first12 = S.T. | last13 = Shiba | first13 = Y. | last14 = Sarpong | first14 = R. | last15 = Keasling | first15 = J.D. | year = 2006 | title = Production of the antimalarial drug precursor artemisinic acid in engineered yeast | url = | journal = Nature | volume = 440 | issue = 7086| pages = 940–943 | doi=10.1038/nature04640 | pmid=16612385}}</ref> and fuel production.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fortman | first1 = J.L. | last2 = Chhabra | first2 = S. | last3 = Mukhopadhyay | first3 = A. | last4 = Chou | first4 = H. | last5 = Lee | first5 = T.S. | last6 = Steen | first6 = E. | last7 = Keasling | first7 = J.D. | year = 2008 | title = Biofuel alternatives to ethanol: pumping the microbial well | url = https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1013351/| journal = Trends Biotechnol | volume = 26 | issue = 7| pages = 375–381 | doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2008.03.008| pmid = 18471913 }}</ref> However methods involving direct genetic introduction are not inherently effective without invoking the basic principles of synthetic cellular circuits. For example, each of these successful systems employs a method to introduce all-or-none induction or expression. This is a biological circuit where a simple [[repressor]] or [[promoter (genetics)|promoter]] is introduced to facilitate creation of the product, or inhibition of a competing pathway. However, with the limited understanding of cellular networks and natural circuitry, implementation of more robust schemes with more precise control and feedback is hindered. Therein lies the immediate interest in synthetic cellular circuits.<br />
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Development in understanding cellular circuitry can lead to exciting new modifications, such as cells which can respond to environmental stimuli. For example, cells could be developed that signal toxic surroundings and react by activating pathways used to degrade the perceived toxin.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Keasling | first1 = J.D. | year = 2008 | title = Synthetic biology for synthetic chemistry. | url = | journal = ACS Chem Biol | volume = 3 | issue = 1| pages = 64–76 | doi=10.1021/cb7002434| pmid = 18205292 | title-link = synthetic chemistry }}</ref> To develop such a cell, it is necessary to create a complex synthetic cellular circuit which can respond appropriately to a given stimulus.<br />
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Repressilator<br />
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阻遏器<br />
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Mammalian tunable synthetic oscillator<br />
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哺乳动物可调谐合成振荡器<br />
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Given synthetic cellular circuits represent a form of control for cellular activities, it can be reasoned that with complete understanding of cellular pathways, "plug and play"<ref name="Kobayashi" /> cells with well defined genetic circuitry can be engineered. It is widely believed that if a proper toolbox of parts is generated,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lucks | first1 = Julius B | last2 = Qi | first2 = Lei | last3 = Whitaker | first3 = Weston R | last4 = Arkin | first4 = Adam P | year = 2008 | title = Toward scalable parts families for predictable design of biological circuits | url = | journal = Current Opinion in Microbiology | volume = 11 | issue = 6| pages = 567–573 | doi = 10.1016/j.mib.2008.10.002 | pmid = 18983935 }}</ref> synthetic cells can be developed implementing only the pathways necessary for cell survival reproduction. From this cell, to be thought of as a minimal [[genome]] cell, one can add pieces from the toolbox to create a well defined pathway with appropriate synthetic circuitry for an effective feedback system. Because of the basic ground up construction method, and the proposed database of mapped circuitry pieces, techniques mirroring those used to model computer or electronic circuits can be used to redesign cells and model cells for easy troubleshooting and predictive behavior and yields.<br />
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Bacterial tunable synthetic oscillator<br />
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细菌可调谐合成振荡器<br />
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Coupled bacterial oscillator<br />
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耦合细菌振荡器<br />
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== Example circuits ==<br />
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Globally coupled bacterial oscillator<br />
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全球耦合细菌振荡器<br />
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Elowitz et al. and Fung et al. created oscillatory circuits that use multiple self-regulating mechanisms to create a time-dependent oscillation of gene product expression. <br />
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埃洛维茨等人。和 Fung 等人。创造的振荡电路,使用多种自我调节机制,创造一个时间相关的振荡基因产品表达。<br />
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===Oscillators===<br />
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# [[Repressilator]]<br />
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# Mammalian tunable synthetic oscillator<br />
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Toggle-switch<br />
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拨动开关<br />
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# Bacterial tunable synthetic oscillator<br />
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Gardner et al. used mutual repression between two control units to create an implementation of a toggle switch capable of controlling cells in a bistable manner: transient stimuli resulting in persistent responses If Signal A AND Signal B are present, then the desired gene product will result. All promoters shown are inducible, activated by the displayed gene product. Each signal activates expression of a separate gene (shown in light blue). The expressed proteins then can either form a complete complex in cytosol, that is capable of activating expression of the output (shown), or can act separately to induce expression, such as separately removing an inhibiting protein and inducing activation of the uninhibited promoter.]]<br />
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加德纳等人。使用两个控制单元之间的相互抑制来创建一个能够以双稳态方式控制细胞的切换开关的实现: 如果信号 a 和信号 b 存在,那么所需的基因产物将产生持续性反应的瞬时刺激。所有显示的启动子都是诱导的,被显示的基因产物激活。每个信号激活一个单独基因的表达(如浅蓝色所示)。然后,表达的蛋白质可以在细胞溶胶中形成一个完整的复合体,能够激活输出的表达(如图所示) ,或者可以单独作用诱导表达,例如单独去除抑制蛋白和诱导激活不受抑制的启动子<br />
<br />
# Coupled bacterial oscillator<br />
<br />
# Globally coupled bacterial oscillator<br />
<br />
The logical [[OR gate.<br />
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逻辑的[或门。<br />
<br />
Elowitz et al. and Fung et al. created oscillatory circuits that use multiple self-regulating mechanisms to create a time-dependent oscillation of gene product expression.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Elowitz | first1 = M.B. | last2 = Leibler | first2 = S. | year = 2000 | title = A synthetic oscillatory network of transcriptional regulators | pmid = 10659856| journal = Nature | volume = 403 | issue = 6767| pages = 335–338 | doi=10.1038/35002125}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fung | first1 = E. | last2 = Wong | first2 = W.W. | last3 = Suen | first3 = J.K. | last4 = Bulter | first4 = T. | last5 = Lee | first5 = S. | last6 = Liao | first6 = J.C. | year = 2005 | title = A synthetic gene–metabolic oscillator | url = | journal = Nature | volume = 435 | issue = 7038| pages = 118–122 | doi=10.1038/nature03508| pmid = 15875027 }}</ref> <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Bistable switches===<br />
<br />
Synthetic gene circuits can control gene expression heterogeneity can be controlled independently of the gene expression mean.<br />
<br />
合成基因电路可以控制基因表达的异质性,可以独立于基因表达的平均值进行控制。<br />
<br />
# Toggle-switch<br />
<br />
Gardner et al. used mutual repression between two control units to create an implementation of a toggle switch capable of controlling cells in a bistable manner: transient stimuli resulting in persistent responses<ref name="Gardner" />.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Engineered systems are the result of implementation of combinations of different control mechanisms. A limited counting mechanism was implemented by a pulse-controlled gene cascade and application of logic elements enables genetic "programming" of cells as in the research of Tabor et al., which synthesized a photosensitive bacterial edge detection program.<br />
<br />
工程系统是不同控制机制组合的结果。通过一个脉冲控制的基因级联实现了一个有限的计数机制,逻辑元件的应用使细胞的遗传“编程”成为可能。泰伯等人合成了一个光敏细菌边缘检测程序。<br />
<br />
===Logical operators===<br />
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[[File:SynBioCirc-AndLogicGate.jpg|frame|center|The logical [[AND gate]].<ref name="rocha">{{cite journal | last1 = Silva-Rocha | first1 = R. | last2 = de Lorenzo | first2 = V. | year = 2008 | title = Mining logic gates in prokaryotic transcriptional regulation networks | url = | journal = FEBS Letters | volume = 582 | issue = 8| pages = 1237–1244 | doi=10.1016/j.febslet.2008.01.060 | pmid=18275855}}</ref><ref name="buchler">{{cite journal | last1 = Buchler | first1 = N.E. | last2 = Gerland | first2 = U. | last3 = Hwa | first3 = T. | year = 2003 | title = On schemes of combinatorial transcription logic | journal = PNAS | volume = 100 | issue = 9| pages = 5136–5141 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0930314100 | pmid=12702751 | pmc=404558}}</ref> If Signal A '''AND''' Signal B are present, then the desired gene product will result. All promoters shown are inducible, activated by the displayed gene product. Each signal activates expression of a separate gene (shown in light blue). The expressed proteins then can either form a complete complex in [[cytosol]], that is capable of activating expression of the output (shown), or can act separately to induce expression, such as separately removing an inhibiting protein and inducing activation of the uninhibited promoter.]]<br />
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<br />
Computational design and evaluation of DNA circuits to achieve optimal performance<br />
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实现最佳性能的 DNA 电路的计算设计和评估<br />
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[[File:SynBioCirc-OrLogicGate.jpg|frame|center|The logical [[OR gate]].<ref name="rocha" /><ref name="buchler" /> If Signal A '''OR''' Signal B are present, then the desired gene product will result. All promoters shown are inducible. Either signal is capable of activating the expression of the output gene product, and only the action of a single promoter is required for gene expression. Post-transcriptional regulation mechanisms can prevent the presence of both inputs producing a compounded high output, such as implementing a low binding affinity [[ribosome binding site]].]]<br />
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Recent developments in artificial gene synthesis and the corresponding increase in competition within the industry have led to a significant drop in price and wait time of gene synthesis and helped improve methods used in circuit design. At the moment, circuit design is improving at a slow pace because of insufficient organization of known multiple gene interactions and mathematical models. This issue is being addressed by applying computer-aided design (CAD) software to provide multimedia representations of circuits through images, text and programming language applied to biological circuits. Some of the more well known CAD programs include GenoCAD, Clotho framework and j5. GenoCAD uses grammars, which are either opensource or user generated "rules" which include the available genes and known gene interactions for cloning organisms. Clotho framework uses the Biobrick standard rules.<br />
<br />
最近在人工基因合成法领域的发展和行业内竞争的相应增加已经导致了基因合成的价格和等待时间的显著下降,并且帮助改进了电路设计中使用的方法。目前,由于对已知的多基因相互作用和数学模型的组织不足,电路设计正在缓慢地改进。这个问题正在通过应用计算机辅助设计计算机辅助设计(CAD)软件来解决,通过图像、文本和应用于生物电路的编程语言来提供电路的多媒体表示。一些更著名的 CAD 程序包括 GenoCAD,Clotho 框架和 j5。GenoCAD 使用语法,这些语法要么是开源的,要么是用户生成的“规则” ,其中包括克隆生物的可用基因和已知的基因相互作用。Clotho 框架使用 Biobrick 标准规则。<br />
<br />
[[File:SynBioCirc-NandLogicGate.jpg|frame|center|The logical [[Negated AND gate]].<ref name="rocha" /><ref name="buchler" /> If Signal A '''AND''' Signal B are present, then the desired gene product will '''NOT''' result. All promoters shown are inducible. The activating promoter for the output gene is constitutive, and thus not shown. The constitutive promoter for the output gene keeps it "on" and is only deactivated when (similar to the AND gate) a complex as a result of two input signal gene products blocks the expression of the output gene.]]<br />
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<br />
<br />
===Analog tuners===<br />
<br />
Using negative feedback and identical promoters, linearizer gene circuits can impose uniform gene expression that depends linearly on extracellular chemical inducer concentration.<ref name="pmid19279212">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nevozhay D, Adams RM, Murphy KF, Josic K, Balázsi G| title = Negative autoregulation linearizes the dose-response and suppresses the heterogeneity of gene expression | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 106 | issue = 13 | pages = 5123-8 | date = March 31, 2009 | pmid = 19279212 | pmc = 2654390 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0809901106 }}</ref><br />
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<br />
<br />
===Controllers of gene expression heterogeneity===<br />
<br />
Synthetic gene circuits can control gene expression heterogeneity can be controlled independently of the gene expression mean.<ref name="pmid17189188">{{cite journal | vauthors = Blake WJ, Balázsi G, Kohanski MA, Isaacs FJ, Murphy KF, Kuang Y, Cantor CR, Walt DR, Collins JJ| title = Phenotypic Consequences of Promoter-Mediated Transcriptional Noise | journal = Molec. Cell | volume = 24 | issue = 6 | pages = 853-65 | date = December 28, 2006 | pmid = 17189188 | doi = 10.1016/j.molcel.2006.11.003 }}</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Other engineered systems===<br />
<br />
<!--- Categories ---><br />
<br />
< ! ——类别—— > <br />
<br />
Engineered systems are the result of implementation of combinations of different control mechanisms. A limited counting mechanism was implemented by a pulse-controlled gene cascade<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Friedland | first1 = A.E. | last2 = Lu | first2 = T.K | last3 = Wang | first3 = X. | last4 = Shi | first4 = D. | last5 = Church | first5 = G. | last6 = Collins | first6 = J.J. | year = 2009 | title = Synthetic Gene Networks That Count | url = | journal = Science | volume = 324 | issue = 5931| pages = 1199–1202 | doi=10.1126/science.1172005 | pmid=19478183 | pmc=2690711}}</ref> and application of logic elements enables genetic "programming" of cells as in the research of Tabor et al., which synthesized a photosensitive bacterial edge detection program.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tabor | first1 = J.J. | last2 = Salis | first2 = H.M. | last3 = Simpson | first3 = Z.B. | last4 = Chevalier | first4 = A.A. | last5 = Levskaya | first5 = A. | last6 = Marcotte | first6 = E.M. | last7 = Voigt | first7 = C.A. | last8 = Ellington | first8 = A.D. | year = 2009 | title = A Synthetic Edge Detection Program | url = | journal = Cell | volume = 137 | issue = 7| pages = 1272–1281 | doi=10.1016/j.cell.2009.04.048| pmid = 19563759 | pmc = 2775486 }}</ref><br />
<br />
Category:Synthetic biology<br />
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类别: 合成生物学<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
<br />
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Synthetic biological circuit]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[合成生物电路/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%9B%BE%EF%BC%88%E6%8A%BD%E8%B1%A1%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E7%B1%BB%E5%9E%8B%EF%BC%89&diff=17708图(抽象数据类型)2020-11-01T13:38:08Z<p>小趣木木:/* Operations 操作方式 */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''粗体文字''' --[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])在篇首写下 本词条由[[用户名]]初步翻译<br><br />
本词条由923397935初步翻译<br><br />
此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
由CecileLi初步审校<br />
<br />
[[File:Directed.svg|160px|thumb|A [[directed graph]] with three [[Vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] (blue circles) and three [[Edge (graph theory)|edges]] (black arrows).]]<br><br />
图1:A [[directed graph]] with three [[Vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] (blue circles) and three [[Edge (graph theory)|edges]] (black arrows).<br><br />
一个有三个蓝色圆圈(点('''<font color="#ff8000">图论 Graph Theory</font>''')/顶点)和三条黑色箭头的边(边(图论)的有向图。<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])注意图的格式 转行写[图1: 英文加翻译内容]<br />
A [[directed graph with three vertices (blue circles) and three edges (black arrows).]]<br />
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一个有三个顶点(蓝色圆圈)和三条边(黑色箭头)的'''<font color="#ff8000">有向图 Directed Graph</font>'''。<br />
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In [[computer science]], a '''graph''' is an [[abstract data type]] that is meant to implement the [[Graph (discrete mathematics)|undirected graph]] and [[directed graph]] concepts from the field of [[graph theory]] within [[mathematics]].<br />
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In computer science, a graph is an abstract data type that is meant to implement the undirected graph and directed graph concepts from the field of graph theory within mathematics.<br />
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在计算机科学中,图是一种抽象的数据类型,用来展现数学中图论领域中的'''<font color="#ff8000">无向图 Undirected Graph</font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">有向图 Directed Graph</font>'''的概念。<br />
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A graph data structure consists of a finite (and possibly mutable) [[Set (computer science)|set]] of ''vertices'' (also called ''nodes'' or ''points''), together with a set of unordered pairs of these vertices for an undirected graph or a set of ordered pairs for a directed graph. These pairs are known as ''edges'' (also called ''links'' or ''lines''), and for a directed graph are also known as ''arrows''. The vertices may be part of the graph structure, or may be external entities represented by integer indices or [[Reference (computer science)|references]].<br />
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A graph data structure consists of a finite (and possibly mutable) set of vertices (also called nodes or points), together with a set of unordered pairs of these vertices for an undirected graph or a set of ordered pairs for a directed graph. These pairs are known as edges (also called links or lines), and for a directed graph are also known as arrows. The vertices may be part of the graph structure, or may be external entities represented by integer indices or references.<br />
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一个图的数据结构由一个有限的(也可能是可变的)'''<font color="#ff8000">顶点集 Set Of Vertices</font>'''(也称为节点或点) ,以及一组无向图的无序顶点对或有向图的有序顶点对组成。这些连线被称为边(也称为链接或直线) ,对于有向图,也称为箭头。顶点可以是图结构的一部分,也可以是由整数索引或引用表示的外部实体。<br />
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A graph data structure may also associate to each edge some ''edge value'', such as a symbolic label or a numeric attribute (cost, capacity, length, etc.).<br />
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A graph data structure may also associate to each edge some edge value, such as a symbolic label or a numeric attribute (cost, capacity, length, etc.).<br />
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图形数据结构还可以为每条边关联一些边值,如符号标签或数字属性(成本、容量、长度等)。<br />
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==Operations 操作方式==<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])章节名记得翻译<br />
The basic operations provided by a graph data structure ''G'' usually include:<ref name="gt-ops">See, e.g. {{harvtxt|Goodrich|Tamassia|2015}}, Section 13.1.2: Operations on graphs, p. 360. For a more detailed set of operations, see {{citation|contribution=Chapter 6: Graphs and their data structures|pages=240–282|title=LEDA: A platform for combinatorial and geometric computing|first1=K.|last1=Mehlhorn|author1-link=Kurt Mehlhorn|first2=S.|last2=Näher|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999}}.</ref><br />
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The basic operations provided by a graph data structure G usually include:<br />
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图形''G'' 的数据结构提供的基本操作通常包括:<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])变量斜体<br />
* <code>adjacent</code>(''G'', ''x'', ''y''): tests whether there is an edge from the vertex ''x'' to the vertex ''y'';<br />
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* <code>neighbors</code>(''G'', ''x''): lists all vertices ''y'' such that there is an edge from the vertex ''x'' to the vertex ''y'';<br />
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* <code>add_vertex</code>(''G'', ''x''): adds the vertex ''x'', if it is not there;<br />
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* <code>remove_vertex</code>(''G'', ''x''): removes the vertex ''x'', if it is there;<br />
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* <code>add_edge</code>(''G'', ''x'', ''y''): adds the edge from the vertex ''x'' to the vertex ''y'', if it is not there;<br />
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* <code>remove_edge</code>(''G'', ''x'', ''y''): removes the edge from the vertex ''x'' to the vertex ''y'', if it is there;<br />
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* <code>get_vertex_value</code>(''G'', ''x''): returns the value associated with the vertex ''x'';<br />
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* <code>set_vertex_value</code>(''G'', ''x'', ''v''): sets the value associated with the vertex ''x'' to ''v''.<br />
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* <code>adjacent</code>(" G ", " x ", " y "):检验顶点" x "到顶点" y "是否有边;<br />
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* <code>neighbors</code>(“G”,“x”):列出所有顶点“y”,使顶点“x”有一条边到顶点“y”;<br />
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* <code> add_vertex > < /代码(“G”、“x”):添加顶点“x”,如果它是不存在的;<br />
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* <code>remove_vertex</code>(" G ", " x "):删除顶点" x "(如果存在的话);<br />
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* <code>add_edge</code>(" G ", " x ", " y "):将顶点" x "的边添加到顶点" y "(如果不存在的话);<br />
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* <code>remove_edge</code>(" G ", " x ", " y "):将顶点" x "的边移到顶点" y "的边(如果存在的话);<br />
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* <code>get_vertex_value</code>(" G ", " x "):返回与顶点" x "相关的值;<br />
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* <code> set_vertex_value > </code>(“G”、“x”、“v”):设置顶点的值与“x”“v”。<br />
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Structures that associate values to the edges usually also provide:<ref name="gt-ops"/><br />
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Structures that associate values to the edges usually also provide:<br />
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将值关联到边的结构通常还提供:<br />
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* <code>get_edge_value</code>(''G'', ''x'', ''y''): returns the value associated with the edge (''x'', ''y'');<br />
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* <code>set_edge_value</code>(''G'', ''x'', ''y'', ''v''): sets the value associated with the edge (''x'', ''y'') to ''v''.<br />
* <code>get_edge_value</code>(''G'', ''x'', ''y''): 连接点 (''x'', ''y'')的返回值;<br />
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* <code>set_edge_value</code>(''G'', ''x'', ''y'', ''v''): 连接点(''x'', ''y'') 到 ''v''的设置值.<br />
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==Representations 表示==<br />
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Different data structures for the representation of graphs are used in practice:<br />
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Different data structures for the representation of graphs are used in practice:<br />
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图表示的不同数据结构在实践中的使用:<br />
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; [[Adjacency list]]<ref>{{harvtxt|Cormen|Leiserson|Rivest|Stein|2001}}, pp. 528–529; {{harvtxt|Goodrich|Tamassia|2015}}, pp. 361-362.</ref><br />
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Adjacency list<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">邻接表 Adjacency List</font>'''<br />
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: Vertices are stored as records or objects, and every vertex stores a [[list (computing)|list]] of adjacent vertices. This data structure allows the storage of additional data on the vertices. Additional data can be stored if edges are also stored as objects, in which case each vertex stores its incident edges and each edge stores its incident vertices.<br />
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Vertices are stored as records or objects, and every vertex stores a list of adjacent vertices. This data structure allows the storage of additional data on the vertices. Additional data can be stored if edges are also stored as objects, in which case each vertex stores its incident edges and each edge stores its incident vertices.<br />
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顶点作为记录或存储对象,每个顶点存储一个相邻顶点列表。这种数据结构允许在顶点上存储额外的数据。如果边也被存储为对象,那么它就可以存储额外的数据,在这种情况下,每个顶点记录着它的关联边,每个边又存储它的关联顶点。<br />
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; [[Adjacency matrix]]<ref>{{harvtxt|Cormen|Leiserson|Rivest|Stein|2001}}, pp. 529–530; {{harvtxt|Goodrich|Tamassia|2015}}, p.&nbsp;363.</ref><br />
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Adjacency matrix<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">邻接矩阵 Adjacency Matrix</font>'''<br />
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: A two-dimensional matrix, in which the rows represent source vertices and columns represent destination vertices. Data on edges and vertices must be stored externally. Only the cost for one edge can be stored between each pair of vertices.<br />
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A two-dimensional matrix, in which the rows represent source vertices and columns represent destination vertices. Data on edges and vertices must be stored externally. Only the cost for one edge can be stored between each pair of vertices.<br />
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一个二维矩阵,其中行表示'''<font color="#ff8000">源顶点 Source Vertices</font>''',列表示'''<font color="#ff8000">目标顶点 Destination Vertices</font>'''。关于边和顶点的数据必须存储在外部。只有一条边时它可以被存储在每对顶点之间。<br />
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; [[Incidence matrix]]<ref>{{harvtxt|Cormen|Leiserson|Rivest|Stein|2001}}, Exercise 22.1-7, p.&nbsp;531.</ref><br />
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Incidence matrix<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">关联矩阵 Incidence Matrix</font>'''<br />
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: A two-dimensional Boolean matrix, in which the rows represent the vertices and columns represent the edges. The entries indicate whether the vertex at a row is incident to the edge at a column.<br />
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A two-dimensional Boolean matrix, in which the rows represent the vertices and columns represent the edges. The entries indicate whether the vertex at a row is incident to the edge at a column.<br />
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一个二维布尔矩阵,其中行表示顶点,列表示边。'''<font color="#32CD32">矩阵的条目值</font>'''The entries 表明行上的顶点是否与列上的边相关联。--信白该句存疑.翻译成条目值感觉不合适<br />
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The following table gives the [[time complexity]] cost of performing various operations on graphs, for each of these representations, with |''V'' | the number of vertices and |''E'' | the number of edges.{{Citation needed|reason=Reliable source needed for the entire table below.|date=November 2011}} In the matrix representations, the entries encode the cost of following an edge. The cost of edges that are not present are assumed to be ∞.<br />
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The following table gives the time complexity cost of performing various operations on graphs, for each of these representations, with |V | the number of vertices and |E | the number of edges. In the matrix representations, the entries encode the cost of following an edge. The cost of edges that are not present are assumed to be ∞.<br />
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下表给出了在图上执行各种操作的'''<font color="#ff8000">时间复杂度 Time Complexity</font>''',对于每个表达式,用 | <big>V</big> | 顶点数和 | <big>E</big> | 边数。在矩阵表示中,'''<font color="#32CD32">条目值</font>'''the entries跟随边的代价进行编码。假定不存在的边的值为∞。<br />
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{| class="wikitable"<br />
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{| class="wikitable"<br />
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{ | class = “ wikitable”<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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!<br />
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!<br />
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!<br />
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! scope="col" | Adjacency list<br />
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! scope="col" | Adjacency list<br />
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!“ col” | 邻接表<br />
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! scope="col" | Adjacency matrix<br />
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! scope="col" | Adjacency matrix<br />
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!范围 = “ col” | 邻接矩阵<br />
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! scope="col" | Incidence matrix<br />
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! scope="col" | Incidence matrix<br />
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!范围 = “ col” | 关联矩阵<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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|-<br />
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! scope="row" {{rh2|align=left}} | Store graph<br />
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! scope="row" | Store graph<br />
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!Scope = “ row” | Store graph<br />
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| <math>O(|V|+|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|+|E|)</math><br />
<br />
(| v | + | e |)<br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|^2)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|^2)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| v | ^ 2)<br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|\cdot|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|\cdot|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| v | cdot | e |)<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
! scope="row" {{rh2|align=left}} | Add vertex<br />
<br />
! scope="row" | Add vertex<br />
<br />
!Scope = “ row” | Add vertex<br />
<br />
| <math>O(1)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(1)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (1) </math > <br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|^2)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|^2)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| v | ^ 2)<br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|\cdot|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|\cdot|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| v | cdot | e |)<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
! scope="row" {{rh2|align=left}} | Add edge<br />
<br />
! scope="row" | Add edge<br />
<br />
!Scope = “ row” | Add edge<br />
<br />
| <math>O(1)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(1)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (1) </math > <br />
<br />
| <math>O(1)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(1)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (1) </math > <br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|\cdot|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|\cdot|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| v | cdot | e |)<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
! scope="row" {{rh2|align=left}} | Remove vertex<br />
<br />
! scope="row" | Remove vertex<br />
<br />
!Scope = “ row” | 删除顶点<br />
<br />
| <math>O(|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| e |)<br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|^2)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|^2)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| v | ^ 2)<br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|\cdot|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|\cdot|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| v | cdot | e |)<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
! scope="row" {{rh2|align=left}} | Remove edge<br />
<br />
! scope="row" | Remove edge<br />
<br />
!Scope = “ row” | Remove edge<br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| v |) </math > <br />
<br />
| <math>O(1)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(1)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (1) </math > <br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|\cdot|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|\cdot|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| v | cdot | e |)<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
! scope="row" {{rh2|align=left}} | Are vertices ''x'' and ''y'' adjacent (assuming that their storage positions are known)?<br />
<br />
! scope="row" | Are vertices x and y adjacent (assuming that their storage positions are known)?<br />
<br />
!Scope = “ row” | 顶点 x 和 y 是否相邻(假设它们的存储位置已知) ?<br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|V|)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| v |) </math > <br />
<br />
| <math>O(1)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(1)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (1) </math > <br />
<br />
| <math>O(|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| <math>O(|E|)</math><br />
<br />
| < math > o (| e |)<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|-<br />
<br />
! scope="row" {{rh2|align=left}} | Remarks<br />
<br />
! scope="row" | Remarks<br />
<br />
!Scope = “ row” | 备注<br />
<br />
| Slow to remove vertices and edges, because it needs to find all vertices or edges<br />
<br />
| Slow to remove vertices and edges, because it needs to find all vertices or edges<br />
<br />
移除顶点和边的速度很慢,因为它需要找到所有的顶点或边<br />
<br />
| Slow to add or remove vertices, because matrix must be resized/copied<br />
<br />
| Slow to add or remove vertices, because matrix must be resized/copied<br />
<br />
| 增加或删除顶点速度慢,因为矩阵必须调整大小/复制<br />
<br />
| Slow to add or remove vertices and edges, because matrix must be resized/copied<br />
<br />
| Slow to add or remove vertices and edges, because matrix must be resized/copied<br />
<br />
| 增加或删除顶点和边时速度慢,因为矩阵必须调整大小/复制<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Adjacency lists are generally preferred because they efficiently represent [[sparse graph]]s. An adjacency matrix is preferred if the graph is dense, that is the number of edges |''E'' | is close to the number of vertices squared, |''V'' |<sup>2</sup>, or if one must be able to quickly look up if there is an edge connecting two vertices.<ref name="clrs">{{citation |authorlink=Thomas H. Cormen |first=Thomas H. |last=Cormen |authorlink2=Charles E. Leiserson |first2=Charles E. |last2=Leiserson |authorlink3=Ronald L. Rivest |first3=Ronald L. |last3=Rivest |authorlink4=Clifford Stein |first4=Clifford |last4=Stein |year=2001 |title=[[Introduction to Algorithms]] |edition=Second |publisher=MIT Press and McGraw-Hill |isbn=0-262-03293-7 |chapter=Section 22.1: Representations of graphs |pages=527–531 }}.</ref><ref name="gt">{{citation|title=Algorithm Design and Applications|first1=Michael T.|last1=Goodrich|author1-link=Michael T. Goodrich|first2=Roberto|last2=Tamassia|author2-link=Roberto Tamassia|publisher=Wiley|year=2015|contribution=Section 13.1: Graph terminology and representations|pages=355–364}}.</ref><br />
<br />
Adjacency lists are generally preferred because they efficiently represent sparse graphs. An adjacency matrix is preferred if the graph is dense, that is the number of edges |E | is close to the number of vertices squared, |V |<sup>2</sup>, or if one must be able to quickly look up if there is an edge connecting two vertices.<br />
<br />
邻接表通常是首选的,因为它们能有效地表示'''<font color="#ff8000">稀疏图 Sparse Graph</font>'''。如果图是'''<font color="#ff8000">稠密图 Dense Graph</font>'''的,那么邻接矩阵是首选的,即边的数目 |<big>E</big>| 接近于顶点的平方数,|<big>V</big>|<sup>2</sup> ,或者说如果有一条边连接两个顶点,那么所选取的数据结构必须能满足快速查找到数据才行。<br />
<br />
== Parallel Graph Representations 图的并行化表示==<br />
<br><br />
<br />
The parallelization of graph problems faces significant challenges: Data-driven computations, unstructured problems, poor locality and high data access to computation ratio.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Bader|first=David|url=http://www.ams.org/conm/588/|title=Graph Partitioning and Graph Clustering|last2=Meyerhenke|first2=Henning|last3=Sanders|first3=Peter|last4=Wagner|first4=Dorothea|date=January 2013|publisher=American Mathematical Society|isbn=978-0-8218-9038-7|series=Contemporary Mathematics|volume=588|language=en|doi=10.1090/conm/588/11709}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=LUMSDAINE|first=ANDREW|last2=GREGOR|first2=DOUGLAS|last3=HENDRICKSON|first3=BRUCE|last4=BERRY|first4=JONATHAN|date=March 2007|title=CHALLENGES IN PARALLEL GRAPH PROCESSING|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0129626407002843|journal=Parallel Processing Letters|volume=17|issue=01|pages=5–20|doi=10.1142/s0129626407002843|issn=0129-6264}}</ref> The graph representation used for parallel architectures plays a significant role in facing those challenges. Poorly chosen representations may unnecessarily drive up the communication cost of the algorithm, which will decrease its [[scalability]]. In the following, shared and distributed memory architectures are considered.<br />
<br />
The parallelization of graph problems faces significant challenges: Data-driven computations, unstructured problems, poor locality and high data access to computation ratio. The graph representation used for parallel architectures plays a significant role in facing those challenges. Poorly chosen representations may unnecessarily drive up the communication cost of the algorithm, which will decrease its scalability. In the following, shared and distributed memory architectures are considered.<br />
<br />
图问题的并行化面临着重大的挑战: 数据驱动的计算、非结构化问题、局部性差和计算数据访问率高。用于并行架构的图表示在面对这些挑战时扮演着重要的角色。选择的表示方式不当可能会增加不必要的算法连接代价,从而降低算法的可扩展性。在下面,我们将考虑共享和分布式的内存架构。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
=== Shared memory 共享内存===<br />
<br><br />
<br />
In the case of a [[shared memory]] model, the graph representations used for parallel processing are the same as in the sequential case,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Sanders|first=Peter|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030252083|title=Sequential and Parallel Algorithms and Data Structures: The Basic Toolbox|last2=Mehlhorn|first2=Kurt|last3=Dietzfelbinger|first3=Martin|last4=Dementiev|first4=Roman|date=2019|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-25208-3|language=en}}</ref> since parallel read-only access to the graph representation (e.g. an [[adjacency list]]) is efficient in shared memory.<br />
<br />
In the case of a shared memory model, the graph representations used for parallel processing are the same as in the sequential case, since parallel read-only access to the graph representation (e.g. an adjacency list) is efficient in shared memory.<br />
<br />
在共享内存模型的情况下,之所以用于并行处理的图表示与顺序处理的方式相同,是因为对图表示的并行只读访问(例如:邻接表)是共享内存的有效方法。<br />
<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])通读一遍 注意多余符号的问题(例如:。邻接表)<br />
<br />
=== Distributed Memory 分布式存储===<br />
<br />
<br><br />
<br />
In the [[distributed memory]] model, the usual approach is to [[Graph partition|partition]] the vertex set <math>V</math> of the graph into <math>p</math> sets <math>V_0, \dots, V_{p-1}</math>. Here, <math>p</math> is the amount of available processing elements (PE). The vertex set partitions are then distributed to the PEs with matching index, additionally to the corresponding edges. Every PE has its own [[Subgraph (graph theory)|subgraph]] representation, where edges with an endpoint in another partition require special attention. For standard communication interfaces like [[Message Passing Interface|MPI]], the ID of the PE owning the other endpoint has to be identifiable. During computation in a distributed graph algorithms, passing information along these edges implies communication.<ref name=":0" /><br />
<br />
In the distributed memory model, the usual approach is to partition the vertex set <math>V</math> of the graph into <math>p</math> sets <math>V_0, \dots, V_{p-1}</math>. Here, <math>p</math> is the amount of available processing elements (PE). The vertex set partitions are then distributed to the PEs with matching index, additionally to the corresponding edges. Every PE has its own subgraph representation, where edges with an endpoint in another partition require special attention. For standard communication interfaces like MPI, the ID of the PE owning the other endpoint has to be identifiable. During computation in a distributed graph algorithms, passing information along these edges implies communication.<br />
<br />
在分布式存储模型中,常用的方法是将图的顶点集合<math>V</math> 分解为<math>P</math> 集合 <math> Vo,…,V{ p-1}</math> 。这里,<math>p</math> 是可用处理元素(PE)的数量。然后,顶点集合分区被分配到具有匹配索引的 PE 中,并附加到相应的边上。每个 PE 都有自己的子图表示法,其中带有另一个分区中端点的边需要特别注意。对于像 MPI 这样的标准通信接口,拥有其他端点的 PE 的 ID 必须是可识别的。在分布式图算法的计算过程中,沿着这些边传递信息意味着连接通信。<br />
<br />
--信白该句存疑Vo到Vp-1没写好<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Graph partition|Partitioning the graph]] needs to be done carefully - there is a trade-off between low communication and even size partitioning<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.graphengine.io/downloads/papers/ParallelProcessingOfGraphs.pdf|title=Parallel Processing of Graphs|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> But partitioning a graph is a NP-hard problem, so it is not feasible to calculate them. Instead, the following heuristics are used.<br />
<br />
Partitioning the graph needs to be done carefully - there is a trade-off between low communication and even size partitioning But partitioning a graph is a NP-hard problem, so it is not feasible to calculate them. Instead, the following heuristics are used.<br />
<br />
图的划分需要仔细地进行——在低效率连接和大小划分之间有一个权衡。但是图的划分是一个'''<font color="#ff8000"><big>NP</big>艰难的问题 NP-Hard Problem</font>,因此计算它们是不可行的。但是,我们可以使用以下启发式。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
1D partitioning: Every processor gets <math>n/p</math> vertices and the corresponding outgoing edges. This can be understood as a row-wise or column-wise decomposition of the adjacency matrix. For algorithms operating on this representation, this requires an All-to-All communication step as well as <math>\mathcal{O}(m)</math> message buffer sizes, as each PE potentially has outgoing edges to every other PE.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/2063384.2063471|title=Parallel breadth-first search on distributed memory systems {{!}} Proceedings of 2011 International Conference for High Performance Computing, Networking, Storage and Analysis|website=dl.acm.org|language=EN|doi=10.1145/2063384.2063471|access-date=2020-02-06}}</ref><br />
<br />
1D partitioning: Every processor gets <math>n/p</math> vertices and the corresponding outgoing edges. This can be understood as a row-wise or column-wise decomposition of the adjacency matrix. For algorithms operating on this representation, this requires an All-to-All communication step as well as <math>\mathcal{O}(m)</math> message buffer sizes, as each PE potentially has outgoing edges to every other PE.<br />
<br />
1D 分区: 每个处理器都会得到 <math>n/p</math> 顶点和相应的外边。这可以理解为按行或按列对邻接矩阵进行展开。对于在这种表示形式上运行的算法,需要一个 All-to-All 连接步骤以及 <math> mathcal{o}(m)</math> 消息缓冲区大小,因为每个 PE 可能具有相对于其他 PE 的输出边。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2D partitioning: Every processor gets a submatrix of the adjacency matrix. Assume the processors are aligned in a rectangle <math>p = p_r \times p_c</math>, where <math>p_r<br />
<br />
2D partitioning: Every processor gets a submatrix of the adjacency matrix. Assume the processors are aligned in a rectangle <math>p = p_r \times p_c</math>, where <math>p_r<br />
<br />
2 d 分区: 每个处理器都有一个邻接矩阵的子矩阵。假设处理器在一个矩形 <math>p = p_r 乘以 p_c</math> 中对齐,其中 <math>p_r</math>and<math>p_c</math>and<math>p_c[/math ]和[ math ]</math> are the amount of processing elements in each row and column, respectively. Then each processor gets a [[submatrix]] of the adjacency matrix of dimension <math>(n/p_r)\times(n/p_c)</math>. This can be visualized as a [[checkerboard]] pattern in a matrix.<ref name=":2" /> Therefore, each processing unit can only have outgoing edges to PEs in the same row and column. This bounds the amount of communication partners for each PE to <math>p_r + p_c - 1</math> out of <math>p = p_r \times p_c</math> possible ones.<br />
<br />
</math> are the amount of processing elements in each row and column, respectively. Then each processor gets a submatrix of the adjacency matrix of dimension <math>(n/p_r)\times(n/p_c)</math>. This can be visualized as a checkerboard pattern in a matrix. Therefore, each processing unit can only have outgoing edges to PEs in the same row and column. This bounds the amount of communication partners for each PE to <math>p_r + p_c - 1</math> out of <math>p = p_r \times p_c</math> possible ones.<br />
<br />
'''<font color="#32CD32"></math > 是每行和每列中处理元素的数量。然后每个处理器得到维数 <math> (n/p_r)乘以(n/p_c)</math> 的邻接矩阵。这可以可视化为矩阵中的棋盘格模式。因此,每个处理单元只能在同一行和列中具有 PE 的输出边。这将每个 PE 的通信伙伴的数量限制为 <math> p_r + p_c-1 </math> 出 <math> p = p_r 乘以 p_c </math> 可能的伙伴。</font>'''</math> are the amount of processing elements in each row and column, respectively. Then each processor gets a submatrix of the adjacency matrix of dimension <math>(n/p_r)\times(n/p_c)</math>. This can be visualized as a checkerboard pattern in a matrix. Therefore, each processing unit can only have outgoing edges to PEs in the same row and column. This bounds the amount of communication partners for each PE to <math>p_r + p_c - 1</math> out of <math>p = p_r \times p_c</math> possible ones.<br />
--信白该句存疑,</math>是代码吗?这块儿没明白怎么搞<br />
<br />
==See also 另请参见==<br />
<br />
* [[Graph traversal]] for graph walking strategies<br />
'''<font color="#ff8000">图的遍历 Graph Traversal</font>'''用于图遍历的策略<br />
* [[Graph database]] for graph (data structure) persistency<br />
'''<font color="#ff8000">图数据库 Graph Database</font>'''用于图(数据结构)的持久性<br />
* [[Graph rewriting]] for rule based transformations of graphs (graph data structures)<br />
'''<font color="#ff8000">图重构 Graph Rewriting</font>'''用于基于规则的图形转换(图数据结构)<br />
* [[Graph drawing software]] for software, systems, and providers of systems for drawing graphs<br />
'''<font color="#ff8000">画图软件 Graph Drawing Software</font>'''用于绘制图形的软件、系统和系统提供商<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])see also记得翻译完全<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])可以看看之前发的链接“集智百科翻译团队新手指南”按着上面的要求再核对一下 比如专业名词标橙 疑难句标绿<br />
<br />
==References 参考文献==<br />
<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links 外部链接==<br />
<br />
{{Commons category}}<br />
<br />
*[http://www.boost.org/libs/graph Boost Graph Library: a powerful C++ graph library] s.a. [[Boost (C++ libraries)]]<br />
<br />
*[https://networkx.github.com/ Networkx: a Python graph library]<br />
<br />
*[http://www.graphmatcher.com GraphMatcher] a java program to align directed/undirected graphs.<br />
<br />
*[http://graphblas.org GraphBLAS] A specification for a library interface for operations on graphs, with a particular focus on sparse graphs.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Graph representations}}<br />
<br />
{{Data structures}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Graph (Abstract Data Type)}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Graph theory]]<br />
<br />
Category:Graph theory<br />
<br />
范畴: 图论<br />
<br />
[[Category:Graph data structures| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Abstract data types]]<br />
<br />
Category:Abstract data types<br />
<br />
类别: 抽象数据类型<br />
<br />
[[Category:Graphs]]<br />
<br />
Category:Graphs<br />
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分类: 图表<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hypergraphs]]<br />
<br />
Category:Hypergraphs<br />
<br />
分类: 超图<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
<br />
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Graph (abstract data type)]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[图(抽象数据类型)/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E9%9B%86%E6%99%BA%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91%E7%BF%BB%E8%AF%91%E5%9B%A2%E9%98%9F%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E6%8C%87%E5%8D%97&diff=16516集智百科翻译团队工作指南2020-10-22T10:09:01Z<p>小趣木木:/* 规范性 */</p>
<hr />
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====领取渠道一 直接选择已有的词条任务====<br />
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注意:一般词条生产最晚应在一周内完成,根据所设积分可以大体推算完成日期。如积分在20以下,完成时间往后退一至两天,积分为20-50区间内,完成时间往后退三至四天,积分为50以上,原则上在一周内完成。有特殊情况则私聊[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]。<br />
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'''提交完词条任务后,即时就在[https://shimo.im/sheets/VH8pVcJtDVHqyDCJ/hl9sY 词条生产总表]领取下次的词条。<br />
'''<br />
====领取渠道二 选择自己感兴趣的词条作为自己的词条任务====<br />
点击石墨文档中的[https://shimo.im/sheets/VxGcDcJ6vJtQdkgQ/q1eR9 词条生产表]中的“机器已搬运”子表,选择自己感兴趣的词条并修改“是否翻译”一栏(将否改为是)。此外,为确保没有重复工作,在[https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E9%82%93%E5%B7%B4%E6%95%B0#Criticism_.E8.AF.84.E8.AE.BA 集智百科新版],[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/%E8%AF%BA%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E7%BB%B4%E7%BA%B3_Norbert_Wiener#.E7.9B.B8.E5.85.B3.E8.91.97.E4.BD.9C 集智百科旧版]搜索对应词条,查看编辑历史,确保其没有进行过翻译。汇总感兴趣的词条,填入到''[https://shimo.im/sheets/VH8pVcJtDVHqyDCJ/hl9sY 词条生产总表]'''对应日期阶段的任务表中,填写完成时间、领取人。并联系[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]填写对应积分。<br />
<br />
===明确生产形式===<br />
点击所领取词条下对应的'''“集智百科链接地址”''',首先查看页面是否存在英文文本缺失的问题,若存在,点击对应的英文wiki地址进行补充。对于公式显示错误或遇到其余页面显示问题,请私聊[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]进行反映。页面形式为两段重复的英文文本及由彩云小译初步翻译出来的中文文本。译者点击右上角的“登录”,登录上自己的账号,在编辑页面的最上端写上“本词条由[[用户名]]初步翻译”。<br />
<br />
以[[LFR算法]]为例,可看到以下界面,只需查看第二次出现的英文原文,对比中文进行翻译。点击“编辑”,即可编辑页面,其具体操作为:<br />
<br />
[[File:编辑操作.png|1000px]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
'''根据蓝色框内的英文,修改重译红色框中的中文。借助维基百科的英文原文进行翻译,利用翻译工具有彩云小译、网易有道翻译等翻译软件,译者需要自行翻译,将中文换为符合习惯的表达,多方查询相关释义,及时反馈,以确保专业性。'''<br />
<br />
[[File:翻译对比.png|1000px]]<br />
对于页面的基本操作可查看[https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83 编辑入门]<br />
<br />
===知识储备===<br />
<br />
可从集智学园,集智斑图以及公众号搜索相关资料,查看中文维基百科中相对应的词条,对词条内容有一个初步的认识和了解;将查阅到的资料、课程相关链接放到编者推荐、相关链接的内容中;可从[https://campus.swarma.org/ 集智学园]查看相关课程资源、在[https://swarma.org/ 集智俱乐部]中的集智斑图获取学习路径,从'''集智微信公众号: 集智俱乐部'''查看相关科普文章和学习资源。<br />
<br />
===明确生产职责===<br />
译者需将英文wiki的原文通畅且较为准确、完整、专业的人工翻译出来,符合中文的语言表达,借助机器翻译但不完全是机器翻译。<br />
===达到翻译过程中的生产要求===<br />
====规范性====<br />
<br />
*专业名词格式<br />
译者通过英文原文中含有链接的英文、小标题对应的英文确定哪些为专业名词。在确定过程中注意人名、机构、与词条本身的专业领域关系不大的名词不在考虑范围内,通过语法[[File:标橙语法.png|300px]]'''<font color="#ff8000"> 专业名词</font>'''即可对专业名词标橙。且将专业名词的格式设为“中文+英文”(注:不加括号,英文首字母均大写),示例:[[File:专业名词格式.png|200px]]<br />
'''且专有名词首次出现,中文+英文,后续再次出现统一用同一释义的中文;人名首次出现,中文+英文,后续再次出现统一用一样的英文。'''<br />
*文本格式<br />
1、中文文本用中文对应括号() 英文数学文本用英文对应括号()<br><br />
<br />
2、人名译名缩写大写 如j.a 实际上应为J.A<br><br />
<br />
3、排除多余的句点"。。"→"。"<br><br />
<br />
4、中文文本用“。”而不是“.” <br><br />
<br />
5、变量采用斜体 ''N''<br><br />
<br />
<br />
*图片的图注翻译格式<br />
图注翻译格式为:【图1:英文原文+翻译内容】<br />
<br />
*文本统一<br />
注意全文一致同一术语释义、同一人名释义(与集智俱乐部公众号一致)<br />
<br />
*利用讨论标注出省略翻译、意译的句子<br />
利用讨论语法[[File:讨论.png|100px]]添加讨论<br />
--[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]([[用户讨论:趣木木|讨论]])该句省译<br />
<br />
*具体年份不宜省略翻译,如"2012年"不可只写"12年"<br />
<br />
====完整性====<br />
避免存在漏译的情况,特别注意图注、“see also”部分、章节名的翻译完整。<br />
<br />
====专业性====<br />
*词条标题核实<br />
如果对词条标题的意思有异议,可以私聊[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]进行反映。核实之后,会设置重定向。<br />
*专业名词查询释义<br />
对于筛选出来的专业名词请在[https://campus.swarma.org/translation/ 翻译词库]中进行查询,不论是否查询得到,均需将专业名词标橙。对于查询到的释义,采用该专业名词释义;对于未查询到的释义,点击“新增翻译词”,补充上未查询到的英文,中文填为“待补充”。其具体操作如下,操作完毕即有下图中蓝色框内的形式。<br />
[[File:词库新增.png|1000px]]<br />
此外,还可在[http://dict.cnki.net/dict_result.aspx cnki翻译助手]里面初步检索专业名词,选取引用量最高的释义,待后续专家审校进行反馈纠正释义后,再将纠正的准确释义添加在[https://campus.swarma.org/translation/ 翻译词库]中 <br />
* 疑难句标绿<br />
对于自己翻译不清楚、存疑的疑难句,采用语法[[File:段落标绿.png|250px]]将'''<font color="#32CD32">疑难句</font>'''进行标绿,且在后面附加上疑难句所对应的英文。<br />
<br />
====通顺性====<br />
通读全文一至两遍,保证全文的语句通顺,符合语言表达,且释义统一。<br />
<br />
====进阶需求(不做要求)====<br />
可在页面中加一个模块:专家对于该术语/概念的一些描述(从书籍资源中补充概念)<br />
<br />
<br />
===复查词条===<br />
至少通读一至两遍译文,按照[https://shimo.im/docs/pX8Pgy66gDjG9WCR 自审清单]进行自审,寻找是否有语序、逻辑不通的地方,前后表述并不一致的地方,以及同一单词尽量用同一释义;注意检查相关的术语加粗,变量斜体,公式是否显示正常,图片图注序号是否正确等格式问题;在确保自己已达到上述的生产要求后,递交给负责人[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]],负责人进行通读,检查,反馈,译者进行修改。<br />
<br />
===复修改词条===<br />
在规定时间内,负责人[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]提交给审校,审校会添加讨论以及反馈,译者查看进行复核与复修改。'''(注:若被审校打回重译,所得积分减半)'''<br />
===提交积分审核===<br />
完成上述工作后,向负责人[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]发送以下信息,以[[经济复杂性指数]]为例:<br />
<br />
词条名:[[经济复杂性指数]]<br />
词条领取人:[[用户:趣木木|趣木木]]<br />
词条对应链接:https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%A4%8D%E6%9D%82%E6%80%A7%E6%8C%87%E6%95%B0_Economic_Complexity_Index<br />
词条对应积分:30<br />
词条初次完成时间:2020.07.09(这里指提交给负责人审核的日期)<br />
是否领取下一个词条:是/否<br />
是否按照自审清单自审并通读完一遍:是/否<br />
<br />
负责人审核,确定词条达到要求后,记录积分。<br />
<br />
==新手提升==<br />
===与审校部门联合进行相关培训===<br />
接受一些定期对译者的培训,收集译者在翻译过程中存在的问题,进行分享解析;分享翻译时的一些技巧,以提高翻译能力。<br />
===入门资源推荐===<br />
<br />
1.张江复杂性思维课程 (集智学园)<br><br />
<br />
2.《复杂》梅拉妮·米歇尔,网上有视频课程(喜马拉雅APP)[https://www.complexityexplorer.org/courses/104-introduction-to-complexity 《复杂》]<br><br />
<br />
3.教材《网络、群体与市场》,网上有[http://www.chinesemooc.org/mooc/4406 视频课程] <br><br />
<br />
4.郝柏林:圣菲研究所与复杂性研究<br><br />
<br />
5.复杂性科学、网络科学、计算社会科学研究机构推介(北美篇)<br><br />
<br />
6.新英格兰复杂系统研究所长文综述:复杂系统科学及其应用<br><br />
<br />
7.新英格兰复杂系统研究所长文综述:复杂系统科学及其应用,集智斑图网站负责人如意整理的[https://pattern.swarma.org/path?id=22 路径1] 、[https://pattern.swarma.org/path?id=30 路径2] 、 [https://pattern.swarma.org/path?id=32" 路径3]<br />
<br />
8.[https://pattern.swarma.org/path?id=68 图神经网络、网络科学、系统科学综合交叉入门学习路径]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E8%9A%81%E7%BE%A4%E8%81%9A%E7%B1%BB%E7%AE%97%E6%B3%95&diff=15525蚁群聚类算法2020-10-16T12:20:12Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“== 什么是聚类 == <big>聚类分析是数据挖掘领域中的一个重要分支, 是人们认识和探索事物之间内在联系的有效手段, 它既可以…”</p>
<hr />
<div>== 什么是聚类 ==<br />
<big>聚类分析是数据挖掘领域中的一个重要分支, 是人们认识和探索事物之间内在联系的有效手段, 它既可以用作独立的数据挖掘工具, 来发现数据库中数据分布的一些深入信息, 也可以作为其他数据挖掘算法的预处理步骤。<br />
<br />
所谓聚类,就是忽略一些数据的细节,依据某些属性将数据划分为同构子组(称为类或簇),从而简化数据。聚类可以看作是一种提供简明数据摘要的数据建模技术,划分的目标是双重的:<br />
* 同一类中的数据项必须彼此相似;<br />
* 不同类中的数据项应该不同。<br />
<br />
聚类在许多学科中得到应用,并在广泛的应用中发挥着重要作用,因此,聚类算法一直是研究热点。现在的聚类算法可以分为四大类 :分区、分层、基于密度和基于网格的聚类方法。<br />
== 蚁群聚类算法的由来 ==<br />
基于蚁群的聚类算法是一种相对较新的聚类方法,其灵感来自于对蚁群中蚂蚁尸体的聚类和幼虫的分类活动。<br />
<br />
Deneubourg等人曾提出一个基本模型,该模型允许蚂蚁根据周围相似物体的数量随机移动、拾取和贮存食物。该基本模型已成功应用于机器人领域。<br />
<br />
后Lumer和Faieta将基本模型修改为LF算法,并将其推广到数值数据分析。该算法的基本原理很简单:将蚂蚁抽象为其环境中具有周期性边界条件的正方形网格,分散在环境中的数据由“蚂蚁”拾取、传输和删除。在“蚂蚁”的局部邻域内,数据的相似性和密度会影响拾取和丢弃操作,也就是说环境中的“蚂蚁”很可能拾取孤立的或被不相似的数据包围的数据,并倾向于将其贮存在相似的数据附近,以此在网格上对数据元素进行聚类和排序。<br />
<br />
这样由蚁群行为启发而来的聚类算法作为一种新兴的仿生优化算法,相对于传统算法具有灵活性、鲁棒性、分散性、自组织性等优点,这些特点非常适合离散的现实环境,因此该类算法在数据挖掘、图分割、文本挖掘等领域应用广泛。<br />
<br />
== 算法基本原理 ==<br />
首先,数据对象被随机投影到一个平面上。其次,每只“蚂蚁”随机选择一个对象,根据当前对象与局部区域内对象的相似程度,得到拾取或丢弃对象的概率,并以此进行拾取、移动和丢弃对象。最后,在平面上收集划分完成的类(簇)。<br />
<br />
== 算法存在的问题 ==<br />
由于蚂蚁的移动是随机的,并且需要大量的时间寻找合适的位置拾取或丢弃物体,蚁群聚类算法的计算效率和精度会受此影响降低。<big></big><br />
<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E9%98%BF%E5%85%8B%E5%A1%9E%E5%B0%94%E7%BD%97%E5%BE%B7_Robert_Axelrod&diff=15524罗伯特·阿克塞尔罗德 Robert Axelrod2020-10-16T12:16:41Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“{{#seo: |keywords=Robert Marshall Axelrod,罗伯特·马歇尔·阿克塞尔罗德,集智 |description=集智,复杂,多主体模型,合作的进化,囚徒困境,认…”</p>
<hr />
<div>{{#seo:<br />
|keywords=Robert Marshall Axelrod,罗伯特·马歇尔·阿克塞尔罗德,集智<br />
|description=集智,复杂,多主体模型,合作的进化,囚徒困境,认知图式<br />
}}<br />
<br />
该词条由 Pitorlin 翻译编辑,由高飞审校,张江总审校,翻译自Wikipedia词条[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Axelrod Robert_Axelrod]<br />
<br />
罗伯特·马歇尔·阿克塞尔罗德(生于1943年5月27日),美国政治学家,[https://baike.baidu.com/item/密歇根大学/2025640?fr=aladdin 密歇根大学]政治学和公共政策教授,自1974年以来一直在密歇根大学任教。Axelrod以其跨学科研究《合作的进化》而著名,在许多文章中被引用。他目前的研究方向包括[https://baike.baidu.com/item/复杂性理论/18842753?fr=aladdin 复杂性理论](特别是基于agent的建模)、国际安全、网络安全。Axelrod是[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations 美国外交关系委员会]的成员,也是[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARTIS_International ARTIS国际]研究组织的高级研究员。<br />
<br />
==基本信息==<br />
[[File:Axelrod.jpg|150px|right|thumb|]]<br />
性别: 男<br />
<br />
出生日期: 1943年05月27日<br />
<br />
国家/地区: 美国<br />
<br />
更多外文名: Robert Marshall Axelrod<br />
<br />
==传记==<br />
Axelrod于1964年获得[https://baike.baidu.com/item/芝加哥大学/514980?fr=aladdin 芝加哥大学]的数学学士学位,1969年获得了博士学位。在耶鲁大学获得政治学博士学位,其论文题为利益冲突:不同目标的理论及其在政治上的应用。1968年至1974年,在加州大学伯克利分校任教。<br />
<br />
他的荣誉和奖项包括美国国家科学院院士,为期五年的麦克阿瑟奖助学金,美国科学发展协会的纽科姆·克利夫兰奖,以表彰他对科学的杰出贡献。1985年,他当选为美国艺术与科学研究院院士。1990年,阿克塞尔罗德(Axelrod)被美国国家科学院授予与预防核战争有关的行为研究的首届NAS奖。<br />
<br />
最近,Axelrod为联合国,世界银行,美国国防部以及为医疗保健专业人员,商业领袖和K-12教育工作者服务的各种组织,就促进合作和利用复杂性进行了咨询和演讲。<br />
<br />
阿克塞尔罗德(Axelrod )在2006-2007年任美国政治科学协会(APSA)主席。他的任期集中在跨学科主题上。<br />
<br />
2006年5月,Axelrod被乔治敦大学授予荣誉学位。2013年,他获得了约翰·史凯特(Johan Skytte)政治科学奖。2014年,巴拉克·奥巴马(Barack Obama)总统为阿克塞尔罗德(Axelrod)颁发了国家科学奖章。2015年5月28日,他被哈佛大学授予荣誉博士学位。<br />
<br />
==书目==<br />
'''书籍'''<br />
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=_beFAAAAMAAJ Conflict of interest: a theory of divergent goals with applications to politics] 利益冲突:不同目标的理论及其在政治上的应用,1970。<br />
*Structure of Decision: The Cognitive Map of Political Elites,决策结构:政治精英的认知图,普林斯顿大学出版社,ISBN [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-10050-0 978-0-691-10050-0],1976。<br />
*[https://book.douban.com/subject/3094759/ 《《合作的复杂性:基于主体的竞争与合作模型》》],普林斯顿大学出版社,ISBN [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01567-5 978-0-691-01567-5],1997。<br />
*[https://book.douban.com/subject/2259198/ 《合作的进化》],ISBN [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02122-2 978-0-465-02122-2],1984。<br />
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=oB7heZWjwxkC Harnessing Complexity],利用复杂性。ISBN [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00550-5 978-0-465-00550-5],2001。<br />
<br />
==期刊==<br />
*罗伯特·阿克塞尔罗德;威廉·汉密尔顿(1981年3月27日)。“合作的进化”。科学。<br />
*罗伯特·阿克塞尔罗德(1997年4月)。“文化传播:具有地方融合和全球两极分化的模式”。冲突解决杂志。<br />
*罗伯特·阿克塞尔罗德;Atran,S,Davis,R(2007)解决冲突的神圣障碍,科学。<br />
<br />
==另外参阅==<br />
*[https://baike.baidu.com/item/合作的进化/4276922?fr=aladdin 合作的进化]<br />
*[https://baike.baidu.com/item/囚徒困境/5739141?fr=aladdin 囚徒困境]<br />
*[https://baike.baidu.com/item/进化稳定对策/22193134?fr=aladdin 进化稳定对策]<br />
*[https://baike.baidu.com/item/认知图式/4705317 认知图式]<br />
<br />
本词条内容翻译自 wikipedia.org,遵守 CC3.0协议。<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:多主体模型]] <br />
[[Category:人物]]<br />
[[catgory:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%BC%95%E8%AE%BA&diff=15523网络科学引论2020-10-16T12:15:17Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“== 内容简介 == 作者凭借在计算机、信息论、物理等相关学科的深入研究和丰富经验,系统地分析和论述了网络作为一门科学…”</p>
<hr />
<div>== 内容简介 ==<br />
作者凭借在计算机、信息论、物理等相关学科的深入研究和丰富经验,系统地分析和论述了网络作为一门科学理论如何应用在现实生活中的方方面面。全书分为5部分,讨论了目前科学研究中的网络类型和用以确定其结构的各种技术,介绍了研究网络的基本数学理论及用以量化网络结构的各类测度与参数,描述了有效分析网络数据的计算机算法,以及有助于预测网络系统行为并理解其生成和演化过程的网络结构数学模型,最后给出了网络上的一些动力学过程,如社会网络中的疾病传染或计算机网络上的搜索过程。----电子工业出版社<br />
<br />
== 基本信息 ==<br />
* 出版社:电子工业出版社 [https://www.phei.com.cn/module/goods/wssd_content.jsp?bookid=39172 出版信息]<br />
<br />
* 译者:郭世泽,陈哲<br />
<br />
* 出版时间:2014-01<br />
<br />
* 千字数:806<br />
<br />
* 版次:01-01<br />
<br />
* 页数:496<br />
<br />
* 开本:16(185*260)<br />
<br />
* ISBN :9787121196034<br />
<br />
== 作者介绍 ==<br />
[[File:mark.jpg|160px|right]]<br />
{{#seo:<br />
|keywords=马克.纽曼,物理,密歇根大学,作者<br />
|description=知名网络科学家<br />
}}<br />
<br />
* 马克.纽曼(Mark.Newman)[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~mejn]<br />
* 美国密歇根大学物理学Anatol Rapoport讲席教授,圣达菲研究所外聘教授,美国物理学会院士,2014年拉格朗日奖得主,2016年获得古根海姆奖学金。<br />
<br />
* 因为在复杂网络和复杂系统领域的基本贡献闻名,工作覆盖随机图论,分类混合,社区结构,渗透理论,流行病学等领域,被应用在包括心理学,社会学,经济学和生物 学等多个学科范围。<br />
<br />
* 其作品Networks现已成为复杂网络领域的流行教学课本。论文“The structure and function of complex networks”是2001到2011年间被引用数量最多的数学论文。<br />
<br />
== 译者介绍 ==<br />
<br />
== 内容目录 ==<br />
<br />
第1章 概述<br />
<br />
1.1 为什么对网络产生兴趣<br />
<br />
1.2 几个网络示例<br />
<br />
1.3 网络的性质<br />
<br />
1.4 本书结构<br />
<br />
===== 第Ⅰ部分 网络的实证研究 =====<br />
<br />
第2章 技术网络<br />
<br />
2.1 Internet<br />
<br />
2.2 电话网络<br />
<br />
2.3 电力网络<br />
<br />
2.4 交通网络<br />
<br />
2.5 配送网络<br />
<br />
第3章 社会网络<br />
<br />
3.1 社会网络实证研究<br />
<br />
3.2 采访与问卷<br />
<br />
3.3 直接观察<br />
<br />
3.4 来自于档案或第三方的数据<br />
<br />
3.5 隶属网络<br />
<br />
3.6 小世界实验<br />
<br />
3.7 雪球式抽样、接触者追踪及随机游走<br />
<br />
第4章 信息网络<br />
<br />
4.1 万维网<br />
<br />
4.2 引文网络<br />
<br />
4.3 其他类型的信息网络<br />
<br />
第5章 生物网络<br />
<br />
5.1 生物化学网络<br />
<br />
5.2 神经网络<br />
<br />
5.3 生态网络<br />
<br />
===== 第Ⅱ部分 网络理论基础 =====<br />
<br />
第6章 网络的数学基础<br />
<br />
6.1 网络及其表示方法<br />
<br />
6.2 邻接矩阵<br />
<br />
6.3 加权网络<br />
<br />
6.4 有向网络<br />
<br />
6.5 超图<br />
<br />
6.6 二分网络<br />
<br />
6.7 树<br />
<br />
6.8 平面网络<br />
<br />
6.9 度<br />
<br />
6.10 路径<br />
<br />
6.11 分支<br />
<br />
6.12 独立路径、连通度和割集<br />
<br />
6.13 图拉普拉斯矩阵<br />
<br />
6.14 随机游走<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
第7章 测度与参数<br />
<br />
7.1 度中心性<br />
<br />
7.2 特征向量中心性<br />
<br />
7.3 Katz中心性<br />
<br />
7.4 PageRank<br />
<br />
7.5 核心顶点与权威顶点<br />
<br />
7.6 接近度中心性<br />
<br />
7.7 介数中心性<br />
<br />
7.8 顶点群组<br />
<br />
7.9 传递性<br />
<br />
7.10 相互性<br />
<br />
7.11 有符号边和结构平衡<br />
<br />
7.12 相似性<br />
<br />
7.13 同质性和同配混合<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
第8章 网络的大规模结构<br />
<br />
8.1 分支<br />
<br />
8.2 最短路径和小世界效应<br />
<br />
8.3 度分布<br />
<br />
8.4 幂律和无标度网络<br />
<br />
8.5 其他中心性测度的分布<br />
<br />
8.6 聚类系数<br />
<br />
8.7 同配混合<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
===== 第Ⅲ部分 计算机算法 =====<br />
<br />
第9章 算法基本概念<br />
<br />
9.1 运行时间和计算复杂度<br />
<br />
9.2 网络数据的存储<br />
<br />
9.3 邻接矩阵<br />
<br />
9.4 邻接表<br />
<br />
9.5 树<br />
<br />
9.6 网络的其他表示方法<br />
<br />
9.7 堆<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
第10章 网络基础算法<br />
<br />
10.1 度和度分布的算法<br />
<br />
10.2 聚类系数<br />
<br />
10.3 最短路径和广度优先搜索<br />
<br />
10.4 加权网络中的最短路径<br />
<br />
<br />
10.5 最大流和最小割<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
第11章 矩阵算法与图划分<br />
<br />
11.1 主特征向量和特征向量中心性<br />
<br />
11.2 将网络划分成簇<br />
<br />
11.3 图划分<br />
<br />
11.4 Kernighan-Lin算法<br />
<br />
11.5 谱划分<br />
<br />
11.6 社团发现<br />
<br />
11.7 简单模块度最大化<br />
<br />
11.8 谱模块度最大化<br />
<br />
11.9 将网络划分为两个以上群组<br />
<br />
11.10 其他模块度最大化方法<br />
<br />
11.11 社团发现的其他算法<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
===== 第Ⅳ部分 网 络 模 型 =====<br />
<br />
第12章 随机图<br />
<br />
12.1 随机图<br />
<br />
12.2 边数和度的均值<br />
<br />
12.3 度分布<br />
<br />
12.4 聚类系数<br />
<br />
12.5 巨分支<br />
<br />
12.6 小分支<br />
<br />
12.7 路径长度<br />
<br />
12.8 随机图的问题<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
第13章 任意度分布的随机图<br />
<br />
13.1 生成函数<br />
<br />
13.2 配置模型<br />
<br />
13.3 余度分布<br />
<br />
13.4 聚类系数<br />
<br />
13.5 度分布的生成函数<br />
<br />
13.6 一个顶点的两跳邻居顶点数量<br />
<br />
13.7 小分支的生成函数<br />
<br />
13.8 巨分支<br />
<br />
13.9 小分支的规模分布<br />
<br />
13.10 幂律度分布<br />
<br />
13.11 有向随机图<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
第14章 网络生成模型<br />
<br />
14.1 优先连接模型<br />
<br />
14.2 Barabási-Albert模型<br />
<br />
14.3 优先连接模型的其他性质<br />
<br />
14.4 优先连接模型的扩展<br />
<br />
14.5 顶点复制模型<br />
<br />
14.6 网络优化模型<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
第15章 其他网络模型<br />
<br />
15.1 小世界模型<br />
<br />
15.2 指数随机图模型<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
===== 第Ⅴ部分 网 络 过 程 =====<br />
<br />
第16章 渗流和网络弹性<br />
<br />
16.1 渗流<br />
<br />
16.2 顶点的均匀随机删除<br />
<br />
16.3 顶点的非均匀删除<br />
<br />
16.4 实际网络中的渗流<br />
<br />
16.5 渗流的计算机算法<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
第17章 传染病的网络模型<br />
<br />
17.1 疾病传播模型<br />
<br />
17.2 SI模型<br />
<br />
17.3 SIR模型<br />
<br />
17.4 SIS模型<br />
<br />
17.5 SIRS模型<br />
<br />
17.6 传染病的网络模型<br />
<br />
17.7 传染病网络模型的晚期特征<br />
<br />
17.8 SIR模型的晚期特征<br />
<br />
17.9 传染病网络模型的时间依赖特性<br />
<br />
17.10SI模型的时间依赖特性<br />
<br />
17.11SIR模型的时间依赖特性<br />
<br />
17.12SIS模型的时间依赖特性<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
第18章 网络动力系统<br />
<br />
18.1 动力系统<br />
<br />
18.2 网络动力学<br />
<br />
18.3 多变量动力学<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
第19章 网络搜索<br />
<br />
19.1 Web搜索<br />
<br />
19.2 分布式数据库搜索<br />
<br />
19.3 消息传递<br />
<br />
习题<br />
<br />
参考文献<br />
<br />
索引<br />
<br />
== 原文摘要 ==<br />
<br />
== 书评 ==<br />
* 经典大牛的译著 中英文对照看更好 入门必备 术语方法齐全 从物理角度培养复杂网络的分析思路----豆瓣网友GreatL<br />
<br />
== 相关推荐 ==<br />
<br />
== 参考文献 ==<br />
<br />
豆瓣:https://book.douban.com/subject/25970086/<br />
<br />
<br />
Google:https://books.google.com/books?id=LrFaU4XCsUoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Networks:+An+Introduction&hl=zh-CN&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjdoZqWxv3nAhXhPn0KHQcDDpoQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q=Networks%3A%20An%20Introduction&f=false<br />
<br />
Amazon:https://www.amazon.com/Networks-Mark-Newman/dp/0198805098/ref=sr_1_1?keywords=Networks%3A+An+Introduction&qid=1583212504&s=books&sr=1-1<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E6%B4%9E%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA&diff=15522结构洞理论2020-10-16T12:11:52Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“'''结构洞理论(structural hole theory)''' == 结构洞理论概述 == '''结构洞理论'''是人际网络理论大家庭中的新成员,它强调人…”</p>
<hr />
<div>'''结构洞理论(structural hole theory)'''<br />
<br />
== 结构洞理论概述 ==<br />
<br />
'''结构洞理论'''是人际网络理论大家庭中的新成员,它强调人际网络中存在的结构洞可以为处于该位置的组织和个人带来信息和其他资源上的优势。与其他理论相比,该理论强调从结构上分析、利用人际网络,思路更为清晰,更易于把握和实际操作。<br />
1992年,博特在《结构洞:竞争的社会结构》一书中提出了“结构洞”理论(Structural Holes),研究人际网络的结构形态,分析怎样的网络结构能够带给网络行动主体更多的利益或回报。所谓“结构洞”就是指社会网络中的空隙,即社会网络中某个或某些个体和有些个体发生直接联系,但与其他个体不发直接联系,即无直接关系或关系间断,从网络整体看好像网络结构中出现了洞穴。<br />
如下图,A、B两者社会网络均表示由5人组成的社会网络,实线代表两人之间有血接联系,存在较强的关系,虚线代表两人之间并不存在直接的联系,但可以通过第三者间接联系,存在弱关系(A、B组的5人之间,共有8个联系,均形成5组强联系和3组弱联系)。<br />
<br />
[[File:社会网络结构图.jpg|800px]]<br />
<br />
如果两者之间缺少直接的联系,而必须通过第三者才能形成联系,那么行动的第三者就在关系网络中占据了一个结构洞,显然,结构洞是针对于第三者而言的。博特(Burt)认为,个人在网络的位置比关系的强弱更为重要,其在网络中的位置决定了个人的信息、资源与权力。因此,不管关系强弱,如果存在结构洞,那么将没有直接联系的两个行动者联系起来的第三者拥有信息优势和控制优势,这样能够为自己提供更多的服务和回报(如上图,A组中的a和B组中的b分别是其所在社会网络中占据最多结构洞的行动者)。因此,个人或组织要想在竞争中保持优势,就必须建立广泛的联系,同时占据更多的结构洞,掌握更多的信息。<br />
<br />
== 结构洞理论的理论基础 ==<br />
<br />
伯特的结构洞理论被称为极具创造性的理论,但是作为网络分析学派的一个分支,它仍然是在网络分析的框架内展开的,因此为了全面理解结构洞理论有必要对作为其理论基础的网络分析法进行了解。<br />
<br />
网络分析法有两种不同的取向:第一种取向是以社会计量学的方法进行社会心理学的小群体研究,以林顿·弗里曼的研究为代表;第二种取向是以网络作为社会结构来看待社会网络对个人行为的影响,以格拉诺维特、林南等的研究为代表。不难看出,结构洞理论属于第二种取向,因此这里要着重了解第二种取向的网络分析法。<br />
<br />
网络分析学派的代表人物米切尔·达弗尔姆将社会关系网络的概念界定为“某一群体中个人之间特定的联系,其整体结构可以称之为该群体中个人的社会行为”。从这一概念即可以看出,网络分析法不仅仅强调网络本身,还强调网络中的个人,即结构洞理论中玩家。虽然同样强调个人行为来源于结构而非内在驱动力,但是相对于较为僵硬的制度学派的观点,网络分析学派认为个人在受到网络结构制约的同时有较灵活的选择空间。<br />
<br />
网络分析学派的理论众多,其中对于结构洞理论影响较大的有以下几种:科尔曼(Coleman)的社会资本理论。科尔曼是伯特的博生导师,他的社会资本理论很自然地对伯特的理论产生了影响。科尔曼认为,“社会资本由构成社会结构的要素组成,主要存在于社会团体和社会关系网中,只有通过成员资格和网络联系才能获得回报”,也就是说,社会资本并不为个人占有,个人必须通过关系网络获取它,这就可以解释为什么侑特强调“竞争是一个关系问题,而非玩家自身之间的竞争”。<br />
<br />
格兰诺维特(Granovertter)的弱关系力量假设。格兰诺维特认为,由于拥有强关系的个体之间的同质性较高,他们拥有的资源也十分接近,因此个体不容易从强关系中获得自己稀缺的资源,而弱关系则恰恰相反,由于彼此之间的异质性较大,双方更可能拥有彼此稀缺的资源,因此个体能从弱关系中获得更多。但是这其中就存在一个问题,弱关系中的双方由于某种客观或者主观的原因存在着隔阂(这也正是他们是弱关系的原因),他们怎样才能更加顺畅地实现交换呢?而这正是结构洞理论所关注的地方,因此弱关系力量假设可以看作是结构洞理论的根基。但是,不可忽视的是,如果说弱关系力量假设是结构洞理论的根基,那么强关系力量假设无时无刻不在动摇着这种根基,这也是结构洞理论受到的攻击的一个重要来源。<br />
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怀特(white)的市场理论。怀特认为经济学只是关注交换,没有什么市场理论,指出“市场是从社会网络发展而来的”“市场秩序是生产经营者网络内部相互交往产生的暗示、信任和规则的反映”。伯特利用结构洞理论对市场行为进行的分析正是从一个角度反映了这种市场观。<br />
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从上面的分析可以看出,网络分析法特别强调资源、市场、关系等实用且可操作的概念,有其适合用于经济领域的研究,因此网络分析法成为了经济社会学中的重要分析方法。<br />
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== 结构洞理论案例分析 ==<br />
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=== 案例一:结构洞理论在管理学中的研究现状 ===<br />
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; 1.数据获取<br />
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关于结构洞理论文献的调查方法涵盖了实验室研究、文献分析、访谈法和问卷调查法等。另外Barkey(1990)对法国和土耳其农民起义研究采用了历史事件法,提出土耳其的苏丹利用结构洞进行议价,激起起义土匪之间的竞争,而法国国王忽视了这一战略,因此两国起义对中央政权的冲击存在差异。<br />
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网络数据的获取主要通过姓名生成(namegenerator)和姓名解释(name interpreter)两个过程。姓名生成过程中,被调查者通常需要回答以下问题:经常与之讨论业务问题、消磨业余时光的共事者,汇报对象,最有潜力的下属,在企业内对其帮助最大的联系人,最不想接触的联系人,跳槽时首选的商议对象等。姓名解释过程中,受访者则需回答他们同每一位联系人的联系强度,用Liken 7点量表进行测量。<br />
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; 2.结构洞的测量<br />
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Burt在1992年提出了网络约束系数(NetworkConstraint Index)。该系数越高,结构洞越少,网络闭合性越高。该系数需要首先计算自我与他人相连所受到的约束程度。<br />
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<math>C){ij}=\sum_J(1-\sum_q P_{iq}P_{qj})</math> (1)<br />
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i—自我,j—他人,q—另一个关系人。<math>P_{i}</math>是自我在他人身上的关系的关系投资。<math>P_{iq}</math>是自我在q身上关系的比例强度,<math>P_{qj}</math>是q在他人j身上关系的比例强度,<math>\sum_q P_{iq}P_{qj}</math>只i是i在j身上的间接关系投资。而<math>C_{ij}</math>,是i在j身上投资时间精力和,即约束。<br />
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<math>C_i=\sum_j C_{ij}</math> (2)<br />
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<math>C_i</math>是自我网络中的约束总和,当j是i的唯一联系人时,网络约束达到最大值1,当i和j之间没有其他间接联系人时,网络约束达到最小值<math>P_{qj}^2</math>。获取的网络数据通常使用UCINET(社会网分析软件)进行计算。<br />
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; 3.研究层次<br />
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以结构洞为中心展开的分析涵盖多个层次,包含了网络参与者个体、团队、公司和产业等分析单位。<br />
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; (1)个人层次<br />
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Burt等人以大型银行组织的部门为研究对象,证明开放网络中的个人更可能获得出色的评价;他还将1989年某大型电子制造商中的男性高级经理作为研究样本,提出网络限制与晋升时间负相关。<br />
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Burt调查了1993年大型金融组织中的银行家为研究对象,得出网络限制和分红之间负相关的结论(Burt,1997);他还研究了1997年间法国大型化学制药公司中跨职能部门的高级经理的网络数据,认为同等条件下跨结构洞的经理会获得更高的薪资(Burt,Hogarth&Michaud,2000)。Geletkanycz和Hambrick认为当高层经理掌握跨越企业以及产业边界的关系时,企业更易获良好绩效(Geletkanycz&Hambrick,l997)。<br />
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; (2)团队层次<br />
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Rosenthal以使用全面质量管理(TQM)的制造型企业中的团队为研究对象,证明那些网络跨越结构洞的个人所组成的团队更容易被认可是成功的(Rosenthal,1996) ; Hansen等人提出当计算机新品研发团队由那些具备跨团队非冗余联系人的成员构成时,任务完成速度更快(Hansen,Podolny and Pfeffer,2000)。<br />
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; (3)组织层次<br />
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Ahuja提出当组织处于行业内合作企业网络中或联盟上层且占据经纪人位置时会获得更多的专利产出(Ahuja,1998);Stuart和Podolny认为当半导体公司与自身技术领域之外的企业建立联盟时,创新的可能性更高(Stuart&Podolny,1999);McEvily和Zaheer证明当小型职介公司能接触到更多非冗余咨询资源时,更容易获取有竞争力的主意(McEvily&Zaheer,1999)。<br />
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; 4.占据结构洞企业的多重绩效目标<br />
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结构洞是否会帮助企业实现所有绩效目标成为部分学者关注的焦点。Shipilov和“ 拓展了占据结构洞企业的经营目标,认为企业在市场绩效的基础上还需实现地位累积。这两种绩效目标的实现相应需要两种信息——商机和合作伙伴。他们以1992—2001年间的英国投行为研究对象,验证了开放网络确实便于商机信息的获取,但企业之间缺少信任,不利于资源共享,只能通过试错来甄别和避免机会主义行为,从而限制了合作伙伴信息的获得。最终得出结构洞有助于企业的地位累积但不利于集中精力去协作提高市场绩效的结论。另外他们还提结构洞的两个绩效目标——地位累积和市场绩效之间产生资源整合和晕轮效应,存在正向的互惠关系(Shipilov&Li,2008)Burt以美国大型电力公司里2001年负责供应链的经理为例,提出在社会结构中靠近结构洞的人们更容易有好主意。但好主意的产生不在于其源头,而在于思想的交汇。他同时阐述了相对于群体之间的观念和行为,群体内部更具同质性,所以占据结构洞位置的中介者将会更熟悉另一个群体的观念和行为,从而将经济行为变为社会资本,因此那些经常与其他团队的经理探讨供应链信息的经理们会获得更高的报酬,更积极的工作评价,跟容易被升职(Burt,2007)。<br />
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; 5.结构洞对企业的权变价值<br />
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Podolny和Baron提出了结构洞的权变观点,结构洞是否能生成社会资本要依赖于网络内容即参与者之间关系的性质。他们以高科技企业中的员工为研究样本,提出在不同的关系类型中,结构洞的表现也不同。对于以职位为核心的资源网络来说,职业经常变动,结构洞理论的价值是成立的;但对于作为规范期望和身份认同渠道的关系网络来说,结构洞对职业流动和晋升具有负面影响(Podolny&Baron,1997)。<br />
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企业间网络的最优结构首先取决于其嵌入的环境。Burt等研究者近来关注了网络结构,提出产业特性、产业发展阶段等环境因素是网络结构的权变因子(Burt,1997)。Ahuja以倡导科技合作的国际化学工业为样本,验证了合作的收益远大于结构洞带来的信息多样性利益, 因此增加的结构洞对以专利数量量化的创新产生消极影响(Ahuja,2000a)。Ahuja还提出企业特征(技术和商业资本)和结构特征统统影响产业结盟的战略选择(Ahuja,2000b)。Hargadon和Sutton以美国最大的产品开发企业IDEO中的工程师和技术支持为研究对象,得出结论:同一行业的网络结构特征是竞争者之间的合作和资源共享;而跨行业网络中,获取经纪人的地位才是当务之急(Hargadon& Sutton,1997)。Rowley等人以半导体行业和钢铁行业内的企业为研究对象,认为产业环境是结构洞对企业绩效影响的权变因素, 因此半导体行业的不确定性提升了企业所跨越的结构洞和弱关系的价值,而强关系对于钢铁行业内的企业更为重要, 可见结构洞的影响随产业环境而改变(Rowley,Behrens,andKrackhardt,2000)。Walker等人以生物技术创业公司为例,说明闭合网络中社会资本的形成和培育影响了网络的形成和产业的成长,从而验证了结构洞理论更适用于市场交易的网络环境的观点(Walker,Kogut,and Shan,1997)。<br />
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最优的网络结构还取决于企业的目标(Lawrence&Lorsch,1967), 对某些行为目标有利的社会结构或许无利于其他目标(Podolny&Baron,1997)。因此并不存在一个普适的答案。Gargiulo和Benassi探讨了社会资本的网络结构机制,利用总部在美国的计算机软硬件跨国制造商意大利子公司的一个新设部门的数据,证明了闭合网络中的经理不能适应新任务的协作要求。可见结构洞有助于寻找先机却不利于既有的合作和规范,而闭合网络不利于在既存组织之外维持合作,因此网络选择过程中应该在网络闭合的合作“安全性”与富于结构洞网络的“弹性” 中取得平衡(Gargiulo&Benassi,2000)。<br />
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Burt以美国电子元件和计算机设备领域一家大型企业的男性高管为研究对象(Burt,1997),认为同伴数量是决定作为社会资本的结构洞价值的权变变量,而同伴数量的权变效应主要是通过竞争和合法化实现。职级越高, 同伴越少,因此结构洞对绩效的影响越明显。另外,结构洞的社会资本效应对组织的边缘角色更为重要。Burt综合研究了美国电子工业中的供应链经理、大型美国金融组织中的高管和大型美国金融组织中的高级分析师,从而得出结论——网络富含结构洞时只有成功的可能而非成功的必然(Burt,2007)。<br />
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Burt以美国电子元件和计算机设备的最大制造商中的女性经理为研究对 ,提出结构洞的合法性问题。女性与近似背景的男性相比,会被更早提升至某个岗位但晋升的途径明显不同。对于女性来说,提前晋升同结构洞负相关;对于男性来说,提前晋升同结构洞正相关。由此可见对于女性和其他少数群体(新晋职业人等)来说,处于层级网络而非企业家网络,而只有通过从[战略伙伴哪里借来的社会网络,才能享有社会资本带来的收益(Burt,I998)。<br />
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肖知兴等通过对中国四家科技型企业的数据研究发现,为占据第三者的地位而努力保持结构洞的存在,甚至阻挠其他两者联系的行为,在强调合作文化的高承诺企业中,并不能促进企业和个人绩效的发展。他提出优秀的企业应该在管理中鼓励员工去努力填补“结构洞” ,使员工之间尽量保持相互联系、相互沟通的状态,通过增进团队合作的方式来促进企业和个人的绩效的良性增长。其结论说明了“结构洞” 理论在集体主义文化的中国以及高承诺企业中并不适用,证明Burt的结构洞理论不具有普适性,从而支持了Burt的老师Coleman对社会资本的定义(Xiao&Tsui,2007)。<br />
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另外, 组织变革(Gargiulo& Benassi,2000)、网络的时间维度(Soda,Usai&Zaheer,2004)也影响了结构洞社会资本效应的普适性。<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BA%A6%E4%B9%A6%E4%BA%9A%C2%B7%E7%88%B1%E6%B3%BC%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6_Joshua_Epstein&diff=15521约书亚·爱泼斯坦 Joshua Epstein2020-10-16T12:10:00Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“ {{#seo: |keywords=约书亚·爱泼斯坦,多主体模型,计算机建模,集智 |description=应用数学,经济学,生物统计学,非线性动力学,集智 }}…”</p>
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该词条由 Pitorlin 翻译编辑,由高飞审校,张江总审校,翻译自Wikipedia词条[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_M._Epstein Joshua_M._Epstein],另[https://publichealth.nyu.edu/faculty/joshua-m-epstein 参阅]。<br />
<br />
约书亚·爱泼斯坦是纽约大学全球公共卫生学院的流行病学教授。曾任[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University 约翰·霍普金斯大学]急诊医学教授,在应用数学、经济学、生物统计学、国际卫生和环境卫生科学等部门担任联合教授,并担任JHU社会、行为和卫生科学高级建模中心主任。他是[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe_Institute 圣达菲研究所(Santa Fe Institute)]的外部教授,纽约科学院(New York Academy of Sciences)的成员,也是美国医学研究所(Institute of Medicine)识别和确定新预防疫苗优先次序委员会的成员。<br />
==基本信息==<br />
出生地:纽约<br />
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母校:麻省理工大学<br />
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领域:计算机建模<br />
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机构:布鲁金斯学会、约翰霍普金斯大学<br />
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电话: 212-992-6741<br />
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邮件: gph@nyu.edu<br />
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==早期生活和教育==<br />
爱泼斯坦出生于纽约,在[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amherst,_Massachusetts 马萨诸塞州的阿默斯特]长大。他于1976年在阿默斯特学院获得文学学士学位[5],并获得了博士学位。1981年从[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT 麻省理工学院]毕业。<br />
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==职业==<br />
在他职业生涯的早期,爱泼斯坦是[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookings_Institution 布鲁金斯学会(Brookings Institution)]经济研究高级研究员和社会与经济动态中心(Center on Social and Economic Dynamics)主任。他致力于基于主体的生物医学和社会动力学的计算建模。他与[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Axtell 罗伯特·阿克塞尔](麻省理工学院出版社/布鲁金斯学会)合著或著有多部著作,包括《人工社会的发展:自下而上的社会科学》;非线性动力学、数学生物学、社会科学(Addison-Wesley)和生成社会科学:基于主体的计算模型研究(普林斯顿大学出版社)。2008年,他获得了美国国立卫生研究院院长先锋奖,并于2010年获得了阿默斯特学院的荣誉博士学位。<br />
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在《成长中的人工社会:社会科学》一书中,爱泼斯坦和阿克赛尔(Axtell)从下到上开发了第一个大型[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent-based_model 基于主体的计算模型]——[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarscape 《糖景》],以探索诸如季节性迁移、污染、有性繁殖、战斗、疾病传播甚至文化等社会现象的作用。<br />
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他在建模领域发表过文章,包括最近关于公民暴力动态的文章、 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anasazi 阿纳萨齐人]口统计(均发表在《[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences 美国国家科学院院刊]》上)和天花流行病学(发表在《[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Epidemiology 美国流行病学杂志]》上)。<br />
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在他的《生成社会科学:基于主体的计算建模研究》一书中,他探讨了基于主体的模型在生成科学中的作用。<br />
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1987年至2010年,爱泼斯坦在布鲁金斯学会(Brookings Institution)担任高级研究员,并担任社会与经济动态中心(Center on Social and Economic Dynamics)主任<br />
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他在[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University 普林斯顿大学]和圣塔菲学院的暑期学校教授计算和数学建模。<br />
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他是[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Academy_of_Sciences 纽约科学院]院士。他也是《[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity 复杂性]》杂志和普林斯顿大学出版社《复杂性丛书研究》编辑委员会的成员。<br />
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==奖项和荣誉==<br />
<br />
爱泼斯坦获得了包括美国[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health 国立卫生研究院]主任先锋奖(2008年)在内的奖项。<br />
<br />
==出版物==<br />
*[https://archive.org/details/strategyforcepla0000epst/page/210 战略与力量规划:以波斯湾为例]。书号 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-2453-7 978-0-8157-2453-7]。<br />
<br />
*常规减军:动态评估。布鲁金斯学会。书号 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8157-2461-2 978-0-8157-2461-2]。<br />
<br />
*[https://archive.org/details/growingartificia00epst/page/224 不断发展的人工社会:自下而上的社会科学]。书号 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-55025-3 978-0-262-55025-3]。<br />
<br />
*非线性动力学,数学生物学和社会科学。书号 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-41988-7 978-0-201-41988-7]。<br />
<br />
*生成社会科学:基于主体的计算模型研究。书号 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12547-3 978-0-691-12547-3]。<br />
<br />
*为什么要模型?。人工社会与社会模拟杂志。<br />
<br />
*恐惧与疾病的传染传染耦合动力学:数学和计算探索。<br />
<br />
*[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3785367 “建模以控制流行病”]。<br />
<br />
*美国学校停课的经济成本和卫生保健劳动力的影响。<br />
<br />
*基于全球分布式主体的疾病传播模型。ACM建模和计算机仿真交易。<br />
<br />
*将计算流体动力学与基于主体的建模相结合:疏散计划的新方法。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
本词条内容翻译自 wikipedia.org,遵守 CC3.0协议。<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:多主体模型]] <br />
[[Category:人物]]<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%AB%9E%E4%BA%89%E4%B8%8E%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E2%80%94%E2%80%94%E5%8A%A8%E6%80%81%E5%8D%9A%E5%BC%88%E6%A8%A1%E6%8B%9F&diff=15520竞争与合作——动态博弈模拟2020-10-16T12:06:18Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“{{#seo: |keywords=人工生命, 人工社会,囚徒困境博弈 |description=人工生命, 人工社会,囚徒困境博弈 }} =程序简介= * 名 称: 竞争…”</p>
<hr />
<div>{{#seo:<br />
|keywords=人工生命, 人工社会,囚徒困境博弈<br />
|description=人工生命, 人工社会,囚徒困境博弈<br />
}}<br />
<br />
=程序简介=<br />
* 名 称: 竞争与合作——动态博弈模拟<br />
* 作 者: 盛昭瀚-Mathematica版本,[[Jake]]-Java版本<br />
* 源程序下载: pdcelluar.zip<br />
<br />
=程序说明=<br />
<br />
这是一个多个企业参与的竞争环境。每个格子(蓝色的或红色的)都是一个企业,它们在随机的游走着,并会与其它的格子相遇,当与其它的企业相遇的时候,他们就进行囚徒困境博弈,其中蓝色的格子表示采用合作的策略,红色的格子表示采用背叛的策略。根据博弈的规则,每个企业都会有一个盈利数表示收益。所有的企业都向学习它的邻居中盈利最多的企业的策略。你会看到,在这样的环境中,竞争或者合作会自发的演化。<br />
<br />
<br />
=操作说明=<br />
<br />
* 点击开始按钮,模拟程序开始运行。格子会随机的游走,并不断向他们的环境学习。<br />
* 点击“单步运行”表示每次只进行一步,这方便我们的观察。<br />
* 选择不同的显示方法可以从不同的角度观察企业的运动,其中策略是观察整个合作与不合作策略的分布,id是跟踪每个企业,移动方向观察每个企业下一步将移动向何方。 <br />
* 点击“设置”按钮可以更改一些程序的属性。点击“查看”可以观察系统总的时间-状态图,你会看到使用不同策略的企业在时间上的分布。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
=设置参数的说明=<br />
<br />
* 世界的尺寸:程序中一共有多少方格,方格数越大运行越慢;<br />
* 企业的总比例:企业数占总的方格数的比例;<br />
* 合作者的比例:在企业中,初始时刻合作者占的比例;<br />
* 邻居类型:在两种邻居类型中选择一种,两种类型示意图如下:其中黑色的表示当前的方格,黄色的表示他的邻居。<br />
[[File:图1.jpg|800px]]<br />
* 刷新间隔:每次刷新世界演化几步。比如刷新间隔为2,则每走两步才刷新视图一次。<br />
* 博弈规则:确定当合作者与不合作者相遇的时候不合作者能够得到的收益数(>1)。<br />
<br />
=规则说明=<br />
<br />
个体:每个企业可以用一个三元组表示(s,m,d)。其中s为企业当前使用的规则,s只能取1(表示合作),2(表示不合作)两种状态。m表示与该企业的所有邻居分别进行囚徒困境博弈以后的总盈利。d表示随机选择的移动方向(在vonNerman类型中有上、下、左、右4个方向,Moore类型有上、下、左、右、左上、左下、右上、右下8个方向)。程序中黑色的区域表示空区域,没有被企业占领。如果某个企业已经占领了一个方格,则其它企业不能介入。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
=博弈规则: 每个企业都跟它的邻居进行囚徒困境博弈=<br />
<br />
囚徒困境博弈,博弈的矩阵如下表所示:<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
| (企业1,企业2) || 合作 || 不合作<br />
|-<br />
| 合作 || 1,1 || 0,p<br />
|-<br />
| 不合作 || p,0 || 0,0<br />
|}<br />
<br />
这个矩阵为简化了的囚徒困境博弈的形式。即,如果两个企业都采取合作的策略,那么它们各得1单位收益,如果一方合作另一方不合作, 那么合作的一方吃亏得益为0,不合作的一方占便宜,得益为p(>1);双方都不合作那么都不收益。 <br />
<br />
学习规则:每个企业在每次循环中都跟它周围的邻居中这次循环的收益最多的企业学习,把它的策略拷贝过来作为自己的。即如果四个邻居中收益最高的是背叛,那么这个企业下一个循环也选择背叛策略,如果收益最高的是合作,那么下一时刻,该企业也采取合作策略。<br />
<br />
移动规则:每个企业在每次循环的时候都随机的选择一个方向,如果这个方向指向的方格为空,并且没有其他企业指向这个方格,那么下一时刻它就移动到那个格子中,否则它原地不动。<br />
<br />
规则的运行:系统采用离散时间运行,每个周期内,所有的企业先按照自己的s取值也就是策略跟每个邻居都进行博弈确定它的收入m;然后每个企业开始在4个邻居中寻找最大的m对应的企业,学习它的策略作为下一周期的策略s';然后企业根据移动规则向它的临近方格移动。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
=集体涌现行为=<br />
<br />
根据多次系统运行规律观察,得到的几条规律如下:<br />
# 系统最后的演化结果是依赖于初始分布的;<br />
# 企业的总比例越大,合作者越容易存活,不合作者将趋于灭亡。相反,企业的比例越小,合作者越容易转变成不合作者;<br />
# 相同的企业往往集中在某几个特定的区域;<br />
# 系统演化的结果是对博弈规则敏感的,如果m数值设置的越大,则合作者越不容易占上风;<br />
# 每个企业的邻居数越多,则合作策略越容易占上风;<br />
# 不同的参数设置会导致不同的结果,一种情况是最后全是竞争的企业,一种情况是全是合作的企业,还有可能合作与竞争长时间共存,并且演化规则特别复杂。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
=对这现实经济环境中的指导意义=<br />
# 只有企业和企业之间建立起比较完善的交互体系的时候,合作的可能性才会增强。<br />
# 同类之间连成一片可以抵御外来者的进攻。<br />
# 囚徒困境博弈是一种竞争关系的博弈,企业和企业之间本质的关系是竞争的,但是合作却能在一定的条件下自发的演化出来。因此,竞争中的合作是一种多个个体相互学习适应过程中得到的。<br />
<br />
[[category:旧网站]]<br />
[[category:旧网站-虚拟世界]]<br />
[[category:模拟程序]]<br />
[[category:博弈模型]]<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E6%95%B0%E6%8D%AE%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1%E5%88%86%E5%B8%83%E5%B8%B8%E7%94%A8%E6%8A%80%E5%B7%A7&diff=15519研究数据统计分布常用技巧2020-10-16T12:03:28Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“当我们拿到一组数值型数据,通常除了计算它们的均值、方差以外就是研究它们的统计分布特征。这里,我们将介绍一些研究…”</p>
<hr />
<div>当我们拿到一组数值型数据,通常除了计算它们的均值、方差以外就是研究它们的统计分布特征。这里,我们将介绍一些研究统计分布的常用技巧。<br />
<br />
==排序-值曲线==<br />
<br />
拿到一组数值型数据以后,最简单的一种得到它分布特征的途径就是将这堆数据排序,然后绘制排序-值曲线(Rank value curve)。由于排序-值曲线实际上与数据的累积概率分布曲线构成反函数(后面将给出证明),所以,通过这条曲线我们便可以得知数据的分布特征。<br />
<br />
例如,我们用Mathematica中的ParetoDistribution函数生成了一组数,代码如下:<br />
<br />
re = RandomReal[ParetoDistribution[1, 1], 1000]<br />
<br />
我们就可以通过排序得到它的排序-值曲线,代码如下:<br />
<br />
gra = ListLogLogPlot[Sort[re, Greater], PlotRange -> All, Frame -> True, FrameLabel -> {"Rank", "Value"}]<br />
<br />
曲线图如下:<br />
<br />
[[File:Paretodistributionrankvaluecurve.png|帕累托分布排序-值曲线]]<br />
<br />
我们看到,这些数据中有少数的点具有非常大的数值,而大多数点的数值都很小。当点数非常多的时候,这条曲线就会非常贴近X轴。所以,为了更清楚地看出曲线,我们通常对曲线取双对数坐标,这样就会得到如下所示图:<br />
<br />
[[File:paretodistributionrankvalueloglogcurve.png|帕累托分布排序-值曲线双对数坐标]]<br />
<br />
这样的话,整体数据分布的情况就可以看的比较清楚了。而且,由于原数据就是一条幂律分布曲线,所以取双对数坐标后,曲线变成了一条直线。<br />
<br />
==累积概率密度曲线==<br />
<br />
另外一种常用的展示数据分布形状的图就是累积概率密度图。这个累积概率密度的定义是:<br />
<br />
<math><br />
C(x)=Pr\{X>x\}=\int_{c}^{\infty} \rho(x) dx<br />
</math><br />
<br />
因此,根据定义,我们需要扫描所有可能的x数值,然后在数据中数出来比x值大的数字所占的比例,从而得到这条累积概率密度曲线。然而,我们应该选取哪些x数值呢?一种方法是让x等间隔地取值,但这样会得到很多无效的采样点。由于有可能在某个小区间内,根本没有多少数据点。<br />
<br />
例如,假设原始数据为{0.1,0.5,1.4,1.5},如果我们选取小区间长度为0.1,那么采样点x=0.1,0.2,0.3,0.4,0.5,...,我们会看到0.2,0.3,0.4就是无效的采样点,因为比0.2大的数据点数跟比0.3大的数据点数一样多。<br />
<br />
一种最简单的选取数值x的方法就是用原始数据点本身。在上个例子中,我们只需要让x=0.1,0.5,1.4,1.5就可以了。这样的计算是最有效的。我们还是用帕累托分布的1000个随机数来举例说明。Mathematica的源代码如下:<br />
<br />
sorted = Union[re];<br />
cnt = Count[re, x_ /; x >= #] & /@ sorted;<br />
ListPlot[Transpose[{sorted, cnt}], PlotRange -> All, Frame -> True, FrameLabel -> {"Value", "Count"}]<br />
<br />
这样就可以得到累积概率密度曲线(注意总坐标并没有归一化)<br />
<br />
[[File:paretocumulativedistributioncurve.png]]<br />
<br />
以及双对数坐标下的累积概率密度曲线<br />
<br />
[[File:paretodistributioncumulativedistributionloglog.png]]<br />
<br />
==累积密度曲线和排序-值曲线之间的关系==<br />
<br />
仔细观察同一个分布的累积概率密度曲线与排序-值曲线就会发现,它们的形状实际上具有一定的对称性。如下图所示:<br />
<br />
[[File:paretocumulativedistributioncurve.png|累积概率密度曲线]]<br />
<br />
[[File:Paretodistributionrankvaluecurve.png|帕累托分布排序-值曲线]]<br />
<br />
不难看出,如果将一条曲线按照y=x斜对角线对折,就可以得到另一条曲线了。如果你注意观察就会发现,累积概率密度曲线的纵坐标取值范围为[0,1],而排序-值曲线的取值范围为[0,N],这里N就是数据点的个数。但如果我们将累积概率密度曲线纵坐标放大N倍,那么它就与排序-值沿着45度对角线严格对称了。<br />
<br />
事实上,我们可以严格地论证,只要数据点N的个数足够大,两条曲线的确互为反函数的关系。下面,我们将给予证明。<br />
<br />
假设一组数据有N个点,它们的排序-值曲线写为V(r),其中r为数据点的排序,V(r)为该数据点的数值。当N足够大的时候,V(r)就是一条连续的曲线了。那么,我们来计算这组数据的累积概率密度函数。<br />
根据定义,累积概率函数C(x)定义为Pr{X>x}。但是,由于我们仅有有限样本,所以我们不得不用数据的频率来代替概率。也就是说我们只能这样计算C(x):<br />
<br />
<math><br />
C(x)=N(>x)/N<br />
</math><br />
<br />
其中,N(>x)表示大于x的数据点个数。也就是说C(x)为大于x的数据点比例。这个比例可以通过V(r)曲线求出来。注意到V(r)曲线是严格递减的,所以比x数值大的数据点一定在<math>V^{-1}(x)</math>的左侧。这里<math>V^{-1}(x)</math>表示的是V(r)的逆函数在x这个数值处的取值。而<math>V^{-1}(x)</math>左侧的数据点个数显然就是<math>V^{-1}(x)</math>(因为C(r)曲线在这一点的横坐标就是它)。所以,我们可以得到:<br />
<br />
<math><br />
NC(x)=V^{-1}(x)<br />
</math><br />
<br />
也就是说,如果将曲线C(x)的纵轴扩大N倍,那么它就是V(r)函数的反函数。<br />
<br />
==概率密度函数==<br />
<br />
虽然排序-值曲线以及累积概率密度曲线包含了数据分布的全部信息。但是在实际应用中,我们通常需要知道数据的概率密度函数曲线。但是在绘制概率密度曲线的时候,我们需要将数据可能取值的区间划分为若干等长度的小区间并计算每个小区间内数据点的个数。然而,小区间长度的选择是一个非常重要而敏感的问题。因为,如果小区间长度过大,则虽然每个区间落入的数据点比较多,但是曲线的细节信息就会被丢失;反过来,如果小区间长度过小,那么每个小区间中落入的数据点就很少,所以我们几乎看不出曲线的形状。<br />
<br />
为了更直观地理解这个问题,让我们还是用1000个满足Pareto分布的随机数来举例说明。当我们取小区间长度dx=0.01的时候,我们得到的概率密度曲线如下:<br />
<br />
[[File:paretodistributiondensitycurvedx0.01.png]]<br />
<br />
而当我们选取dx=0.1的时候,我们得到的概率密度曲线就会变成如下的样子:<br />
<br />
[[File:paretodistributiondensitycurvedx0.1.png]]<br />
<br />
得到上面两张图的源代码如下:<br />
<br />
dx = 1;<br />
gra = ListLogLogPlot[ Table[{x, Count[re, y_ /; y > x && y <= x + dx]/Length[re]}, {x, 1, 1000, dx}], PlotRange -> All, Filling -> Axis, Frame -> True, FrameLabel -> {"x", "Probability"}]<br />
<br />
比较这两张图,我们就会发现它们的差异还是相当明显的。所以,在实际应用中,如果数据量很小,那么我们通常会试验各种可能的dx数值,以期得到最后的最好结果。<br />
<br />
===Log Bin方法===<br />
<br />
当我们研究满足幂律分布或者具有长尾特征的数据的时候,通常会采用取LogBin的方法从而完成对数据的统计。让我们还是以1000个满足Pareto分布的随机数来举例说明。当我们把dx设置为1的时候,绘制出概率密度曲线,并对其取双对数就会得到如下图形:<br />
<br />
[[File:paretodistributiondensitycurvedxloglog0.1.png]]<br />
<br />
按理说,由于数据来源于Pareto分布,因此它的概率密度函数应该是一个幂律函数,也就是说概率密度曲线在取过双对数之后应该形成一条直线。但我们看到,图中所示的曲线在偏离直线的程度还是很大的。这其中的一个很大原因在于由于数据分布满足长尾特征,所以尾部的数据非常稀疏,当我们的小区间长度取得比较小的时候,就有可能导致尾端有很多小区间中得不到足够多的数据累积,从而使得尾部(右端)的噪声较大,从而使得曲线的形状失真。<br />
<br />
为了克服这个问题,我们通常采用LogBin方法。也就是说并不是对原始数据的可能取值做等区间的划分。而是对原始数据取对数以后做等间隔的划分,从二再次统计每个Log小区间中的数据点个数,这个时候,我们通常可以得到比较好的结果。如下图,当我们取对数后,取小区间长度为dx=0.5,我们得到的概率密度曲线如下图<br />
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[[File:paretodistributionlogbin0.5.png]]<br />
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我们看到,得到的曲线会更加光滑,而且曲线更接近直线。<br />
<br />
得到上面曲线的代码如下:<br />
<br />
dx = 0.5;<br />
logre = Log[re];<br />
gra = ListLogLogPlot[ Table[{Exp[x], Count[logre, y_ /; y > x && y <= x + dx]/Length[re]}, {x, Min[logre], Max[logre], dx}], PlotRange -> All, Filling -> Axis, Frame -> True, FrameLabel -> {"x", "Probability"}]<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%9B%91%E7%9D%A3%E5%AD%A6%E4%B9%A0&diff=15518监督学习2020-10-16T12:00:15Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“'''监督学习'''是一类[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/机器学习 机器学习]任务,该任务基于样例中的输入-输出对学得一个函数,从…”</p>
<hr />
<div>'''监督学习'''是一类[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/机器学习 机器学习]任务,该任务基于样例中的输入-输出对学得一个函数,从而将一个(一般的)输入映射得到一个输出<ref name="a1">Stuart J. Russell, Peter Norvig (2010) Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, Third Edition, Prentice Hall ISBN 9780136042594. </ref>。它从一组带标签的[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training,_test,_and_validation_sets 训练数据集]中推得函数<ref name="a2"> Mehryar Mohri, Afshin Rostamizadeh, Ameet Talwalkar (2012) Foundations of Machine Learning, The MIT Press ISBN 9780262018258</ref>。在监督学习中,每条样本包含一个输入对象(通常由向量表示)和一个输出值(也叫做标签)。监督学习算法分析训练集并产生一个推断函数,该函数能用于泛化新的样例。算法可以采用一个最优化方法来给出未见样例的正确类别。这要求学习算法以合理的方式将已知的训练数据集泛化到未知的情形(见[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_bias ''归纳偏置''])。<br />
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在人类和动物心理学中,与监督学习对应的任务常被称为[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_learning 概念学习]。<br />
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==步骤==<br />
为求解某个给定的监督学习问题,我们需要采取以下步骤:<br />
#确定样本类型。在开始之前,使用者应决定何种类型的数据用作训练集。例如,在手写体识别中,训练数据可以是单个手写字符,一个手写体的词语,或整行手写文本。<br />
#获取训练集。训练集应能代表使用该函数时面对的真实世界的情形,它包括一组输入对象以及相应的输出标签,通过人类专家采集或通过测量获取。<br />
#确定假设函数的输入特征如何表示。预测函数的精度很大程度取决于输入对象如何表示。一般地,可将输入对象转化为一个[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_(machine_learning) 特征向量],该向量包含了一连串描述该对象的特征。特征的数量不宜过大,以免发生[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse_of_dimensionality 维度灾难],但也应包含足够的信息以正确地预测输出。<br />
#确定假设函数的结构以及相应的学习算法。例如,可以选用[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/SVM 支持向量机]或[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/决策树 决策树]算法。<br />
#完成设计。在训练集上运行学习算法。部分监督学习算法要求使用者指定特定的控制参数。这些参数可根据在训练数据集的子集(称为校验集)上的优化效果做出调整,或通过[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics) 交叉验证]进行调整。<br />
#评估假设函数的精度。在学习和调参完成之后,所学得的函数应在测试集上使用并作出评估,测试集应不同于训练集。<br />
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==选择算法==<br />
有很多种监督学习算法可供选用,这些算法各有其优势和缺陷。没有哪种算法能在所有监督学习问题中都取得最好的效果。(见无免费午餐定理)<br />
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选择算法时主要有四个方面需要考虑:<br />
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==='''偏差-方差权衡'''===<br />
''词条见:''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bias–variance_tradeoff ''偏差-方差权衡'']<br />
<br />
第一个问题是偏差和方差的折中<ref name="a3">S. Geman, E. Bienenstock, and R. Doursat (1992). Neural networks and the bias/variance dilemma. Neural Computation 4, 1–58.</ref>。设想我们有若干个不同的高质量训练数据集。学习算法对某个特定输入x具有偏差是指,若在每个数据集上进行训练,在预测x的输出时总会产生与正确结果的系统性偏离。学习算法对某个特定输入x具有高方差是指,在不同的训练集上算法对x预测不同的输出值。一个分类器的预测误差取决于它偏差的总和以及方差。<ref name="a4">G. James (2003) Variance and Bias for General Loss Functions, Machine Learning 51, 115-135. (http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~gareth/research/bv.pdf) </ref>一般地,在偏差和方差之间存在着此消彼长。一个具有低偏差的学习算法必须足够“弹性”才能很好地拟合数据。但是如果算法太弹性了,它会在每个训练集上表现不同,因此引起高方差。许多监督学习方法的一个重要方面是,他们能调节偏差和方差之间的这种折中(要么自动调整,要么用户指定一个偏差/方差的控制参数)。<br />
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==='''函数复杂度和训练集数据量'''===<br />
第二个问题是训练集的数据量之比于实际函数(分类或回归函数)的复杂度。如果实际函数简单,则一个具有高偏差和低方差的“非弹性”学习算法在少量数据上就能学得该函数。但如果实际函数高度复杂(例如多个不同输入特征间有相互作用,以及算法在不同输入空间上的行为不同),那么函数将只能通过在大量训练集上学习而得到,并且要使用具有低偏差和高方差的弹性学习算法。<br />
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==='''输入空间的维度'''===<br />
第三个问题是输入空间的维度。如果输入特征向量具有很高维度,则即使目标函数仅由这些特征的一小部分决定,学习也将变得困难。这是因为其他“多余的”维度会扰乱学习算法并使之表现出高方差。因此,具有较高的输入维度时,一般要精调分类器到较低的方差和较高偏差。事实上,如果模型设计者能从输入数据中手动移除无关特征,则很有可能会提升学得的函数的精度。此外,很多算法会采用[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_selection 特征选择]来标记相关特征而丢弃无关特征。它是更一般的策略[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensionality_reduction 降维]的一个例子,降维是在运行监督学习算法前将输入数据映射到一个较低维的空间。<br />
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==='''输出中的噪声'''===<br />
第四个问题是标注(监督的[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables#target_variable 标签变量])中的噪声度。如果标签有很多不正确(由于人为误差或传感器的采集误差),则算法不会学得一个准确匹配训练样本的函数。此时精细地匹配训练数据会导致[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfitting 过拟合]。当所学函数对学习算法来说过于复杂时,即使在没有测量误差(随机噪声)时也会产生过拟合。在这种情况下,目标函数中不能被拟合的部分将对训练产生负面作用——这种现象被称为[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_noise 确定性噪声]。不论随机噪声还是确定噪声出现时,最好采用高偏差、低方差的学习器。<br />
<br />
事实上,有几种方法可以减小输出值噪声的影响,例如训练时采用[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_stopping 提前终止]策略防止[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfitting 过拟合],或在训练前[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervised_learning 检测]并移除噪声样例。<br />
有几种算法能在训练之前标识噪声样例并移除可疑噪声样例,这些算法在[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_significance 统计显著]性上降低了[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalization_error 泛化误差].<ref name="a5">C.E. Brodely and M.A. Friedl (1999). Identifying and Eliminating Mislabeled Training Instances, Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research 11, 131-167. (http://jair.org/media/606/live-606-1803-jair.pdf) </ref><ref name="a6">M.R. Smith and T. Martinez (2011). "Improving Classification Accuracy by Identifying and Removing Instances that Should Be Misclassified". Proceedings of International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN 2011). pp. 2690–2697. </ref><br />
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==='''其它应考虑的(重要)因素'''===<br />
选择和运用某个算法时,还应考虑如下因素:<br />
*数据的多相性。如果特征向量包含多种不同的数据类型(离散型,离散有序型,可数型,数值型),采用某些算法将比其它算法更具有优势。许多算法,包括[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/SVM支持向量机 支持向量机]、[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regression 线性回归]、[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/Logistic回归 逻辑斯谛回归]、[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/人工神经网络 神经网络]和[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-nearest_neighbors_algorithm 最近邻方法],都所有要求输入特征为数值类型并缩放到近似的区间内(如[-1,1]区间)。使用距离方法的函数,例如[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-nearest_neighbors_algorithm 最近邻方法]和[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/SVM支持向量机 高斯核支持向量机]对此尤其敏感。[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/决策树 决策树]算法的优点是可以方便地处理多相数据。<br />
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*数据的冗余性。若输入特征包含信息(例如存在高相关特征),一些算法将会由于数值不稳定而表现很差(如[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regression 线性回归]、[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/Logistic回归 逻辑斯谛回归]和[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-nearest_neighbors_algorithm 基于距离的算法]).这类问题常通过引入某种形式的[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regularization_(mathematics) 正则]来解决。<br />
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*非线性的影响。如果每个特征对输出有独立地贡献,那么基于线性函数([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regression 线性回归]、[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/Logistic回归 逻辑斯谛回归]、[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/SVM支持向量机 支持向量机]、)和距离函数的算法能够表现良好。然而,如果特征之间有复杂的相互作用,则类似于[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/决策树 决策树]和[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/人工神经网络 神经网络]的算法表现得更好,因为他们设计之初就旨在发现这些关系。线性方法也能使用,但设计者应在使用时手动处理这些复杂关系。<br />
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考虑新的应用问题时,工程师可以比较多种算法并由实验决定哪种算法在当前问题上表现最佳(见[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics) 交叉验证]).精调某种算法的性能可能会很耗费时间。在给定资源的前提下,把时间花在搜集更多训练数据和相关特征上常常比精调算法效果要好。<br />
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==算法==<br />
应用最广的学习算法如下:<br />
*[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/SVM支持向量机 支持向量机]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regression 线性回归]<br />
*[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/Logistic回归 逻辑斯谛回归]<br />
*[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/贝叶斯分类 朴素贝叶斯]<br />
*[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/线性判别分析 线性判别分析]<br />
*[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/决策树 决策树]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-nearest_neighbors_algorithm K近邻算法]<br />
*[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/人工神经网络 神经网络(多层感知机)]<br />
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==监督学习算法原理==<br />
给定一个包含N个训练样本的集合,形如<math>\{ (x_1,y_1),...,(x_N,y_N) \}</math>,其中<math>x_i<br />
</math>是第i个样本的[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_vector 特征向量],<math>y_i</math>是其标签(即类别),学习算法寻找某个函数<math>g:X \rightarrow Y </math>,<br />
<math>X</math>是输入空间,<math>Y</math>是输出空间。函数<math>g</math>是潜在函数空间<math>G</math>的一个元素,<math>G</math>常被称为''假设空间''。有时为使用方便,用打分函数<br />
<math> f : X \times<br />
Y \rightarrow \mathbb{R} </math>表示<math>g</math>,<math>g</math>定义为返回使打分函数取得最大值的<math>y</math>值:<math>g(x) = arg \underset{y}{} max f(x,y) </math>。令<math>F</math>表示得分函数的取值空间<br />
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尽管<math>G</math>和<math>F</math>可以是任意函数空间,但许多算法都是概率模型,其中<math>g</math>采用[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_probability 条件概率]的形式<math>{g(x)=P(y|x)}</math>,或采用[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_probability_distribution 联合概率分布]模型<math>{f(x,y)=P(x,y)}</math>.例如,[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/贝叶斯分类 朴素贝叶斯]和[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/线性判别分析 线性判别分析]是联合概率分布模型,而[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/Logistic回归 逻辑斯谛回归]是条件概率模型。<br />
<br />
有两种方法选择<math>f</math>或<math>g</math>:[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_risk_minimization 经验风险最小化]或[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_risk_minimization 结构风险最小化].<ref>Vapnik, V. N. The Nature of Statistical Learning Theory (2nd Ed.), Springer Verlag, 2000. </ref>.经验风险最小化寻找能最好地拟合训练集的函数,结构风险最小化包含了权衡方差/偏差效应的''惩罚函数''。<br />
在上述两种方法中,一般都假设训练集包含了[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_and_identically_distributed_random_variables 独立同分布]的样本对,<math>(x_i,y_i)</math>.为了度量函数适应训练数据的好坏,定义[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_function 损失函数]<math>L:Y \times Y \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^{{\geq} 0}</math>.对于训练样本<math>(x_i,y_i)</math>,预测值<math>\hat{y}</math>的损失为<math>L(y_i,\hat{y})</math>.函数<math>g</math>的''风险''定义为<math>g</math>的期望损失。期望损失可以由训练数据进行估计<br />
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<math>R_{emp}(g)=\frac{1}{N}\sum_{i}{L(y_i,g(x_i))}</math>.<br />
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==='''经验风险最小化'''===<br />
''词条见:''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_risk_minimization ''经验风险最小化'']<br />
在经验风险最小化方法中,监督学习算法求得一个函数<math>g</math>,使<math>R(g)</math>最小化。因此监督学习算法可以通过应用最优化方法寻找<math>g</math>而实现。若<math>g</math>是条件概率分布<math>P(y|x)</math>,损失函数是负对数似然:<math> L(y,\hat{y}) = -logP(y|x)</math>,则经验风险最小化等价于[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_likelihood_estimation 极大似然估计].如果G包含很多候选函数,或训练集不足够大,经验风险最小化会导致高方差和不良的泛化。学习算法只记住了训练样例而没有很好地泛化,这被称为[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfitting 过拟合].<br />
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==='''结构风险最小化'''===<br />
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_risk_minimization 结构风险最小化]通过向优化表达式中引入[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regularization_(mathematics) 正则惩罚项]防止过拟合。正则惩罚项可以看做[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam%27s_razor 奥卡姆剃刀]的一种实现方式,即选择更简单而非更负杂的函数。<br />
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对于不同的复杂度定义,采用的惩罚项也各不相同。例如,考虑函数<math>g</math>是线性函数时的情形<math>g(x) = \sum_{j=1}^d\beta_jx_j</math><br />
此时常用的正则惩罚项是<math>\sum_j\beta_j^2</math>,即权重平方[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(mathematics)#Euclidean_norm 欧氏范数],也称为<math>L_2</math>范数。其他范数包括<math>L_1</math>范数,<math>\sum_j|\beta_j|</math>,以及<math>L_0</math>范数,<math>L_0</math>是指非零参数<math>\beta_j</math>的个数,惩罚项用符号<math>C(g)</math>表示.<br />
于是监督学习优化问题可归结为找到函数<math>g</math>,使得<math>J(g) = R_{emp}(g) + \lambda C(g)</math>取得最小值。<br />
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参数<math>\lambda</math>控制偏差方差比重。当<math>\lambda = 0</math>时,得到的是低偏差高方差的经验风险最小化表达式,当<math>\lambda</math>很大时,学习算法具有高偏差和低方差。<math>\lambda</math>的值可以通过[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics) 交叉验证]经验地选取。<br />
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复杂度惩罚项在贝叶斯中的解释是<math>g</math>的负对数先验概率,<math>-logP(g)</math>,而<math>J(g)</math>是<math>g</math>的后验概率。<br />
<br />
==生成式训练==<br />
以上描述的训练方法均为''判别式训练''方法,因为他们都寻求一个函数<math>g</math>,使得函数能很好地判别不同输出值(见[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discriminative_model 判别式模型]).在<math> {f(x,y)=P(x,y)} </math>为联合概率分布且损失函数为负对数似然<math>\sum_ilogP(x_i,y_i)</math>的情况下,风险最小化算法也称做''生成式训练'',因为<math>f</math>可被看作是解释数据如何生成的[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generative_model 生成模型]。与判别式训练算法相比,生成式训练算法常常更为简单,且有更高的计算效率。在某些情况下求解可用闭式解的形式计算,就像[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/贝叶斯分类 朴素贝叶斯]和[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/线性判别分析 线性判别分析]中的那样。<br />
<br />
==扩展==<br />
标准监督学习问题可通过以下几种方法来扩展:<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-supervised_learning 半监督学习]:在这种情况下,只有一部分训练数据具有给定的输出值(标签),而其他的没有标签。<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learning_(machine_learning) 主动学习]:与假定一开始给出所有训练数据不同,主动学习在交互中获得新样本,一般通过询问人类用户来实现。询问常常基于无标签的数据,这种场景下半监督学习和主动学习结合了起来。<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_prediction 结构化预测]:当想要的输出值是一个复杂对象,如解析树或带标签的图时,要对标准方法进行扩展。<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_to_rank 排序学习]:当输入是一组对象的集合,而输出是这些对象的排序,那么这种学习任务也要对标准方法进行扩展。<br />
<br />
==方法和算法==<br />
<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_learning 分析学习]<br />
*[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/人工神经网络 人工神经网络]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backpropagation 反向传播]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boosting_(machine_learning) 提升方法]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_statistics 贝叶斯统计]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case-based_reasoning 基于案例推理]<br />
*[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/决策树 决策树]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_logic_programming 归纳逻辑编程]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriging 高斯过程回归]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_programming 遗传规划]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_method_of_data_handling 数据成组处理法]*<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_kernel_density_estimation#Use_for_statistical_classification 核估计]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_automaton 学习自动机]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_classifier_system 学习分类器]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_message_length 最小信息长度]([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_tree 决策树],决策图等)<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilinear_subspace_learning 多线性子空间学习]<br />
*[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/贝叶斯分类 朴素贝叶斯分类器]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinomial_logistic_regression 最大熵分类器]<br />
*[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/条件随机场 条件随机场]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-nearest_neighbors_algorithm k近邻算法]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probably_approximately_correct_learning PAC-learning]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripple-down_rules Ripple-down rules],一种知识获得方法论<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_machine_learning 符号机器学习]算法<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsymbolic_machine_learning 次生符号机器学习]算法<br />
*[http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/SVM支持向量机 支持向量机]<br />
*最小复杂度机器<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_forest 随机森林]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensemble_learning 集成学习]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_measurement#Ordinal_scale 序级分类]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_pre-processing 数据预处理]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handling_imbalanced_datasets 不平衡集处理]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_relational_learning Statistical relational learning]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proaftn 模糊分类方法]<br />
<br />
==应用==<br />
<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics 生物信息学]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheminformatics 化学信息学]<br />
:*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_structure–activity_relationship 定量结构活性关系]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_marketing 数据库营销]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handwriting_recognition 手写体识别]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_retrieval 信息检索]<br />
:*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_to_rank 排序学习]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_extraction 信息提取]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_vision 计算机视觉]中的目标识别<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_character_recognition 光学字符识别]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spamming 垃圾邮件检测]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_recognition 模式识别]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_recognition 语音识别]<br />
*监督学习在生物系统中是[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downward_causation 下向因果关系]的一个特例<br />
<br />
==相关扩展==<br />
<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_learning_theory 计算学习理论]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_bias 归纳偏置]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfitting 过拟合]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probabilistic_classification 概率化分类]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsupervised_learning 无监督学习]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Version_space_learning verison space learning]<br />
<br />
<br />
==参见==<br />
<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_datasets_for_machine_learning_research 机器学习数据集列表]<br />
<br />
==参考文献==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==外部链接==<br />
*[https://mloss.org/software/ 机器学习开源软件]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:机器学习]]<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%94%A8%E5%9B%9E%E5%BD%92%E6%96%B9%E6%B3%95%E5%88%A4%E6%96%AD%E7%83%AD%E5%BA%A6%E5%9B%BE%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E4%BA%BA%E4%BD%93%E5%A7%BF%E6%80%81&diff=15517用回归方法判断热度图中的人体姿态2020-10-16T11:55:05Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“{{#seo: |keywords=回归方法,热度图,人体姿态 |description=用回归方法判断热度图中的人体姿态 }} File:回归方法1.jpg|thumb|600px|图片…”</p>
<hr />
<div>{{#seo:<br />
|keywords=回归方法,热度图,人体姿态<br />
|description=用回归方法判断热度图中的人体姿态<br />
}}<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法1.jpg|thumb|600px|图片来源:ECCV2018论文解读]]<br />
<br />
==导语==<br />
<br />
本文提出一种积分回归的方法用于人体姿势估计任务,该途径结合了基于热度图的方法和回归方法的优点,可以方便地应用于并改进任何基于热度图的模型。本文通过综合性实验全面验证了该方法的有效性,并表明在2D和3D的人体姿势估计数据集MPII、COCO、Human3.6M中,本方法都取得当前最好的结果。该论文据悉已被计算机视觉顶会 ECCV 2018 接收。下面是对这篇论文的解读。<br />
<br />
论文标题:Integral Human Pose Regression<br />
<br />
论文地址:https://arxiv.org/pdf/1711.08229.pdf<br />
<br />
作者:Xiao Sun, Bin Xiao, Fangyin Wei, Shuang Liang, Yichen Wei(孙骁,肖斌,尉方音,梁爽,危夷晨)<br />
<br />
==人体姿势估计的两类方法==<br />
<br />
人体姿势估计主要分为'''基于检测(detection-based)'''的方法和'''基于回归(regression-based)'''的方法:<br />
<br />
基于检测的方法是基于热度图的,对每个关节都生成所有位置的似然热度图,选择概率最大的位置作为该关节的位置。这种方法的缺点是:<br />
<br />
(1)取概率最大值的操作是'''不可微分'''的,所以无法使用端到端的训练方法;<br />
<br />
(2)由于深度神经网络的降采样操作,热度图的'''分辨率远低于输入图片'''的分辨率,这将导致不可逆的量化误差,关节位置的精度会因此受到限制。而使用更高分辨率的热度图,会产生更多的内存和计算开销。<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法2.jpg|thumb|left|400px|图片来源:coco]]<br />
<br />
另一种观点是把姿势估计看作一个回归问题,它的优点是可以端到端地学习,并产生连续的输出。然而,'''基于回归的方法的实际效果仍不如基于检测的方法。'''<br />
<br />
==积分姿势回归==<br />
<br />
本文的工作是结合了热度图的表示和关节回归两种方法,提出了积分回归(integral regression)的方法:将热度图中“取最大值”的操作(即选择热度图中概率最大的关节位置)<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法3.png|400px]]<br />
<br />
换成“取期望”的操作(即估计的结果是热度图中所有位置的积分)<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法4.png|400px]]<br />
<br />
关节的位置通过热度图中所有位置的基于概率(归一化后)的积分来估计。这种方法称为积分姿势回归,它的操作是可微分的,所以能够端到端地训练。'''积分回归享有热度图表示和回归两种方法的优点,同时避免了它们的缺点。'''<br />
<br />
===2D和3D数据的混合训练===<br />
<br />
3D姿势估计的一个严重问题是缺乏大量的可训练数据,结合2D数据和3D数据一起训练是一个努力的方向。由于积分操作的可微分性,积分回归方法可以自然地采用这种混合训练方式。<br />
<br />
本文把上述的积分操作分解成两个步骤:(1)分别独立地生成x、y、z上的一维热度图;(2)在一维热度图上积分产生相应的x、y、z的一维关节坐标。因为x、y、z被分解了,所以可以直接地混合使用2D和3D的训练数据。实验表明该方法可以极大地提高3D姿势估计的精度。<br />
<br />
===实验方法学===<br />
<br />
积分回归方法是免参数的,只是将热度图的表示转换成关节的位置,不影响其他算法的设计和选择。所以,它可以和其他的算法设计——'''不同的任务、热度图和关节的损失函数、网络结构、图片和热度图的分辨率'''——结合起来。下图是人体姿势估计方法的流程和实验中可以选择的设置。<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法5.jpg|800px]]<br />
<br />
*'''任务:'''2D和3D的姿势估计任务、混合的2D和3D数据同时训练<br />
*'''网络结构:'''主要分为主干网络(backbone network)和头网络(head network)。主干网络一般是卷积网络,目的是从图片中抽取特征;而头网络从之前的特征中估计目标输出(热度图或关节)。<br />
*'''热度图的损失函数:'''均方误差、mxm的交叉熵损失函数、二值分布的交叉熵损失函数。<br />
*'''热度图和关节损失的结合:'''在关节坐标的损失函数上,可以选择L1距离或L2距离等。关节的损失函数中可以包括或不包括热度图的损失,积分回归的方法中,包括或不包括都有不错的结果。<br />
*'''图片和热度图的分辨率:'''通常更高的位置精度需要图片和热度图有更高的分辨率。积分回归方法对图片和热度图的分辨率的鲁棒性更好。<br />
<br />
==实验方法与数据==<br />
<br />
===模型与训练===<br />
<br />
在以下3个数据集上,使用的模型和训练方法是相似的。提取特征的主干网络采用了ResNet或HourGlass模型。计算输出的头网络是全卷积的,它首先使用反卷积在特征图上进行上采样(upsampling)到需要的分辨率,输出通道的个数是固定的256;然后,用1x1的卷积层产生K个热度图。同样,我们也把最广泛的使用全连接层计算关节位置的输出方法作为基本对比。<br />
<br />
同样,本文采用了简单的多阶段(multi-stage)体系结构,使用了Adam的优化方法,归一化输入图片为256x256,采用随机的平移、缩放、旋转和翻转来扩大数据集等。<br />
<br />
===MPII数据集===<br />
<br />
MPII是单人2D姿势估计的数据集,图片是从YouTube视频中收集的,覆盖了人类的日常活动,包括复杂的姿势和图片外观。一共大约2万5千张图片。在评估中,使用正确估计的关键点的比例(Percentage of Correct Keypoints, PCK)作为度量。一个关键点的估计值同真实位置的距离小于头部长度的某个比例a时,被认为是正确估计的,该评估方法称为PCK@a。<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法6.png|thumb|600px|传送门:http://human-pose.mpi-inf.mpg.de/]]<br />
<br />
====积分回归的影响====<br />
<br />
表1是实验的对比结果,其中,I*、I1、I2、I3是积分回归的方法,H1,H2,H3是基于热度图的方法,R1是直接回归的方法。这样的结果表明了热度图和关节的联合训练是有效的。尤其,I*的表现也不错,仅次于I1、I2、I3(I*指的是只使用了关节的损失没有包括热度图的损失),'''这是由于I*用于回归的特征更好,优于直接回归,因为I* 和直接回归方法R1的监督信号和网络结构都是相同的。'''<br />
<br />
我们可以得出两个结论:(1)使用潜在的热度图特征的积分回归是有效的(I*>H, I*>R),即使在不使用热度图监督的情形下;(2)热度图和关节位置预测的联合训练结合了两种范式的优点,表现最好(I>H,R,I*)。<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法7.png|thumb|left|600px|表1. MPII数据集上,各种方法的对比结果。其中,I*、I1、I2、I3是积分回归的方法,H1,H2,H3是基于热度图的方法,R1是直接回归的方法。]]<br />
<br />
====分辨率的影响====<br />
<br />
<br />
如表2所示,比较了在两种方法(H1/I1),两种输入图->特征图的分辨率和两种热度图尺寸(使用3或2个上采样层)情形下,性能(mAP@0.5, map@0.1, AUC)、计算(FLOPs)和网络参数个数的结果。毫无疑问,使用更大的图片尺寸和热度图尺寸可以获得更好的精度。然而,积分回归方法(I1)相比于基于热度图的方法(H1),更少受到分辨率的影响。所以,当计算能力有限、需要小分辨率时,积分回归方法更加适合。<br />
<br />
所以,我们得出结论:'''积分回归方法能够极大地减轻基于热度图方法带来的量化误差或需要大分辨率的问题。'''<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法(8).png|thumb|600px|表2. 在两种方法(H1/I1),两种输入图->特征图的分辨率和两种热度图尺寸(使用3或2个上采样层)情形下,性能(mAP@0.5, map@0.1, AUC)、计算(FLOPs)和网络参数总数的结果。]]<br />
<br />
====网络容量的影响====<br />
<br />
表3展示了在两种方法下使用不同的主干网络的结果。使用更大容量的网络,所有方法的性能都有提高,但是积分回归方法的性能仍然高于基于热度图的方法。<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然使用大规模的网络提高了性能,但是同时带来了更大的计算量。积分回归方法I1使用ResNet-18已经实现了相当于使用ResNet-101的H1的性能。所以在实际中,需要使用小规模网络时,积分回归是个更好的选择。<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法9.png|thumb|left|600px|表3.在两种方法下使用不同的主干网络的对比结果]]<br />
<br />
====多阶段的影响====<br />
<br />
表4展示了多阶段实现在使用与不使用积分回归方法时的结果。我们从中得出两个结论:(1)积分回归方法可以和多阶段的结构有效结合,性能会随着阶段数的增加而提高;(2)在所有阶段数下,积分回归的方法都超过基于热度图的方法。<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法10.png|thumb|600px|表4. 多阶段实现中,使用与不使用积分回归方法时的结果]]<br />
<br />
<br />
从以上的研究中,我们得出结论:'''积分回归的有效性来源于它的特征表示。'''因为该方法在不同的热度图损失(H1、H2、H3)、不同训练方法(联合或不联合)、不同的分辨率和不同的网络结构(深度或多阶段)下,都有好的表现。<br />
<br />
===COCO数据集===<br />
<br />
COCO关键点的挑战是需要在不可控的环境下,进行多人检测和姿势估计。训练集、验证集和测试集一共包含标记了关键点的20万张图片和25万个人。评估方法是定义了物体关键点相似度(object keypoint similarity, OKS),并使用了在10个OKS阈值上的平均精度作为度量。<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法11.jpg|thumb|left|400px|传送门:http://cocodataset.org/#download]]<br />
<br />
'''本文使用了两阶段的自上而下的范式,即先检测行人,后估计姿势。'''在行人检测上,使用带有可变形卷积的Faster-RCNN,并使用Xception作为主干网络。姿势估计时,对比了基于热度图的方法(H1)和积分回归的方法(I1),所有的设置和MPII中几乎相同。<br />
<br />
实验的结果如表5所示,积分回归的方法比基于热度图的方法超出了1.5个百分点,是当前的state-of-the-art。<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法12.jpg|thumb|600px|表5. COCO数据集的实验结果]]<br />
<br />
===Human3.6M数据集===<br />
<br />
Human3.6M是目前最大的3D人体姿势估计数据集。数据是在可控的环境中采集的,包括360万帧的视频,从4个相机中捕捉到11个人(5名女性,6名男性)的15种活动。采集者和背景的图像都是简单的。<br />
<br />
[[File:回归方法14.png|thumb|left|800px|表6. 在两种策略下,积分回归方法(I*、I1、I2)和相应基本方法(R1、H1、H2)的结果]]<br />
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'''本文使用了两种训练策略:(1)只使用了Human3.6M的3D数据作为训练集;(2)同时使用了Human3.6M的3D数据和MPII的2D数据作为训练集。'''<br />
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实验的结果表明:(1)在两种策略下,积分回归都可以极大地提高精度;(2)混合使用了2D和3D训练数据后,结果都得到提高,如表6所示。多阶段的结构、网络规模和分辨率对结果的影响与之前的结论相同。<br />
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[[File:回归方法13.jpg|thumb|left|900px|传送门:http://vision.imar.ro/human3.6m/deion.php]]<br />
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[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%94%9F%E4%B8%8D%E6%81%AF&diff=15516生生不息2020-10-16T11:53:12Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“{{#seo: |keywords=人工生命, autolife,自复制程序,遗传算法,开放式进化 |description=人工生命, autolife,自复制程序,遗传算法,开放式进…”</p>
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<div>{{#seo:<br />
|keywords=人工生命, autolife,自复制程序,遗传算法,开放式进化<br />
|description=人工生命, autolife,自复制程序,遗传算法,开放式进化<br />
}}<br />
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* 名 称:生生不息 (AutoLife)<br />
* 作 者:张 江<br />
* 源代码:[[File:autolife.zip]]<br />
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[[File:Autolife.gif|right]]<br />
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==程序说明==<br />
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该程序由若干生命智能体在他们的环境中不断的适应进化构成,目的是探讨环境的变迁对生命体的影响。其中白色的点是智能生命体,他们会不停的运动并且自我繁殖、进化,蓝色的点是生命体的食物,它可以被人造的产生或者外部加入,也可以通过智能体的自发规律进行演化。如果选择了draw seeds,那么就能看到绿色的点表示生命体进行的播种。用户可以通过环境控制面板(Env Control panel)上的按钮对环境进行操作。也可以通过在仿真界面上进行鼠标拖拉的方式来操纵生命体和他所处的环境。<br />
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<html><br />
<iframe width=800 height=600 frameborder=0 scrolling=yes src="http://www.swarma.org/javaclass/classes/autolife/autolife.html"> <br />
</iframe><br />
</html><br />
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==如何运行==<br />
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总的运行结果可以分成两种,第一种情况是生命体可以自己进行播种。选择下拉框Have Seeds。也就是按照生命体他自己的规则运行到一定的时刻就产生一个绿色的“种子”,这个种子经过一段时间就可以生长成熟变成新的食物。一般一个单位的“种子”可以生成2个单位的食物,这样生命体会很快找到播种种子是一种收益递增的行动。在这种情况下,我们不用从外部给系统加入食物,生命体和食物构成的系统可以自我构建。<br />
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第二种情况是生命体不可以播种(下拉框No seed),这样因为生命体的运行,会消耗大量的食物,因而我们必须从外界加入食物。这个时候可以运用左边的环境控制面板来操作。首先,用户可以选择增加食物的方式(Dynamic Env下拉框),我们会看到生命体在不同的环境下有非常不一样的适应性行为。最简单的一种环境就是每次随机的增加定量的食物(可以通过增加食物滚动条Ran food supply调节),会看到生命体的数量会呈明显的变化趋势。<br />
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我们还可以人工的方式对环境和生命智能体操作。运用鼠标绘图的方式(在屏幕上进行拖拉),你可以方便的增加食物,也可以清除掉一些生命体,还可以对生命体进行拷贝、粘贴、剪切等操作,所有这些动作都可以通过环境控制面板(Env Control Panel)上面的控件完成。<br />
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Objects选择的是所绘的物体,可以是Food(增加食物),可以是Eraser(橡皮,删除所选中的所有东西)。当选择了Select之后,再选择区域,会弹出一个对话框,显示了所有选中的生命体的情况,包括他们的一些基本参数和规则。另外,还可以在这个对话框中进行一些对选中区域的其他操作,包括对生命体的拷贝、粘贴。<br />
Shapes选择的是描绘物体的形状,可以是Rectangle(矩形),可以是Line(直线)<br />
Fill types:填充方式,即实心填充,还是梯度的方式画图(梯度的情况,只有在选择了食物物体的时候可用)。<br />
Gradiant Value是当选择了梯度填充方式的时候,梯度值的大小。<br />
Line Width是当选择了直线绘图方式的时候的直线宽度。<br />
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底部面板上的按钮可以对整个仿真世界进行设置、操作,其中Start/Stop/Continue按钮可以自由控制仿真的运行和暂停。当暂停模式的时候,可以通过Config设置一些基本的参数,Restart则是重新运行整个仿真。Step可以单步运行程序。点Curves按钮会弹出一个对话框,用曲线的方式反映生命体的整体运动趋势和变化规律。Have Seeds、No Seeds选择框可以让生命体置于可以播种、不可以播种两种模式。Draw Seeds和Don't Draw Seeds则是命令程序是否会值种子(绿色)。<br />
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==趣味看点==<br />
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===生命体会自行播种的情况===<br />
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1、由于生命体会很快找到播种可以让他们收益递增的方式,并且当多个生命体聚集在一起时会使得整个群体达到互惠互利,因而这个时候组织就会突现,一群生命体聚集在一起,它们会不断的生产种子,种子又会给他们带来更多的食物。有些时候,组织会变得很庞大,当一个巨大的组织出现的时候会很容易衰败下去。这时候,组织会演变为很多小型的组织机构。一般情况,组织总是在不停的产生、衰亡,并能够集体随机运动。<br />
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2、生命体构成的组织系统是一个自我构建的系统,它具有一种神奇的自我维持的能力,而且具有非常强的鲁棒性。我们可以通过下面的实验方法证明:当一个组织系统出现的时候,如果我们把这个组织的一小部分切割掉(可以用环境控制面板中的Eraser操作)的时候,组织会自发的寻找出一种运动模式尽量弥补这个被切割的部分。这就好像动物的伤口可以闭合一样。当切割的部分稍大一些的时候,组织会改变运动的方式,然而不会消亡,当切割的部分更大的时候,组织才会失去活力而死亡。<br />
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3、组织具有自然的生命周期,从它的出生到死亡,以及中间时期的自发分裂。所有这些现象都是涌现出来的,并没有哪个指令告诉它们应该如何运动。尤其是组织的自发死亡现象。当一个组织增长的过快而过大的时候,很多“寄生”的生命体(也就是仅仅吃食物,而不播种)会呈指数增加,这个时候整个组织的食物供给(主要靠那些播种的生命体)会无法支撑如此庞大的系统,因而我们会看到组织的衰亡现象。具体体现在画面上是组织中白色的生命体非常多,然而蓝色的食物在逐渐减少,很快那些“坏死”的白色生命体团块消失了,整个组织很有可能分裂为一些更小的组织,也可能就此消失了。<br />
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4、一般情况下,尺寸越大的组织出现的越少,尺寸越小的组织出现越多,二者的关系(尺寸和出现频率)可能呈现幂率分布。但是这个结果我没有精确的验证。<br />
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===生命体不会播种的情况===<br />
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1、当选择随机方式对整个世界进行食物补给的时候,通过观察生命体的变化曲线,我们一般会看到这样的情况:生命体群体呈现为三个阶段:过分繁殖、大灭绝、平稳震荡。也就是说生命体群体经历了学习阶段(疯狂繁殖、大灭绝),逐渐学会了某种固定的数量来应付当前的环境。如果不断的变化食物添加量,生命体群体会不断的学习。如果观察生命体的平均染色体长度曲线(该曲线反映了生命体规则的复杂度),我们会发现,变化的环境有利于整体复杂度的增加。<br />
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2、当选择其他的食物增加情况会得到完全不一样的结果,特别是选择circle和helix的情况,生命体会逐渐适应环境形成固定的行为模式,这种行为模式会对环境的变化形成记忆。环境中食物的增长是一个运动的带形区域,生命体们会很快的适应这个环境,并且可以有效的“预测”到环境的变化趋势,因而也会形成一个带形的区域形成对环境的记忆。所有这些集体效果都是自发的行为。<br />
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==仿真的基本原理==<br />
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每个生命体实际上都是一个小型的“图灵机”,并且这一群图灵机可以通过遗传变异而进化。<br />
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内部结构:一群参数包括拥有的能量值、寿命、当前坐标、当前面对方向等等。一个可变化长度的规则表rules,这个规则表既可以当作指导生命体运动的程序规则,又可以当作遗传的数据(染色体)被遗传变异。<br />
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如何行动:每个仿真周期,生命体仅仅读入它所面对的前方三个方格情况,如果0是空格,1是有食物的方格,那么,每次生命体读入的就是一个010,001这样的三位长的二进制字符串。生命体还有一些被编码成0,1,2,3,4……的内部状态,这样根据读入的二进制串和内部状态,生命体会查找它的规则表rules,找到匹配的一条规则,得到输出动作(0,1,2,3,4)和下一时刻的状态。其中动作(0,1,2,3,4)都是动作的编码,它们分别表示前行、左转、右转、繁殖、播种,也就是说每个生命体在每个周期所采用的动作完全是由它们的规则决定的。其中繁殖就是在当前位置诞生一个新的生命体,并且父亲的所有状态都会遗传给后代。<br />
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环境规则:如果生命体所在的世界位置有食物,那么就会把这个食物吃掉,吃到食物就可以增加生命体的一定量的能量值。另外,生命体的每一种行动都会对应不同的能量消耗值,而新出生的生命体都会从它的父亲那里得到一部分能量值,如果一个生命体的能量消耗殆尽,或者这个生命体的寿命超过了最大寿命就会死亡。为了限制生命体的繁殖,每个生命都有一个最大繁殖数量。<br />
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遗传规则:当每次遗传的时候,父亲会把规则表完全遗传给后代,但同时在遗传的过程中会以概率muteP发生变异,并且,规则表的长度也会以lenP的概率发生变化(既可能增长也可能缩短)。因而,生命体可以通过遗传变异来给自己编程,并且由于这个模型是与图灵机等价的,所以原则上讲,任意复杂的程序都能够被编出来。<br />
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==基本参数==<br />
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Initial Agent number:初始时刻生命体的个数<br />
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Initial foods density:初始时刻食物的分布密度<br />
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MaxAgentContaining:环境对生命体个数的最大容量,当生命体超过这个总数就会使得遗传操作实效。这种处理的原因是为了缓解对内存的压力,如果生命体过多,计算机的负载会很快变得很大<br />
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Agent's max age:每个生命体的最大寿命,超过这个年龄的生命体将会死亡<br />
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delay time seed to grass:一个种子要经历多少时间才能变成食物<br />
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Energy to produce a seed:产生一粒种子,生命体所消耗的能量值<br />
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Mutation P:变异的概率<br />
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LenP:长度变化的概率<br />
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==开发背景==<br />
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起初开发这个仿真模型有两个目的,一个是研究个体Agent的决策行为如何适应性的变化。我提出猜想,行为趋向混沌边缘的个体会逐渐在进化中诞生出来,并得到了一些初步结果。对这个决策模型的进一步改进就得到了现在的模型。<br />
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另外一个目的是验证早期关于人工生命的一些思考。在我刚刚接触到人工生命中的蚂蚁觅食行为、人工生命Floy的动态行为觉得很迷人,但总觉得它们的行为是程序事先设计好的,而寻找这样的规则本身是一个艰巨的任务(在我开发蚂蚁觅食的仿真模型的时候深有感触)。于是我希望能够找到一种方法让生命的行为自动演化出不同的样子。然而如果用标准的遗传算法会存在很大的困难。我们都知道,标准的遗传算法都需要对问题用染色体进行编码,并且设计每一种染色体的基因组合的适应度函数,而染色体编码和适应度函数的设计本身就是一个很困难的问题。尤其是人工生命的适应性行为没有固定的评价标准。于是我开始思考如何让人工生命的行为不是一下子从染色体直接翻译过来的,而是通过类似L系统的跌代方法组合生成出来。计算机本身就是一个很好的启发,因为计算机无非就是一大堆01代码的组合,然而原则上它能够做“任意的”事情。为了弄明白普通计算机为什么能够做“任意的”事情,我开始探索计算理论和图灵机。后来搞明白了图灵机具有最强的计算能力,只要计算模型能够执行“通用计算”那么原则上它就能组合出来任意的行为。也正是因为这样,我才考虑到用图灵机作为进化Agent的基本模型。这样对图灵机程序的变异进化原则上能够产生任意复杂的程序。<br />
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另外一个头痛的问题是解决适应性行为的判定,也就是适应度函数的问题。为了在模型中不显含适应度函数,我采纳了qingtom的意见,也就是让适应度自发涌现,通过设计Agent的能量值可以达到这个目的。原则上Agent能够做什么,怎么做都没有明确的规定,而每种行动都对应一个能量消耗值,当能量用光了Agent就死掉,这样适应性的结果就会自发的演化出来。通过进化,留下来的Agent能够有效的利用能量。<br />
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在解决了以上技术难题之后,仿真模型开始投入运行。然而开始我并没有意识到食物添加环境对Agent的行为会有多大影响,而且一开始我把目光集中到了Agent个体行为上,我希望看到Agent的行为能够逐渐复杂起来,然而事实不如我所料。接下来一个偶然的机会,我看到如果仅仅在一条直线上添加食物,而其他地方没有食物,那么Agent就会聪明的学会如何“走钢丝”(在一条直线上生存),我马上意识到了环境的重要性,并开发了不同模式的动态环境。<br />
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最后我希望Agent与环境的作用方式能够更自然,于是想到Agent死后也可能会变成新的食物,但是出于解释方便的目的,我让Agent可以播种,并且播出的种子由于某种假想的“光合作用”能够转变出更多的食物,在这种情况下,令我吃惊的是组织自我突现出来了。而且那些日子我刚刚接触到了自创生理论,我发现在本模型中的组织就是一个自创系统,它自己维持着自己的存在,尤其是看到了惊人的自我维护现象。<br />
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==疑难问题及进一步改进==<br />
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1、在生命体能播种的情况,如何让组织实现自主运动。也就是它们的运动具有明显的目的性,会观察到周围环境的食物分布,自动朝向食物分布多的地方运动。由于现在的规则,组织是一个自给自足的系统,因而也失去了获取更多食物的兴趣,因而现在尚无法很好的完成自主食物的获取。<br />
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2、如何让更高级的组织涌现?组织可能呈现出明显的内部结构,多个组织联合起来可以形成超级组织等。<br />
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3、如果把环境的变化比喻成计算机的指令,那么生命体的适应性行为就是对这些指令的执行。如果让指令根据生命体的变化而进化会怎样?也就是说环境的状况如何自发的进化?<br />
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4、如何进一步简化生命体的模型,由于每个周期,生命体都要进行查表操作,因而浪费了很多时间,导致程序的效率下降。<br />
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5、如果更改Agent的模型会有什么结果?比如如果把Agent改造成一个演化的神经网络。(不知道传统的BP网络模型是不是能带来更好的结果,原则上,只要是支持通用计算的模型就能达到进化的目的,那么BP网络可以么?)<br />
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6、如何进一步减少人们对规则的制定,目前设计者还需要设计环境的规则及其参数,如何让这些东西都自发涌现?如果把环境也看做是图灵机会出现什么情况?<br />
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==潜在的应用==<br />
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1、通过这个仿真试验研究并开发个体的行为。由于随着程序的运行个体Agent的规则表会变得相当复杂,因此如何在这些庞大的规则表中找出有用的程序规则成为一个难题。然而通过理解人工生命的行为我们有望更好的理解人类决策的行为。《Decision at edge of chaos》这篇文章就探讨了Autolife模型中的Agent从行为上趋向混沌边缘的可能性,以及对我们决策管理的实际意义。<br />
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2、将Autolife模型作为隐喻解决计算理论问题。比如我们看到agent构成的组织有一种自发的聚集行为,我们能否用这个现象构造一种聚类算法?我们知道,已经有人研究运用人工生命的方法解决计算机自动聚类问题,那么我认为Autolife这个模型也很有可能完成这个工作。<br />
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3、能否用Autolife模型构造出新的通用的进化算法来解决优化问题?我们知道蚂蚁算法的本质就是利用蚂蚁的涌现行为刚好是最短路径来解决优化问题的。而Autolife中的Agent本质上也在经历着寻优的过程,他们不断的适应新的环境就是不断的优化过程,如何把这种优化过程进一步扩展到更广阔的领域呢?<br />
<br />
4、是否能够以Autolife模型作为隐喻构造某种突现计算?如果把Autolife中的网格空间抽象成更加一般的空间,把环境添加食物的动态行为理解为一种指令,那么Agent的群体行为就是执行这些指令的表现。这就好像普通的计算机在执行一堆指令代码,然而不同的是,Autolife中的Agent群体具有很强的灵活性、适应性和鲁棒性,那么执行出来的结果应该和我们的数字计算机不一样,因而能够看到某种适应性的、柔性的执行代码的结果产生出来。<br />
<br />
5、在艺术领域的潜在应用。因为Autolife是一个可视化的、界面友好的群集行为仿真,能否把这个模型应用于产生各种各样群集艺术作品是一个既有趣又值得探索的问题。<br />
<br />
==相关wiki==<br />
*[[Clickstream network datasets]]<br />
*[[自创生理论]]<br />
*[[3d的Floy]]<br />
*[[生生不息]]<br />
*[[Floy]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[category:旧网站]]<br />
[[category:旧网站-虚拟世界]]<br />
[[category:模拟程序]]<br />
[[category:人工生命]]<br />
[[category:复杂系统]]<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F&diff=15515生命系统2020-10-16T11:51:40Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“由生命物质所组成的系统叫做生命系统,是自然系统的最高形式。其典型特征是能独立与其所处的环境进行物质与能量交换,…”</p>
<hr />
<div>由生命物质所组成的系统叫做生命系统,是自然系统的最高形式。其典型特征是能独立与其所处的环境进行物质与能量交换,并在此基础上实现内部的有序性、发展与繁殖。从时空尺度上包括生态圈、生态系统、群落、种群、个体等,从对象性质上可分为植物系统、动物系统、微生物系统等。生命系统是由非生命系统发展而来的,它是物质世界由简单到复杂、由低级到高级发展的产物。类生命系统是指具备真实生命系统的部分或全部特征的非生命系统,例如人工生命系统或者合成生命系统。<br />
<br />
==生命系统的典型特征==<br />
<br />
生命系统通常具备如下典型特征<br />
<br />
===新陈代谢===<br />
<br />
生命系统是一个开放系统,它接受太阳能流的辐射,不断地与外界进行物质和能量的交换并且通过食物链所构成的营养结构在系统内部作定向、有规律的传输、转化,一部分被系统吸收用以形成和维持特定的结构与功能,另一部分从系统输出,实现新陈代谢、自我更新。薛定谔指出,“生命体之所以能存在,就在于从环境中不断得到‘负熵’”。因此,生命系统作为典型的自组织系统,展现出从简单到复杂、有低级到高级的演化进程,在结构和功能上都更加有序。<br />
<br />
<br />
===自我繁殖===<br />
<br />
生命系统往往具备复制其自身的能力,这种能力构成了生命生生不息、进化繁衍的基础。<br />
<br />
===进化===<br />
<br />
生命系统都在经历达尔文式的进化论,即物竞天择、自然选择。通过持续的遗传基因变异,生命系统能够演化出越来越多样化的功能,从而在自然选择的筛选之下,形成特定的表现型,并稳定地在环境中存在。<br />
<br />
==类生命系统==<br />
类生命系统是指那些具备部分或全部生命特征的非生命系统,例如人工生命或者合成生命等。这类系统将生命的本质属性,例如新陈代谢、自我繁殖和进化提炼出来,赋予到一些[[人工系统]]中,从而让这样的[[人工系统]]具备生命特征。<br />
<br />
例如,[[遗传算法]]就是将真实生物的遗传选择、生物进化的特征提炼出来赋予给计算机程序系统,从而实现类似真实生物的进化特征,用以解决优化问题求解、规划、自动编程等问题。<br />
<br />
==研究历史==<br />
<br />
===米勒的生命起源实验和生命理论===<br />
<br />
1953年,美国芝加哥大学的研究生米勒(James Grier Miller)在其导师尤利(H.C.Urey)指导下完成了著名的米勒实验,即模拟原始地球的大气环境,从而合成出原始生命需要的氨基酸等基本物质,从而论证生命的起源理论。<br />
<br />
之后,米勒于1978年的时候完成了一本1102页的书来表达他的生命理论。他通过聚焦在物理时空中,能量与物质的非随机积累这一特定的具体系统来构建他的一般的生命系统理论。在该理论中,他提出了一种八层次结构模型,每一种嵌套结构都包含了下一个结构。<br />
<br />
===自创生理论===<br />
<br />
自创生理论是由智利科学家Maturana和Varela于1972年提出来的一种生命系统理论。他们观察到细胞就是一个自我生产的系统(Autopoietic system),也就是说系统的任何一个部件都是由系统内部的其它部件生产的;并且系统能够产生与环境相区分的边界,这个边界也是由系统内部的部件产生的。<br />
<br />
===人工生命理论===<br />
<br />
人工生命(Artificial life)是由朗顿(Christopher langton)于1986年最先命名的研究领域,它力图用人工的方式(例如计算机模拟)来再现生命系统的基本特征和组织形式,从而帮助我们理解生命现象,包括自繁殖、进化、新陈代谢等。<br />
<br />
==参考文献==<br />
<br />
* 百度百科“生命系统”词条:https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E7%94%9F%E5%91%BD%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F<br />
<br />
* wikipedia自创生系统词条:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopoiesis<br />
<br />
* wikipedia人工生命词条:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_life<br />
<br />
* von Neumann, John; Burks, Arthur W. (1966), Theory of Self-Reproducing Automata. (Scanned book online), University of Illinois Press, retrieved 2017-02-28<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E6%B7%B1%E5%BA%A6%E5%AD%A6%E4%B9%A0%E5%9C%A8%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%9A%E9%A2%86%E5%9F%9F%E7%9A%84%E5%BA%94%E7%94%A8%E6%B1%87%E6%80%BB&diff=15514深度学习在工业领域的应用汇总2020-10-16T11:48:01Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“==自然语言处理== ===前言=== 自然语言处理是人工智能研究领域中浓墨重彩的一笔,也是我们经常能接触到的商业人工智能应…”</p>
<hr />
<div>==自然语言处理==<br />
<br />
===前言===<br />
<br />
自然语言处理是人工智能研究领域中浓墨重彩的一笔,也是我们经常能接触到的商业人工智能应用。<br />
<br />
根据处理的信息种类不同,自然语言处理可分为“文本处理”、“语音识别”、“自然语言理解”等多种技术领域。<br />
<br />
而综合使用这些技术,企业可以研发出用于自动进行市场调研的“文本分析器”,以及“语音交互个人助手”等等的工业应用。<br />
<br />
下面我们就介绍已经在工业领域落地的基于自然语言处理技术的应用,同时也提供了一些与这些应用技术相关的开源项目,供大家学习参考。<br />
<br />
===文本===<br />
<br />
====文本自动摘要系统:AbstractiveSummarization ====<br />
<br />
https://github.com/facebookarchive/NAMAS<br />
<br />
这个是由 Facebook 实现的“基于注意力机制的文本自动摘要系统”。<br />
<br />
因为现在网络上充斥着大量的新闻媒体内容,而我们的时间又是那么宝贵,如果有一套系统,可以自动提供文本内容的摘要那是最好不过了。<br />
<br />
这种自动摘要系统可以作为机器理解系统的预处理系统,除去文本内容中的冗杂信息,以便于理解。<br />
<br />
这种系统可以应用在“股票交易决策”系统中,以实时检测分析网络媒体中的“风声”,提供进出仓建议。<br />
<br />
====文本内容分析系统:DeepMind Teaching Machines to Read and Comprehend====<br />
<br />
https://github.com/thomasmesnard/DeepMind-Teaching-Machines-to-Read-and-Comprehend<br />
<br />
让机器具有阅读理解的能力。给定机器一段文本,机器可以自动分析出文本中涉及到的实体,以及实体“干了什么”,甚至能直接使用自然语言与用户交流,回答关于文本的问题。<br />
<br />
这种系统同样可以做媒体分析,应用在市场调研领域。<br />
<br />
还有一种已经落地的应用是做“口供分析”,可以从相关人员的“口供描述”中自动分析出“要点信息”,以方便警务人员立案调查,甚至直接与城市监控系统联网,自动锁定“口供描述”中分析出的“重点对象”。<br />
<br />
====工业应用案例 ====<br />
<br />
'''Synapsify'''<br />
<br />
美国的Synapsify提供文本分析服务,它可以用于对内容的加速发现、观点提取和建议,如出版商可以用Synapsify来评估市场,政府还可以用Synapsify来进行网络舆情监控。<br />
<br />
'''深度好奇'''<br />
<br />
上面讲到的“口供文本分析系统”,就是深度好奇这家公司研发的。同时他们还研发了“可以自动理解表格信息的问答系统”,它可以使用自然语言,与用户交流数字表格中的信息,可以做到根据用户的要求,进行归纳、计算,并使用自然语言表达出结果。<br />
<br />
===语音识别===<br />
<br />
====句子级语音识别:Speech-to-Text-WaveNet====<br />
<br />
https://github.com/buriburisuri/speech-to-text-wavenet<br />
<br />
这是一个基于 DeepMind 最新理论实现的语音识别系统,可以将语音识别为文本。因为采用了最新的WaveNet技术,是它可以具有相当高的准确率,所以非常有参考的价值。<br />
<br />
其实就语音识别这个技术无需多说,因为要进行基于语音交互的自然语言处理,计算机得首先将说话的声音转化成文本,才能进行后续的处理。<br />
<br />
====工业应用案列====<br />
<br />
'''科大讯飞'''<br />
<br />
这个公司不用多说,国内一线的老牌语音识别大厂,在语音识别、语义理解领域都有非常高的技术水准。<br />
<br />
'''出门问问'''<br />
<br />
即拥有2C端硬件产品,又拥有核心技术的公司。其将自主研发的中文语音识别系统结合到“智能手表、只能车载设备、家用智能音响”上,给予用户提供便捷的“语音操控”。<br />
<br />
'''思必驰'''<br />
<br />
国内有名的提供“围绕语音识别”的解决方案的公司,已经为多家智能硬件公司提供语义交互解决方案。<br />
<br />
'''云知声'''<br />
专注物联网的,人工智能服务提供商,以“语音识别”为核心,提供产品解决方案。<br />
<br />
===机器翻译===<br />
<br />
====开源机器翻译系统:PyOpenNMT====<br />
<br />
https://github.com/OpenNMT/OpenNMT-py.git<br />
<br />
OpenNMT,一套开源的神经网络机器翻译模型实现。<br />
<br />
因为是开源实现,所以这套系统设计的非常易用且支持扩展,并且有着相当高的翻译准确率!<br />
<br />
====谷歌“注意力机制”机器翻译模型:Attention is all you need====<br />
<br />
https://github.com/jadore801120/attention-is-all-you-need-pytorch.git<br />
<br />
2017年由 Facebook、Google、Microsoft三家公司引领的“机器翻译模型争夺战”着实闹出了不小的动静。<br />
<br />
其中《Attention is all your need》论文提出的就是基于注意力机制的机器翻译模型,这种模型在进行西方语言的翻译时,可以取得相当优秀的结果。<br />
<br />
====工业应用案例====<br />
<br />
机器翻译任务在人工智能领域可算是老生常谈了。<br />
<br />
目前 Google、百度、金山、有道都采用了基于神经网络的翻译模型来提升自己机器翻译系统的性能。<br />
<br />
===语音/语言交互助手===<br />
<br />
====自然语言交互推荐系统:NNDIAL====<br />
<br />
https://github.com/shawnwun/NNDIAL#nndial<br />
<br />
这个是由剑桥大学研发的基于文本的交互系统。他能够以自然语言与人类交流,目前能实现根据用户的要求,为用户提供当地餐厅的咨询服务。<br />
<br />
这个系统采用模块化的结构,采用了多个神经网络,整体采用“编码器-解码器构架”。<br />
<br />
系统采用的工作机制非常典型,与国内多家公司的语音助手结构相似,非常适于刚进入这个领域的人学习和研究。<br />
<br />
====基于文本知识库的问答系统:DrQA====<br />
<br />
https://github.com/facebookresearch/DrQA#drqa<br />
<br />
这个系统可以学习一个基于文本的知识库,然后根据学习到的内容回答用户的问题。<br />
<br />
目前它已经实现了自动化学习维基百科的知识库,然后据此用自然语言与用户交流,回答有关维基百科里相关知识的问题。<br />
<br />
====开放领域的聊天系统:Deep Q&A====<br />
<br />
https://github.com/Conchylicultor/DeepQA<br />
<br />
这个项目复刻了 Google 的开放领域聊天机器人。<br />
<br />
与之前说过的交互推荐系统不同的是,这个聊天系统的响应更加丰富,并且具有闲聊功能。<br />
<br />
它支持知识库扩展,想让机器人能回答某个领域的问题,只要提供这个领域的训练数据即可。<br />
<br />
====具有记忆的语音交互系统:memnn====<br />
<br />
https://github.com/facebook/MemNN<br />
<br />
这个连接中有多个“记忆神经网络”的实现。“记忆神经网络”是 Facebook 提出的一种理论。<br />
<br />
根据这种理论,可以使聊天机器人具有记忆,从而使聊天机器人在与人交流的过程中,可以学习到交流的内容,从而根据交流的内容进行推理等工作。<br />
<br />
====工业应用案例====<br />
<br />
做语音/语音交互助手真是非常多,几乎有自然语言处理研发能力的公司都涉及了这方面的工作。<br />
<br />
放下Google、Apple、Microsoft三家的语音助手不说,国外有Api.ai,可以私人订制语音交互助手。<br />
<br />
国内有出门问问、图灵机器人、思必驰等都提供语音交互助手的订制服务。<br />
<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E6%B5%81%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E7%9A%84%E5%BC%95%E5%8A%9B%E5%AE%9A%E5%BE%8B&diff=15513流网络的引力定律2020-10-16T11:45:45Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“所谓流网络的引力定律是指任意边上的流量与该连边两个顶点上的流量的乘积具有幂律关系。假设一条i,j连边上的流量是f<sub>…”</p>
<hr />
<div>所谓流网络的引力定律是指任意边上的流量与该连边两个顶点上的流量的乘积具有幂律关系。假设一条i,j连边上的流量是f<sub>ij</sub>,i上的流量是T<sub>i</sub>,j上的流量是T<sub>j</sub>,那么万有引力定律可以写为:<br />
<br />
<math><br />
f_{ij}\propto (T_i T_j)^{\alpha}<br />
</math><br />
<br />
有时,为了能够更好地拟合真实数据,我们也采用双参数拟合,也就是写成下式:<br />
<br />
<math><br />
f_{ij}\propto T_i^{\alpha}T_j^{\beta}<br />
</math><br />
<br />
式中有两个幂律指数αβ分别拟合ij连边的起始点i的流量和终点j的流量对ij连边流量的预测贡献。<br />
<br />
==引力定律==<br />
<br />
我们都熟悉,牛顿著名的万有引力公式可以表达为:<br />
<br />
<math><br />
f_{ij}=\frac{Gm_im_j}{r_{ij}^2}<br />
</math><br />
<br />
其中f<sub>ij</sub>为两个物体i和j之间的万有引力,m<sub>i</sub>和m<sub>j</sub>分别表示两个物体的质量,r<sub>ij</sub>表示两个物体之间的距离。<br />
<br />
有意思的是,在复杂系统中,这个公式也普遍成立。例如,在城市系统中,任意两个城市之间的交通流、物资流遵循类似的万有引力公式<ref name="fractalcities">{{cite book|title=分形城市系统:标度·对称·空间复杂性|last=陈|first=彦光|year=2008|publisher=科学出版社}}</ref>:<br />
<br />
<math><br />
f_{ij}=k\frac{(P_iP_j)^{\alpha}}{r_{ij}^{\beta}}<br />
</math><br />
<br />
这里的f<sub>ij</sub>为两个城市之间的流量(交通流、通讯流等等)。P<sub>i</sub>和P<sub>j</sub>分别表示各个城市的人口,r<sub>ij</sub>表示两个城市之间的距离。k是一个类似万有引力常数一样的常数。α和β是两个需要拟合的指数。与牛顿的万有引力不同,两城市之间的流量可能不与城市人口乘积刚好呈正比。同样的道理,对于距离也不一定呈二次方反比,而有可能是任意的指数α和β(可能依不同国家的城市系统而不同)。<br />
<br />
人们也曾尝试用万有引力来拟合任意两个国家之间的贸易流动,但是发现,标准的万有引力形式可能并不能很好地拟合,而如果对该公式进行扩展则有可能拟合得很好<ref name="gravitytrade">{{cite journal|title=The gravity model|last=Anderson|first=J. E.|journal=Annual Review of Economics|year=2011|volume=3|page=133-160}}</ref>。更多讨论请参看[[复杂系统中的引力定律]]。<br />
<br />
在通常的流网络中,节点之间是不存在空间距离的,但是,类似的万有引力公式仍然成立。所谓流网络的万有引力定律是指任意边上的流量与该连边两个顶点上的流量的乘积具有幂律关系。假设一条i,j连边上的流量是f<sub>ij</sub>,i上的流量是T<sub>i</sub>,j上的流量是T<sub>j</sub>,那么万有引力定律可以写为:<br />
{{NumBlk|:|<br />
<math><br />
f_{ij}=c (T_i T_j)^{\alpha}<br />
</math><br />
|{{EquationRef|eq1}}}}<br />
<br />
其中c为常数,α为引力指数。有时,为了能够更好地拟合真实数据,我们也采用双参数拟合,也就是写成下式:<br />
{{NumBlk|:|<br />
<math><br />
f_{ij}=c T_i^{\alpha}T_j^{\beta}<br />
</math><br />
|{{EquationRef|eq2}}}}<br />
<br />
其中,有两个幂律指数αβ分别拟合ij连边的起始点i的流量和终点j的流量对ij连边流量的预测贡献。采用不同的指数α和β表明流动中起点和终点的非对称性。<br />
<br />
==各种实证网络的引力定律==<br />
<br />
===生态流网络===<br />
<br />
在[[生态流网络]]中,每条边上的流量对应的是物种之间由于捕食关系而发生的能量转移。对于实证网络来说,我们发现{{EquationNote|eq1}}普遍成立。例如,下图展示的就是Mondego Estuary - Zostrea site(简称Mondego网)的用{{EquationNote|eq1}}式表达的引力定律<ref name="gravityflownetwokr">{{cite journal|title=Common Patterns of Energy Flow and Biomass<br />
Distribution on Weighted Food Webs|first=Jiang|last=Zhang|first1=Yuanjing|last1=Feng|year=2012|url=http://arxiv.org/abs/1208.1560}}</ref>。<br />
<br />
[[File:ecologicalgravity.PNG|500px]]<br />
<br />
其中,拟合的指数为0.5868,R<sup>2</sup>达到了0.85。而下图则展示的是由{{EquationNote|eq2}}表达的引力定律。<br />
<br />
[[File:ecologicalgravity2.PNG|500px]]<br />
<br />
我们看到,这张图的效果会稍好一些,R<sup>2</sup>达到了0.86,这说明生态流网络的引力定律具有一定的不对称性。但是这种不对称性并不明显,这体现在两个指数的差异上并不大。<br />
<br />
我们进一步考察了可获得的19个生态流网络的引力定律的拟合数据,见下表<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! 网络名称 !! 单变量引力指数 !! 单变量R<sup>2</sup> !! 双变量引力指数α !! 双变量引力指数β !!双变量R<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
|CrystalD||0.63||0.70||0.57||0.75||0.74<br />
|-<br />
|CrystalC||0.53||0.65||0.50||0.57||0.65<br />
|-<br />
|Chesapeake||0.68||0.84||0.62||0.77||0.85<br />
|-<br />
|ChesLower||0.70||0.75||0.61||0.84||0.76<br />
|-<br />
|ChesMiddle||0.67||0.77||0.60||0.78||0.78<br />
|-<br />
|ChesUpper||0.64||0.64||0.62||0.67||0.64<br />
|-<br />
|Narragan||0.54||0.81||0.49||0.60||0.81<br />
|-<br />
|Michigan||0.62||0.86||0.57||0.72||0.87<br />
|-<br />
|StMarks||0.68||0.74||0.76||0.56||0.75<br />
|-<br />
|Mondego||0.79||0.85||0.83||0.70||0.86<br />
|-<br />
|Cypwet||0.70||0.84||0.85||0.55||0.87<br />
|-<br />
|Cypdry||0.68||0.81||0.81||0.57||0.83<br />
|-<br />
|Gramdry||0.66||0.76||0.61||0.73||0.77<br />
|-<br />
|Gramwet||0.71||0.81||0.66||0.79||0.81<br />
|-<br />
|Mangdry||0.58||0.77||0.60||0.56||0.77<br />
|-<br />
|Mangwet||0.59||0.77||0.60||0.57||0.77<br />
|-<br />
|Baywet||0.62||0.79||0.67||0.54||0.80<br />
|-<br />
|Baydry||0.61||0.78||0.68||0.52||0.78<br />
|-<br />
|Florida||0.62||0.79||0.67||0.54||0.80<br />
|}<br />
<br />
首先,我们观察到,该表中所有生物流网络的R<sup>2</sup>都显著大于0.5,说明,引力定律都存在。其次,双变量指数αβ的差别不大。这说明引力定律基本是对称的。<br />
<br />
===国际贸易网===<br />
<br />
我们研究了[[国际贸易网]]的引力定律。例如,用1971的数据来看,引力定律大体成立:<br />
<br />
[[File:tradenetworkgravitylaw.png|600px|1971年的引力定律]]<br />
<br />
在图中,浅蓝色的点为原始数据点,红色的方框为对原始数据进行Log Bin处理以后的数据。这种处理就是将整个数据划分成log轴上均等的小区间,然后用每个小区间中的数据点的平均值作为y值,这样可以把原始数据的噪声消除掉,以使得趋势更加明显。对原始数据进行OLS估计以及对Log Bin处理后的数据做OLS回归,就得到两条直线(黑色的点划线和红色的直线)。注意,对于国际贸易网来说,引力指数基本都大于1.<br />
<br />
如果采用方程{{EquationNote|eq2}},则我们可以得到下图:<br />
<br />
[[File:tradenetworkgravitylaw2.png|700px]]<br />
<br />
图中平面的方程是:<math>f_{ij}=\exp(-22.8513)T_i^{0.9874}T_j^{1.1043}</math>,R方为0.4938,指数β比α稍大,表示两国之间的贸易流f<sub>ij</sub>更敏感地依赖于入口国的总贸易流量。我们计算了从1971年到2000年(不包括1990年)的所有的拟合指数以及R方,如下图:<br />
<br />
[[File:tradenetworkgravityexponents.png|600px|指数以及RSquare随时间的变化]]<br />
<br />
我们看到随着时间的增长,引力定律的拟合优度越来越强,这说明国际贸易网络的整体演化越来越趋近于引力定律所描述的自组织规律,而所有的指数都大体上趋近于1。<br />
<br />
===投入产出网===<br />
<br />
===点击流网===<br />
<br />
==参考文献==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
==相关WIKI==<br />
<br />
[[流网络]]<br />
<br />
[[复杂系统的引力定律]]<br />
<br />
[[category:流网络]][[category:复杂系统]]<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E6%B5%81%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E6%A0%B9%E6%8D%AE%E6%B5%81%E8%B7%9D%E7%A6%BB%E5%B5%8C%E5%85%A5%E7%A9%BA%E9%97%B4&diff=15512流网络根据流距离嵌入空间2020-10-16T11:43:15Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“我们的'''目的是根据流网络的流距离([http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/%E5%9F%BA%E4%BA%8E%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%94%E5%8F%AF%E5%A4%AB%E9%93%BE%E7%9A%84…”</p>
<hr />
<div>我们的'''目的是根据[[流网络]]的[[流距离]]([http://wiki.swarma.net/index.php/%E5%9F%BA%E4%BA%8E%E9%A9%AC%E5%B0%94%E5%8F%AF%E5%A4%AB%E9%93%BE%E7%9A%84%E6%B5%81%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90 平均首达时间矩阵L])矩阵,将整个网络嵌入到一个欧氏空间里面去,使得任意两点的欧氏距离尽量靠近他们的流距离.<ref name="ENA">{{cite journal | last = Peiteng Shi | first = Xiaohan Huang | date = 2015 | title = A Geometric Representation of Collective Attention Flows | journal = PLOS ONE}}</ref><ref name="Big">{{cite journal | last = Shavitt Y | first = Tankel T | date = 2004 | title = Big-bang simulation for embedding network distances in euclidean space | journal = IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking (TON)}}</ref><br />
=原理解析=<br />
给定某流网络,假想网络中各节点两两之间用弹簧相互连接,嵌入要做的即调整弹簧,使其松弛长度等于流距离。初始时各节点在欧式空间的坐标完全随机,以此我们可以计算节点两两之间的欧式距离。如果两节点间的流距离大于相应的欧式距离,表示弹簧被压缩了,那么我们应该拉伸这两节点间的弹簧;反之,我们应该压缩该弹簧。具体拉伸或者压缩多少取决于弹簧系数k及流距离和欧式距离的偏差x,即形变量=k*x。我们用该形变量去更新相应的节点欧式位置。反复这一过程,直至收敛。(注:实际运用之,我们常常不考虑流网络的源和汇节点,即流距离矩阵中不需要含有源和汇的项)<br />
<br />
=嵌入程序(Matlab版本)=<br />
==初始准备==<br />
此处程序没有考虑流矩阵中无穷大的情况<br />
===输入变量流距离矩阵-flow_distance,节点编号-nodes_num,嵌入维数dim===<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="matlab"><br />
<br />
dim=10;<br />
max_distance=max(max(flow_distance));<br />
max_x=max_distance;<br />
max_y=max_x;<br />
<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
===%为每个节点生成随机位置===<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="matlab"><br />
<br />
initial_pos=[];<br />
for i=1:length(nodes_num) <br />
tmp=[];<br />
for j=1:dim<br />
tmp=[tmp max_x-2*max_x*rand(1)];<br />
end<br />
initial_pos=[initial_pos;tmp];<br />
end <br />
<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
==第一步优化,按照欧氏距离和流距离的差别大小受力==<br />
===开始运动===<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="matlab"><br />
<br />
current_pos=initial_pos; <br />
iterations=1; <br />
complete_temperature_iterations = 0;<br />
current_target= compute_distance(initial_pos,flow_distance );<br />
basic_size=20;<br />
target=[];<br />
all_temperature=[];<br />
probility=[];<br />
<br />
while iterations< 200<br />
iterations<br />
%-------------产生新的坐标-------------%<br />
new_pos=[];<br />
distance_matrix=compute_distance_matrix(current_pos);<br />
k=1.0000e-0;<br />
for i=1:size(current_pos,1)<br />
%计算每一个节点受到的合力<br />
%计算节点到其他节点距离和流距离的差值<br />
diff_distance=(distance_matrix(i,:)-flow_distance(i,:))';<br />
force_direction=-1*(repmat(current_pos(i,:),size(current_pos,1),1)-current_pos);<br />
force_direction=force_direction./repmat(sqrt(sum(force_direction.^2,2)),1,size(current_pos,2)) ;<br />
force_direction(isnan(force_direction))=0;<br />
<br />
force_vector=diff_distance;<br />
final_force_vector=force_direction.*repmat(force_vector,1,size(current_pos,2));<br />
all_force=sum(final_force_vector,1)/length(diff_distance);<br />
new_pos=[new_pos;current_pos(i,:)+all_force*k];<br />
end<br />
<br />
%-------------比较新的位置与原来的位置-------------%<br />
current_distance=compute_distance(current_pos,flow_distance);<br />
new_distance=compute_distance(new_pos,flow_distance);<br />
diff = abs(current_distance - new_distance);<br />
target=[target;current_distance];<br />
<br />
if complete_temperature_iterations >= 10<br />
temperature = cooling_rate*temperature;<br />
complete_temperature_iterations = 0;<br />
end<br />
iterations = iterations + 1;<br />
complete_temperature_iterations = complete_temperature_iterations + 1;<br />
current_pos=new_pos;<br />
<br />
end<br />
<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
===第二步优化,按照每个节点失真程度大小受力===<br />
===开始运动===<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="matlab"><br />
<br />
initial_pos=new_pos; <br />
<br />
iterations=1; <br />
complete_temperature_iterations = 0;<br />
<br />
current_target= compute_distance(initial_pos,flow_distance );<br />
cooling_rate=0.9;<br />
basic_size=20;<br />
target=[];<br />
all_temperature=[];<br />
probility=[];<br />
while iterations< 200<br />
iterations<br />
<br />
%-------------产生新的坐标-------------%<br />
new_pos=[];<br />
<br />
distance_matrix=compute_distance_matrix(current_pos);<br />
distortion=distance_matrix./flow_distance-1;<br />
distortion(isnan(distortion))=0;<br />
k=30.0000e-0;<br />
for i=1:size(current_pos,1)<br />
%计算每一个节点受到的合力<br />
%计算节点到其他节点距离和流距离的差值<br />
diff_distance=distortion(:,i);<br />
force_direction=-1*(repmat(current_pos(i,:),size(current_pos,1),1)-current_pos);<br />
force_direction=force_direction./repmat(sqrt(sum(force_direction.^2,2)),1,size(current_pos,2)) ;<br />
force_direction(isnan(force_direction))=0;<br />
force_vector=diff_distance;<br />
final_force_vector=force_direction.*repmat(force_vector,1,size(current_pos,2));<br />
all_force=sum(final_force_vector,1)/length(diff_distance);<br />
new_pos=[new_pos;current_pos(i,:)+all_force*k];<br />
end<br />
<br />
%-------------比较新的位置与原来的位置-------------%<br />
<br />
current_distance=compute_distance(current_pos,flow_distance);<br />
new_distance=compute_distance(new_pos,flow_distance);<br />
diff = abs(current_distance - new_distance);<br />
target=[target;current_distance];<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
iterations = iterations + 1;<br />
<br />
<br />
all_temperature=[all_temperature;temperature];<br />
end<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
==计算拟合效果==<br />
===横轴是流距离,纵轴是欧式距离===<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="matlab"><br />
<br />
figure<br />
tmp=bone_L;<br />
tmp(logical(eye(size(bone_L,1))))=1;<br />
tmp_L=flow_distance(find(tmp>0));<br />
tmp_dis=distance_matrix(find(tmp>0));<br />
plot(tmp_L(:),tmp_dis(:),'.')<br />
hold on<br />
plot([0; max([max(tmp_dis(:)) max(tmp_dis(:))])],[0;max([max(tmp_dis(:)) max(tmp_dis(:))])],'r-')<br />
<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
===平均失真程度===<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="matlab"><br />
<br />
distortion=tmp_dis./tmp_L;<br />
distortion(isnan(distortion))=0;<br />
<br />
distortion(find(distortion<1&distortion>0))=1./distortion(find(distortion<1&distortion>0));<br />
average_distortion=sum(sum(distortion))/length(find(distortion>0))<br />
<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
==中间计算距离的函数==<br />
===现在距离与流距离的总差值===<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="matlab"><br />
<br />
function [ target_distance ] = compute_distance(new_pos,flow_distance )<br />
%UNTITLED Summary of this function goes here<br />
%Detailed explanation goes here<br />
new_distance_matrix=compute_distance_matrix(new_pos);<br />
target_distance=sum(sum((new_distance_matrix-flow_distance).^2));<br />
end<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
===根据节点坐标,计算节点之间距离===<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="matlab"><br />
<br />
function [ distance_matrix] = compute_distance_matrix( nodes )<br />
%UNTITLED3 Summary of this function goes here<br />
% Detailed explanation goes here<br />
distance_matrix=zeros(size(nodes,1),size(nodes,1));<br />
for i=1:size(nodes,1)<br />
for j=i+1:size(nodes,1)<br />
distance_matrix(i,j)=sqrt((nodes(i,1)-nodes(j,1))^2+(nodes(i,2)-nodes(j,2))^2);<br />
distance_matrix(j,i)= distance_matrix(i,j);<br />
end<br />
end<br />
flow_distance=distance_matrix;<br />
end<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
=嵌入程序(python版本)=<br />
==输入参数==<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
<br />
def spring_algorithm(_c, _dim):<br />
pass<br />
<br />
</syntaxhighlight ><br />
_c:'''去掉源和汇节点'''的流距离矩阵,且默认已经将流距离无穷大的节点做处理了<br />
<br />
_dim:嵌入维数<br />
==初始化==<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
<br />
# 最大小幅变化次数(可弹性调整)<br />
max_count = 10<br />
<br />
# 弹簧系数(可弹性调整,一般取在(0,1)之间,且k1>k2)<br />
k1, k2 = [0.8, 0.5]<br />
<br />
# 阈值(可弹性调整, 依据具体问题而定)<br />
threshold1, threshold2 = [0.05, 0.01]<br />
<br />
# 各节点初始位置(dim维)<br />
initial_pos = np.random.rand(_c.shape[0], _dim) # [0, 1)<br />
<br />
</syntaxhighlight ><br />
<br />
==Step1 按照欧氏距离和流距离的差别大小受力(快速调整)==<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
<br />
# step1 按照欧氏距离和流距离的差别大小受力<br />
total_pos_mat = np.mat(initial_pos)<br />
<br />
t1 = 0<br />
# 连续小幅度变化的次数<br />
small_count1 = 0<br />
# 与真实流距离的误差<br />
error_list = []<br />
# 上一次迭代的总距离误差<br />
last_distance_sum_error = float("inf")<br />
while True:<br />
print '距离差受力第%d次迭代' % t1<br />
for _i in range(_c.shape[0]):<br />
node_i_pos_mat = total_pos_mat[_i]<br />
repeat_node_i_pos_mat = np.matlib.repmat(node_i_pos_mat, _c.shape[0], 1) # 重复len(_c)*1次<br />
<br />
##### 节点至其它节点的欧式距离euclidean_distance #####<br />
distance_offset_mat = repeat_node_i_pos_mat - total_pos_mat # 当前节点i与其它节点实际位置偏移矩阵<br />
dis_square = np.multiply(distance_offset_mat, distance_offset_mat) # 对应元素相乘<br />
euclidean_distance = np.mat(np.sqrt(np.sum(dis_square, 1))) # 列向量:当前节点到其余所有节点(包括自己)的欧式距离<br />
<br />
# 欧式距离和流距离的偏差行向量,即弹簧形变量x<br />
diff_distance = np.mat(_c[_i, :] - euclidean_distance.T)<br />
<br />
# 防止除以该向量中的0元素出现Nan<br />
modifier_euclidean_distance = np.ones((_c.shape[0], 1)) - np.sign(euclidean_distance) + euclidean_distance<br />
<br />
# 受力方向:单位向量 当前节点距其余节点的距离向量/|当前节点距其余节点的距离向量|<br />
direction = distance_offset_mat / modifier_euclidean_distance<br />
<br />
##### 距离差受力矢量 F = k*x*direction #####<br />
force = np.multiply(diff_distance.T, direction) * k1<br />
<br />
##### 位置调整 #####<br />
sum_force = np.sum(force, 0)<br />
total_pos_mat[_i] += np.divide(sum_force, _c.shape[0]).astype(np.float64)<br />
<br />
##### 误差项 #####<br />
node_i_error = np.sum(np.multiply(diff_distance, diff_distance))<br />
error_list.append(node_i_error)<br />
<br />
sum_distance_error = sum(error_list)<br />
print sum_distance_error<br />
if abs(last_distance_sum_error - sum_distance_error) <= threshold1:<br />
small_count1 += 1<br />
if small_count1 >= max_count:<br />
break<br />
<br />
t1 += 1<br />
last_distance_sum_error = sum_distance_error<br />
error_list = []<br />
</syntaxhighlight ><br />
<br />
==Step2 按照每个节点失真程度大小受力(微调)==<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
<br />
# step2 按照每个节点失真程度大小受力<br />
t2 = 0<br />
# 连续小幅度变化的次数<br />
small_count2 = 0<br />
# 失真度误差<br />
distortion_list = []<br />
# 上一次迭代的总失真度误差<br />
last_sum_distortion_error = float("inf")<br />
while True:<br />
print '失真度受力第%d次迭代' % t2<br />
for _i in range(_c.shape[0]):<br />
node_i_pos_mat = total_pos_mat[_i]<br />
repeat_node_i_pos_mat = np.matlib.repmat(node_i_pos_mat, _c.shape[0], 1) # 重复len(_c)*1次<br />
<br />
##### 节点至其它节点的欧式距离euclidean_distance #####<br />
distance_offset_mat = repeat_node_i_pos_mat - total_pos_mat # 当前节点i与其它节点实际位置差距矩阵<br />
dis_square = np.multiply(distance_offset_mat, distance_offset_mat) # 对应元素相乘<br />
euclidean_distance = np.mat(np.sqrt(np.sum(dis_square, 1))) # 列向量:当前节点到其余所有节点(包括自己)的欧式距离<br />
<br />
# 防止除以该向量中的0元素出现Nan<br />
modifier_euclidean_distance = np.ones((_c.shape[0], 1)) - np.sign(euclidean_distance) + euclidean_distance<br />
<br />
# 失真度=max(_c[_i] / modifier_euclidean_distance, modifier_euclidean_distance / _c[_i])<br />
# 这里为方便,只采用 失真度=_c[_i] / modifier_euclidean_distance<br />
distortion_ratio = _c[_i, :] / modifier_euclidean_distance.T<br />
modifier_distortion = np.ones((1, _c.shape[0])) - np.sign(distortion_ratio) + distortion_ratio - 1<br />
<br />
# 受力方向:单位向量 当前节点距其余节点的距离向量/\当前节点距其余节点的距离向量\<br />
direction = distance_offset_mat / modifier_euclidean_distance<br />
<br />
##### 失真度受力矢量 #####<br />
force = np.multiply(modifier_distortion.T, direction) * k2<br />
<br />
##### 位置调整 #####<br />
sum_force = np.sum(force, 0)<br />
total_pos_mat[_i] += np.divide(sum_force, _c.shape[0]).astype(np.float64)<br />
<br />
##### 误差项 #####<br />
node_i_error = np.sum(np.multiply((distortion_ratio - 1), (distortion_ratio - 1)))<br />
distortion_list.append(node_i_error)<br />
<br />
sum_distortion_error = sum(distortion_list)<br />
print sum_distortion_error<br />
<br />
if abs(last_sum_distortion_error - sum_distortion_error) <= threshold2:<br />
small_count2 += 1<br />
if small_count2 >= max_count:<br />
break<br />
<br />
t2 += 1<br />
last_sum_distortion_error = sum_distortion_error<br />
distortion_list = []<br />
<br />
return total_pos_mat<br />
<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
==测试样例==<br />
===思路===<br />
随机生成n个dim维欧式空间中的点,计算各点间的欧式距离得到n*n维欧式距离矩阵,以此当作c矩阵输入到弹簧算法中,得到n个dim维嵌入向量。若dim>2,则降维到2维,可视化前后两种点坐标表示,比较<br />
===程序===<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
<br />
n, dim = 10, 2<br />
# n各点初始位置(2维)<br />
initial_pos = np.random.rand(n, dim) # [0, 1)<br />
plt.subplot(121)<br />
plt.title('original position')<br />
plt.plot(initial_pos[:, 0], initial_pos[:, 1], 'ro')<br />
for i, (_x, _y) in enumerate(zip(initial_pos[:, 0], initial_pos[:, 1])):<br />
plt.text(_x, _y, i)<br />
<br />
# 各节点间的欧式距离<br />
edistance_list = []<br />
for i in range(n):<br />
distance_offset_vec = initial_pos[i] - initial_pos # 当前节点i与所有节点(包括自己)欧式位置差距<br />
dis_square = np.multiply(distance_offset_vec, distance_offset_vec) # 对应元素相乘<br />
edistance = np.sqrt(np.sum(dis_square, 1)).T.tolist() # 行向量<br />
edistance_list.append(edistance)<br />
edistance_matrix = np.mat(edistance_list)<br />
<br />
# 嵌入(此处采用迭代500次作为终止条件,也可换成采用阈值,但是需要手动调整大小)<br />
embed_vec = spring_algorithm(edistance_matrix, 2)<br />
<br />
plt.subplot(122)<br />
plt.title('embedding position')<br />
plt.plot(embed_vec[:, 0], embed_vec[:, 1], 'bo')<br />
for i, (_x, _y) in enumerate(zip(embed_vec[:, 0], embed_vec[:, 1])):<br />
plt.text(_x, _y, i)<br />
<br />
plt.show()<br />
<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
===结果===<br />
结果如下:<br />
<br />
[[File:figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
可以看到原始图和嵌入图非常相似,这证明弹簧算法的正确性。<br />
<br />
'''注意:'''两幅图之间可能存在平移、旋转、对称线性变换关系,但是这属于正常现象。(要想完全吻合,需要加入摩擦系数)<br />
<br />
=补充:[[Deepwalk|Deepwalk方式嵌入]]=<br />
请参考[[Word2Vec与流网络]]<br />
<br />
=参考文献=<br />
<references /><br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E6%B5%81%E5%BD%A2%E5%AD%A6%E4%B9%A0&diff=15511流形学习2020-10-16T11:34:46Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“==简介== 本质上,流形学习就是给数据降维的过程。这里假设数据是一个随机样本,采样自一个高维欧氏空间中的流形(manifo…”</p>
<hr />
<div>==简介==<br />
<br />
本质上,流形学习就是给数据降维的过程。这里假设数据是一个随机样本,采样自一个高维欧氏空间中的流形(manifold),流形学习的任务就是把这个高维流形映射到一个低维(例如2维)的空间里。流形学习可以分为线性算法和非线性算法,前者包括主成分分析(PCA)和线性判别分析(LDA),后者包括等距映射(Isomap),拉普拉斯特征映射(LE)等。流形学习可以用于特征的降维和提取,为后续的基于特征的分析,如聚类和分类,做铺垫,也可以直接应用于数据可视化等。<br />
<br />
==案例:球面映射==<br />
<br />
在本案例中,我们使用模拟数据制造一个球面,并将这个3维空间中的流形project到2维上。<br />
<br />
[[File:manifoldlearning_figure_1.png|800px]]<br />
<br />
<br />
===调用包===<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
from time import time<br />
import numpy as np<br />
import pylab as pl<br />
from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d import Axes3D<br />
from matplotlib.ticker import NullFormatter<br />
from sklearn import manifold<br />
from sklearn.utils import check_random_state<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===制造一个三维球面的模拟数据===<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
# Variables for manifold learning.<br />
n_neighbors = 10<br />
n_samples = 1000<br />
# Create our sphere.<br />
random_state = check_random_state(0)<br />
p = random_state.rand(n_samples) * (2 * np.pi - 0.55)<br />
t = random_state.rand(n_samples) * np.pi<br />
# Sever the poles from the sphere.<br />
indices = ((t < (np.pi - (np.pi / 8))) & (t > ((np.pi / 8))))<br />
colors = p[indices]<br />
x, y, z = np.sin(t[indices]) * np.cos(p[indices]), \<br />
np.sin(t[indices]) * np.sin(p[indices]), \<br />
np.cos(t[indices])<br />
# Plot our dataset.<br />
fig = pl.figure(figsize=(15, 8))<br />
pl.suptitle("Manifold Learning with %i points, %i neighbors"<br />
% (1000, n_neighbors), fontsize=14)<br />
ax = fig.add_subplot(241, projection='3d')<br />
ax.scatter(x, y, z, c=p[indices], cmap=pl.cm.rainbow)<br />
plt.draw()<br />
sphere_data = np.array([x, y, z]).T<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===拟合线性的流形学习模型LLE, LTSA, Hessian LLE, 和Modified LLE===<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
# Perform Locally Linear Embedding Manifold learning<br />
methods = ['standard', 'ltsa', 'hessian', 'modified']<br />
labels = ['LLE', 'LTSA', 'Hessian LLE', 'Modified LLE']<br />
for i, method in enumerate(methods):<br />
t0 = time()<br />
trans_data = manifold\<br />
.LocallyLinearEmbedding(n_neighbors, 2,<br />
method=method).fit_transform(sphere_data).T<br />
t1 = time()<br />
print("%s: %.2g sec" % (methods[i], t1 - t0))<br />
ax = fig.add_subplot(242 + i)<br />
pl.scatter(trans_data[0], trans_data[1], c=colors, cmap=pl.cm.rainbow)<br />
pl.title("%s (%.2g sec)" % (labels[i], t1 - t0))<br />
ax.xaxis.set_major_formatter(NullFormatter())<br />
ax.yaxis.set_major_formatter(NullFormatter())<br />
pl.axis('tight')<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===拟合非线性的流形学习模型Isomap,MDS和Spectral Embedding===<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
# Perform Isomap Manifold learning.<br />
t0 = time()<br />
trans_data = manifold.Isomap(n_neighbors, n_components=2)\<br />
.fit_transform(sphere_data).T<br />
t1 = time()<br />
print("%s: %.2g sec" % ('ISO', t1 - t0))<br />
ax = fig.add_subplot(246)<br />
pl.scatter(trans_data[0], trans_data[1], c=colors, cmap=pl.cm.rainbow)<br />
pl.title("%s (%.2g sec)" % ('Isomap', t1 - t0))<br />
ax.xaxis.set_major_formatter(NullFormatter())<br />
ax.yaxis.set_major_formatter(NullFormatter())<br />
pl.axis('tight')<br />
<br />
# Perform Multi-dimensional scaling.<br />
t0 = time()<br />
mds = manifold.MDS(2, max_iter=100, n_init=1)<br />
trans_data = mds.fit_transform(sphere_data).T<br />
t1 = time()<br />
print("MDS: %.2g sec" % (t1 - t0))<br />
ax = fig.add_subplot(247)<br />
pl.scatter(trans_data[0], trans_data[1], c=colors, cmap=pl.cm.rainbow)<br />
pl.title("MDS (%.2g sec)" % (t1 - t0))<br />
ax.xaxis.set_major_formatter(NullFormatter())<br />
ax.yaxis.set_major_formatter(NullFormatter())<br />
pl.axis('tight')<br />
<br />
# Perform Spectral Embedding.<br />
t0 = time()<br />
se = manifold.SpectralEmbedding(n_components=2,n_neighbors=n_neighbors)<br />
trans_data = se.fit_transform(sphere_data).T<br />
t1 = time()<br />
print("Spectral Embedding: %.2g sec" % (t1 - t0))<br />
ax = fig.add_subplot(248)<br />
pl.scatter(trans_data[0], trans_data[1], c=colors, cmap=pl.cm.rainbow)<br />
pl.title("Spectral Embedding (%.2g sec)" % (t1 - t0))<br />
ax.xaxis.set_major_formatter(NullFormatter())<br />
ax.yaxis.set_major_formatter(NullFormatter())<br />
pl.axis('tight')<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
==案例:S曲面映射==<br />
<br />
[[File:manifoldlearning_figure_2.png|800px]]<br />
<br />
===调用包===<br />
<br />
除了上一节的包以外还要调用:<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
from matplotlib.ticker import NullFormatter<br />
from sklearn import manifold, datasets <br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===制造一个三维空间中的S流形的模拟数据===<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
n_points = 1000<br />
X, color = datasets.samples_generator.make_s_curve(n_points, random_state=0)<br />
n_neighbors = 10<br />
n_components = 2<br />
fig = pl.figure(figsize=(15, 8))<br />
pl.suptitle("Manifold Learning with %i points, %i neighbors"<br />
% (1000, n_neighbors), fontsize=14)<br />
ax = fig.add_subplot(241, projection='3d')<br />
ax.scatter(X[:, 0], X[:, 1], X[:, 2], c=color, cmap=pl.cm.Spectral)<br />
plt.draw()<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===拟合各种流形学习模型===<br />
<br />
在制造完模拟数据后,剩下的各个拟合与上一节的代码基本一致,只有两个细节需要修改:<br />
<br />
原来使用的拟合命令<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
trans_data = mds.fit_transform(sphere_data).T<br />
pl.scatter(trans_data[0], trans_data[1], c=colors, cmap=pl.cm.rainbow)<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
需要改成:<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"> <br />
trans_data = mds.fit_transform(X)<br />
pl.scatter(trans_data[:,0], trans_data[:,1], c=color, cmap=pl.cm.Spectral)<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
==案例:对手写数字的降维分析==<br />
<br />
我们之前已经讨论过手写数字的数据,每个手写的阿拉伯数字被表达为一个8*8的像素矩阵,我们曾经使用每个像素点,也就是64个特征,使用logistic和knn的方法(分类器)去根据训练集判别测试集中的数字。在这种做法中,我们使用了尚未被降维的数据。其实我们还可以使用降维后的数据来训练分类器。现在,就让我们看一下对这个数据集采取各种方式降维的效果。<br />
<br />
===引用包和搜集待分析的数据===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_raw_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
from time import time<br />
import numpy as np<br />
import pylab as pl<br />
from matplotlib import offsetbox<br />
from sklearn import (manifold, datasets, decomposition, ensemble, lda,<br />
random_projection)<br />
<br />
digits = datasets.load_digits(n_class=6)<br />
X = digits.data<br />
y = digits.target<br />
n_samples, n_features = X.shape<br />
n_neighbors = 30<br />
# Plot images of the digits<br />
n_img_per_row = 20<br />
img = np.zeros((10 * n_img_per_row, 10 * n_img_per_row))<br />
for i in range(n_img_per_row):<br />
ix = 10 * i + 1<br />
for j in range(n_img_per_row):<br />
iy = 10 * j + 1<br />
img[ix:ix + 8, iy:iy + 8] = X[i * n_img_per_row + j].reshape((8, 8))<br />
<br />
pl.imshow(img, cmap=pl.cm.binary)<br />
pl.xticks([])<br />
pl.yticks([])<br />
pl.title('digits dataset')<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===定义可视化函数===<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
# Scale and visualize the embedding vectors<br />
def plot_embedding(X, title=None):<br />
x_min, x_max = np.min(X, 0), np.max(X, 0)<br />
X = (X - x_min) / (x_max - x_min)<br />
pl.figure()<br />
ax = pl.subplot(111)<br />
for i in range(X.shape[0]):<br />
pl.text(X[i, 0], X[i, 1], str(digits.target[i]),<br />
color=pl.cm.Set1(y[i] / 10.),<br />
fontdict={'weight': 'bold', 'size': 9})<br />
if hasattr(offsetbox, 'AnnotationBbox'):<br />
# only print thumbnails with matplotlib > 1.0<br />
shown_images = np.array([[1., 1.]]) # just something big<br />
for i in range(digits.data.shape[0]):<br />
dist = np.sum((X[i] - shown_images) ** 2, 1)<br />
if np.min(dist) < 4e-3:<br />
# don't show points that are too close<br />
continue<br />
shown_images = np.r_[shown_images, [X[i]]]<br />
imagebox = offsetbox.AnnotationBbox(<br />
offsetbox.OffsetImage(digits.images[i], cmap=pl.cm.gray_r),<br />
X[i])<br />
ax.add_artist(imagebox)<br />
pl.xticks([]), pl.yticks([])<br />
if title is not None:<br />
pl.title(title)<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
接着,就可以观察比较各种降维方法的效果了:<br />
<br />
===随机降维===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_random_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
把64维数据随机地投影到二维上<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
#1.Random 2D projection using a random unitary matrix<br />
t0 = time()<br />
rp = random_projection.SparseRandomProjection(n_components=2, random_state=42)<br />
X_projected = rp.fit_transform(X)<br />
plot_embedding(X_projected, "Random Projection (time %.2fs)" % (time() - t0))<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===PCA降维===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_PCA_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
#2.Projection on to the first 2 principal components<br />
t0 = time()<br />
X_pca = decomposition.TruncatedSVD(n_components=2).fit_transform(X)<br />
plot_embedding(X_pca, "PCA (time %.2fs)" % (time() - t0))<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===LDA降维===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_LDA_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
#3.Projection on to the first 2 linear discriminant components<br />
X2 = X.copy()<br />
X2.flat[::X.shape[1] + 1] += 0.01 # Make X invertible<br />
t0 = time()<br />
X_lda = lda.LDA(n_components=2).fit_transform(X2, y)<br />
plot_embedding(X_lda,"LDA (time %.2fs)" % (time() - t0))<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===Isomap降维===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_isomap_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
#4.Isomap projection of the digits dataset<br />
t0 = time()<br />
X_iso = manifold.Isomap(n_neighbors, n_components=2).fit_transform(X)<br />
plot_embedding(X_iso, "Isomap (time %.2fs)" % (time() - t0))<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===LLE降维===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_LLE_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
#4.Locally linear embedding of the digits dataset<br />
clf = manifold.LocallyLinearEmbedding(n_neighbors, n_components=2, method='standard')<br />
t0 = time()<br />
X_lle = clf.fit_transform(X)<br />
plot_embedding(X_lle, "LLE (time %.2fs)" % (time() - t0))<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===MLLE降维===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_MLLE_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
#5.Modified Locally linear embedding of the digits dataset<br />
clf = manifold.LocallyLinearEmbedding(n_neighbors, n_components=2, method='modified')<br />
t0 = time()<br />
X_mlle = clf.fit_transform(X)<br />
plot_embedding(X_mlle, "MLLE (time %.2fs)" % (time() - t0))<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===HLLE降维===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_HLLE_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
#6.HLLE embedding of the digits dataset<br />
clf = manifold.LocallyLinearEmbedding(n_neighbors, n_components=2, method='hessian')<br />
t0 = time()<br />
X_hlle = clf.fit_transform(X)<br />
plot_embedding(X_hlle,"HLLE (time %.2fs)" % (time() - t0))<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===LTSA降维===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_LTSA_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
#7.LTSA embedding of the digits dataset<br />
clf = manifold.LocallyLinearEmbedding(n_neighbors, n_components=2, method='ltsa')<br />
t0 = time()<br />
X_ltsa = clf.fit_transform(X)<br />
plot_embedding(X_ltsa, "LTSA (time %.2fs)" % (time() - t0))<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===MDS降维===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_MDS_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
#8.MDS embedding of the digits dataset<br />
clf = manifold.MDS(n_components=2, n_init=1, max_iter=100)<br />
t0 = time()<br />
X_mds = clf.fit_transform(X)<br />
plot_embedding(X_mds, "MDS embedding of the digits (time %.2fs)" % (time() - t0))<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===RTE降维===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_RTE_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
#9. Random Trees embedding of the digits dataset<br />
hasher = ensemble.RandomTreesEmbedding(n_estimators=200, random_state=0, max_depth=5)<br />
t0 = time()<br />
X_transformed = hasher.fit_transform(X)<br />
pca = decomposition.TruncatedSVD(n_components=2)<br />
X_reduced = pca.fit_transform(X_transformed)<br />
plot_embedding(X_reduced, "RTE (time %.2fs)" % (time() - t0))<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
===SE降维===<br />
<br />
[[File:ML_SE_figure.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
<syntaxhighlight lang="python"><br />
#10. Spectral embedding of the digits dataset<br />
embedder = manifold.SpectralEmbedding(n_components=2, random_state=0, eigen_solver="arpack")<br />
t0 = time()<br />
X_se = embedder.fit_transform(X)<br />
plot_embedding(X_se, "SE (time %.2fs)" % (time() - t0))<br />
</syntaxhighlight><br />
<br />
总结来说,非线性方法要比线性方法好一些。可以看出手写字体的图像特征是非线性的。<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E6%A0%BC%E9%9B%B7%E6%88%88%E9%87%8C_%C2%B7_%E8%B4%9D%E7%89%B9%E6%A3%AE_Gregory_Bateson&diff=15510格雷戈里 · 贝特森 Gregory Bateson2020-10-16T11:27:14Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“File:Bateson.jpg == 基本信息 == 格雷戈里·贝特森( 1904-5-9 ~ 1980-7-4)是英国人,他的工作涉及多个领域:人类学、社会科学、…”</p>
<hr />
<div>[[File:Bateson.jpg]]<br />
<br />
== 基本信息 ==<br />
<br />
格雷戈里·贝特森( 1904-5-9 ~ 1980-7-4)是英国人,他的工作涉及多个领域:人类学、社会科学、语言学、视觉人类学(visual anthropologist)、符号学和控制论。他的著作包括《走向心灵生态的步骤 Steps to an Ecology of Mind》(1972)和《心与自然 Mind and Nature》(1979)。<br />
<br />
在加利福尼亚州的帕洛阿尔托,贝特森和他的同事开发了精神分裂症研究的双重约束理论。<br />
<br />
贝特森对系统论的兴趣贯穿在其著作中。他是梅西控制论会议(Macy conferences in Cybernetics 1941-1960)核心小组的创始成员之一,后来参与了群进程(Group Processes 1954-1960),他在其中主要研究社会和行为科学。 他热衷于研究不同领域与认识论的关系,而与编辑兼作家斯图尔特·布兰德的关系也大大扩大了他的影响力。<br />
<br />
== 研究领域 ==<br />
<br />
人类学、社会科学、语言学、视觉人类学(visual anthropologist)、符号学和控制论。<br />
<br />
== 主要研究贡献 ==<br />
<br />
=== 双重约束理论 ===<br />
<br />
双重束缚理论最早是由格雷戈里 · 贝特森和他的同事在20世纪50年代提出的。<br />
<br />
双重约束是指在交流中的两难困境,通常是个人(或团队)收到两个或多个消息,而消息之间相互存在矛盾。在某些情况下(特别是家庭及在其它关系中)这可能是情感上的痛苦。两难困境会导致:对一信息的成功响应导致对另一信息的失败响应(反之亦然),因此无论响应成功与否,这个人都会自动出错。换言之,这是一种悖论状态,你无法面对当前内在困境,既解决不了问题,也不能退出不解决,这时双重约束就发生了。<br />
<br />
双重约束一般包括信息顺序,以及信息所描述的抽象层次。这些信息可以是明示或暗示,或通过语调或身体语言传达。当双重约束频繁出现在个人或团体持续关系时,情况会越来越复杂。<br />
<br />
一个典型例子是一位母亲口头上说爱孩子,但同时厌恶地转过身去,或者体罚孩子。母亲的语言和她行为是冲突的。孩子不知道如何应对这个冲突,而且孩子还小,需要依赖母亲生活,这是一种两难。越小的孩子越难用言语讲清楚他遇到的困难,同时他也没有能力忽略或是离开这段关系。<br />
<br />
另一个例子是,对他人发出“自发”的指令(如:你必须自发地爱上学习)。这个指令本身就与“自发”相矛盾,但只有当你既不能忽视这个指令,也不能对其进行反驳时,才会造成双重约束。通常情况下,类似这样的沟通矛盾旁观者不容易看出来,因为旁观者对此前的沟通(只有关系中的各方才知道的细节)并不熟悉。<br />
<br />
=== 体细胞突变(somatic change)在进化中的作用 ===<br />
<br />
根据韦氏词典,体细胞被定义为除性细胞外的体细胞,其有别于种质(种质是为动植物育种、保存和其他研究用途而保存的生物遗传资源,如种子或组织)或心灵的变化。也就是说,体细胞突变不会造成后代的遗传改变,却可以引起当代某些细胞的遗传结构发生改变。贝特森谈论了在进化过程中,体细胞的物理变化是如何发生的。他通过引入“灵活的经济学”这一概念来描述。在结论中,他提出七个理论立场(或者说是假设)来支持这个思想。<br />
<br />
第一个陈述:从理论上讲,虽然环境压力会致使躯体变化,但生存所需的物理变化(原始进化理论中的变化)并不会自动出现。事实上,压力的出现会极大地削弱生物体。例如,一个躲避天气的病人,或是一个在办公室工作的人,若要他们去做一个攀岩者,这会非常困难,反之亦然。<br />
<br />
第二个陈述:尽管“灵活性的经济学有一个合乎逻辑的结构——每一个对灵活性的连续需求(为适应环境而产生的需求),都会对相应的可用可能性集合进行分割(会引发许多可能的变化方向)”。这意味着从理论上讲,每一种新增需求或变量都会产生一系列的可能性。<br />
<br />
第三个陈述:“遗传学变异通常对体细胞的调节能力提出要求”。他说,尽管没有证据支持这一观点,但这是生物学家们普遍认同的。<br />
<br />
第四格陈述:一系列连续的遗传变异,对体细胞调节能力积累了更多要求。在此之上,他提出三个期望:<br />
<br />
1. 生物体最近被修改的这个想法将是微妙的(?)<br />
2. 基本认为生物体会逐渐变得有害或危险<br />
3. 随着时间的推移,新的“品种”将变得更能抵抗环境压力,及变化出相应的遗传特性<br />
<br />
第五个陈述贝特森认为是有数据支持的,即生物体因环境而进化出的特征与基因决定的属性相符。<br />
第六个陈述:与基因变异相比,造成体细胞变异所需的经济灵活性更少。<br />
第七个陈述也是最后一个理论是,在极少数情况下,会有一定数量的变化与本文中提出的论点不一致。 <br />
<br />
根据贝特森的说法,当时这些立场没有一个是可以检验的,但他呼吁建立一个检验标准,这个标准有可能证明或反驳其中提出的理论立场。<br />
<br />
=== 生态人类学与控制论 ===<br />
<br />
在《走向心灵生态学的步骤》一书中,贝特森将控制论应用于生态人类学和内稳态。他认为世界由一系列系统组成:包含个人、社会和生态系统。每个系统中都存在着竞争和依赖。每个系统都存在自适应变化,这些变化依靠反馈回路控制多个变量来保持平衡。这些自校正系统是通过控制数值滑移而实现保守性的。他认为只要保持自然生态系统的内稳态,那么它天生就是良性的。而在进化中生存的关键单元就是有机体及其环境。<br />
<br />
贝特森还认为,个人、社会和生态系统都是至高无上的控制论系统(后文称“最高系统”)的一部分,该系统控制一切,而不仅仅与其他系统交互。至高无上的控制论系统超越了个人,可以等同于上帝,贝特森在书中称其为“精神”(Mind)。既然“精神”是最高系统,那么只能把它作为一个整体来看待,而不是部分。在系统的信息和通路中,“精神”是内在的。他认为最高系统崩塌的根源在于西方认识论。西方认识论强调意识,而意识(consciousness)只是网络之间的桥梁,包括个人、社会和生态。对最高系统理解不当会导致系统之间适配出问题,甚至会让“精神”退化。而意识是通过西方认识论发展起来的,与“精神”是直接冲突的。<br />
<br />
贝特森认为问题出在科学至上论。其造成人们认为最高系统是有目的的,或者说是目的驱动的。目的控制着注意力,同时也缩小了感知,从而限制了更多感知进入意识,于是也限制了从中所能产生的智慧。此外,西方认识论传播了人存在于“精神”之外的错误观念,这导致人们用错误知识来理解控制哲学。<br />
<br />
贝特森认为西方认识论提出了一种思维方法(mindset),这种思维方法导致人类认为自己主宰着最高系统。在这个过程中,人类改造环境,好让环境适合自己。这样也就打破了最高系统内的竞争和依存关系。以目的为驱动的知识越积累,就越是忽略最高系统,并导致最终的崩溃。贝特森认为,人类永远不可能控制最高系统,因为它不是以线性方式运行的,如果人类因此创造自己的规则,那么由于非线性特性,也会使自己成为自制系统的奴隶。最后,人类的科技实力与科学狂妄相结合,将不可挽回地破坏和摧毁最高系统,而不仅仅造成暂时的扰乱(可等待最高系统自我修正)。<br />
<br />
贝特森认为,应以谦逊的态度接受自然的最高系统,而不是以科学傲慢作为解决办法。他认为,只有放弃通过意识来运作的观点,才能产生谦卑。意识只是获得知识的一种方式,如果不完全了解整个最高系统,灾难是不可避免的。有限的意识必须与无意识完全合而为一。只有把思想和情感结合在一起,人才能获得完整的知识。他认为,宗教和艺术是少数几个在完全意识中作为整体行动的领域。通过把最高系统视为整体的智慧行动,人类可以改变与“精神”的关系,从分裂变为互补,在分裂中,人被无休止地捆绑在不断的竞争中。贝特森认为,一种能促进最普遍的智慧文化,能够在最高系统内灵活变化。<br />
<br />
== 主要文章及著作 ==<br />
<br />
* Bateson, Gregory, and Margaret Mead. "Balinese character: A photographic analysis." New York (1942): 17-92.<br />
* Bateson, Gregory. An Analysis of the Film" Hitlerjunge Quex"(1933). 1944.<br />
* Bateson, Gregory. "Information and codification: A philosophical approach." Communication: The social matrix of psychiatry (1951): 168-211.<br />
* Bateson, Gregory. "The message “This is play.”." Group processes 2 (1956): 145-241.<br />
* Bateson, Gregory. Naven: A survey of the problems suggested by a composite picture of the culture of a New Guinea tribe drawn from three points of view. Vol. 21. Stanford University Press, 1958.<br />
* Bateson, Gregory, and Don D. Jackson. "SOCIAL FACTORS AND DISORDERS OF COMMUNICATION. SOME VARIETIES OF PATHOGENIC ORGANIZATION." Research publications-Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease 42 (1964): 270-290.<br />
* Bateson, Gregory. Steps to an ecology of mind: Collected essays in anthropology, psychiatry, evolution, and epistemology. University of Chicago Press, 2000.<br />
* Bateson, Gregory. Mind and nature: A necessary unity. Vol. 255. New York: Bantam Books, 1979.<br />
<br />
死后出版书籍<br />
<br />
* Bateson, Gregory. "ANGELS FEAR Towards an Epistemology of the Sacred." (1987).<br />
* Bateson, Gregory, and Rodney E. Donaldson. A sacred unity: Further steps to an ecology of mind. HarperOne, 1991.<br />
* Steier, Frederick. "Gregory Bateson: Essays for an Ecology of Ideas." (2005).<br />
<br />
纪录片<br />
<br />
* Trance and Dance in Bali (在线观看链接:https://www.loc.gov/item/mbrs02425201/)由人类学家玛格丽特·米德和格雷戈里·贝特森在20世纪30年代拍摄的纪录短片,直到1952年才上映。这部电影入选了1999年美国国家电影注册名单。<br />
<br />
An Ecology of Mind, 由诺拉•贝特森(Nora Bateson)拍摄、2010年通过影响媒体集团(The Impact Media Group)发行的纪录片,包括贝特森早期在巴厘岛拍摄的电影片段。<br />
<br />
== 参考文献 ==<br />
<br />
* 贝特森wiki:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_Bateson<br />
* 双重约束wiki:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind#Examples<br />
* Germplasm:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germplasm<br />
* 人类不能不传播——格雷戈里·贝特森及其学术思想:https://www.ixueshu.com/document/ff9fb7808abf5148.html<br />
* 体细胞突变在进化中的作用The Role of Somatic Change in Evolution on JSTOR: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2407104?origin=crossref<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
[[Category:系统科学]] <br />
<br />
[[Category:人物]]<br />
<br />
== 编辑记录 ==<br />
<br />
* 2020/2/8 23:33 初始化,翻译维基百科内容填入到基本信息<br />
* 2020/2/11 16:10 补充双重约束部分内容<br />
* 2020/2/12 13:48 补充体细胞突变(somatic change)在进化中的作用<br />
* 2020/2/16 14:58 补充生态人类学与控制论部分内容<br />
* 2020/2/16 22:52 补充重要文章及著作<br />
* 2020/2/22 23:38 修改引文格式,添加照片<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E6%9D%8E%E7%9D%BF%E7%90%AA&diff=15509李睿琪2020-10-16T11:25:35Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“== 基本信息 == 居中 <big>·北京化工大学信息科学与技术学院计算机系副教授<br/> ·北京师范大学、…”</p>
<hr />
<div>== 基本信息 ==<br />
<br />
[[File:srq.jpg|300px|缩略图|居中]]<br />
<br />
<big>·北京化工大学信息科学与技术学院计算机系副教授<br/><br />
·北京师范大学、麻省理工大学与波士顿大学联合培养博士 <br/></big><br />
<br />
== 学术背景 ==<br />
李老师的主要研究方向为城市大数据分析与建模、深度学习、社会网络研究与流行病传播动力学。<br/><br />
目前发表SCI、EI论文10余篇,引用150余次,相应工作发表在Nature Communications、Scientific Reports、PLoS One、Physica A等SCI期刊,并在Statphys25/26、Conference on Complex Systems、NetSci、NetSciX等多个国际大会上作大会点火报告与口头报告,曾荣获第十二届社会网与社会资本研究年会最佳论文奖。<br/><br />
目前是Scientific Reports、Habitat International、IEEE Access、PLoS One、Physica A、IJMPC、TRB/TRR、Journal of Systems Science and Complexity等多个SCI与SSCI期刊的审稿人。<br/><br />
=== 研究领域 ===<br />
· 研究方向为城市大数据分析与建模<br/><br />
· 社会网络研究与流行病传播动力学<br /><br />
<br />
=== 部分文章 ===<br />
· Ruiqi Li, Ming Tang*, Hui Pak-Ming. [http://wulixb.iphy.ac.cn/CN/abstract/abstract54973.shtml Epidemic spreading on multi-relational networks]. Acta Physica Sinica (SCI), 2013, 62(16): 168903. DOI: 10.7498/aps.62.168903 [in Chinese]<br/> <br />
[李睿琪, 唐明*, 许伯铭. 多关系网络上的流行病传播动力学研究. 物理学报 (SCI), 2013, 62(16): 168903.]<br/> <br />
<br />
· Ruiqi Li*, Wenxu Wang, Zengru Di*. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378437116306847 Effects of human dynamics on epidemic spreading in Cote d'Ivoire]. Physica A-Statistical Mechanics and its Applications (SCI), 2017, 467: 30-40<br/> <br />
<br />
· Ruiqi Li, Peter Richmond, Bertrand M. Roehner*. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378437118308896 Effect of population density on epidemics]. Physica A-Statistical Mechanics and its Applications (SCI), 2018, 510: 713-724<br/> <br />
<br />
· Ruiqi Li, Wei Wang, Hui Yang, Panpan Shu, Liming Pan, Aixiang Cui, Ming Tang*. [https://scholar.google.at/citations?user=IomtBmAAAAAJ&hl=de Review of Analytical Methods about Threshold in Epidemic Spreading in Complex Networks]. Complex Systems and Complex Science (EI & CSCD), 2016, 13(1): 1-39. DOI: 10.13306/j.1672-3813.2016.01.001 [in Chinese]<br/> <br />
<br />
[李睿琪, 王伟, 杨慧, 舒盼盼, 潘黎明, 崔爱香, 唐明*. 复杂网络上流行病传播动力学的爆发阈值解析综述. 复杂系统与复杂性科学 (EI & CSCD), 2016, 13(1): 1-39.]<br/> <br />
<br />
=== 主持项目 ===<br />
· 国家自然科学基金项目,“多城市系统相干演化对尺度异质性影响的研究” ,批准号: 61903020(PI)<br/> <br />
· 人才创业项目,“多城市系统成长与协同演化研究” ,资助编号: BUCTRC201825(PI)<br/><br />
· Stl 学院种子基金,“[https://STL.mit.edu/project/Mining-Big-Data-Link-affordable-housing-Policy-traffic-congestion-Mitigation-Beijing-China 利用大数据挖掘将社会福利住房政策与中国北京的交通堵塞减排联系起来]”,15万美元,2015.09-2017.09<br/><br />
· 中国国家自然科学基金项目,“开放环境下世界人口迁移对中国的影响” ,批准号: 71701018<br/><br />
· 中国国家自然科学基金项目,“网络集体关注流分析” ,批准号: 61673070<br/><br />
== 媒体数据 ==<br />
· AI&Society 第十期:[http://campus.swarma.org/play/coursedetail?id=10582 生长与设计——复杂性视角下的智慧城市]<br/><br />
· [http://dushuren123.com/bookmov/video/share.jsp?id=1284116449 复杂城市背后的简单规律]<br/><br />
<br />
== 联系方式 ==<br />
<br />
· 邮箱: lir@mail.buct.edu.cn<br />
<br />
· Twitter: @RuiqiLii<br />
<br />
· 地址: 北京市朝阳区北三环路15号410室<br />
<br />
== 相关链接 ==<br />
1、[https://lir939.wixsite.com/lirq 北京化工大学教师主页]<br/><br />
2、[http://blog.sciencenet.cn/u/RuiqiLI 个人博客]<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E6%9C%80%E5%8F%AF%E8%83%BD%E8%80%85%E7%94%9F%E5%AD%98&diff=15508最可能者生存2020-10-16T11:22:15Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“{{#seo: |keywords=最可能者生存?, 自然选择,热力学,开放式进化 |description=最可能者生存?,自然选择,热力学,开放式进化 }} * 名…”</p>
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<div>{{#seo:<br />
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}}<br />
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* 名称:最可能者生存——应用热力学定律解释自然选择(及生命)<br />
* 出处:PLoS Biology<br />
* 作者:John Whitfield<br />
* 翻译:[[Jake]]<br />
<br />
== 引子 ==<br />
乍一看,生命现象和热力学定律似乎是相互对立的。热力学第二定律说随着时间的演化,任何系统都会趋向于最大化熵的状态,也就是可用的有序能量的最低水平。所以,<br />
打开的香水会弥散在整间屋子里面。而另一方面,生命却必须尽最大努力来抵抗这种趋向均衡的耗散状态,否则它们就难逃死亡的命运。因此,反进化论者甚至认为,宇宙<br />
趋向于最无序的状态恰恰意味着自然选择不会让有生命的系统变得越来越复杂。然而,一个不能忽略的事实是,生命体会不停地往环境输出熵(吸收一种形式的能量,并且<br />
将它们转变为另一种具有更高熵的形式辐射出去)来维持它们内部的秩序。对这些问题进行认真思考的第一个物理学家要算Erwin Schrodinger(薛定谔)了,他把食物描<br />
述为一种负熵:“新陈代谢的本质就是生物体为了谋生而不断抵制熵增以获得自由的过程。”[1]<br />
<br />
==达尔文选择……不是秩序的唯一制造者==<br />
<br />
近年来,一些物理学家进一步发展了这一观点,他们认为生命系统属于一类更广义的复杂而有序的系统,这些系统之所以能够存在恰恰是因为有了热力学第二定律而不是<br />
摆脱、回避这一规律的结果。我们对于进化以及生命的观点应该以关于能量和物质流的热力学理论为基础。达尔文选择并不是秩序的唯一制造者。在宇宙中,能量和物质的<br />
相互作用可以产生有规则的结构,从星体、晶体到液体中的旋涡、大气中的天气系统,甚至是生命。生命系统是我们已知的最复杂而有序的系统,那么它们可不可能是一种<br />
同样的物理现象呢?有没有可能制约生命的过程——物种竞争的达尔文自然选择——最终也可以用热力学的术语进行解释呢?<br />
Eric Smith是一名新墨西哥州的圣塔菲研究所的理论物理学家,他曾明确地指出,“达尔文的竞争和选择过程不是一个孤立的过程。它是更基本的化学竞争过程的复杂体现。”<br />
在一篇2006年发表的文章中[2],Smith和他的同事指出自然选择是物理中的自组织过程的高级版本,即能量加物质就可以创造有序(对于此过程我们仍旧不是很清楚)。<br />
<br />
这类有序的自组织系统就像是人类设计的发动机,能够持续地利用能量梯度而产生熵,并且这些有序的系统会比那些无序的一堆分子的混杂物更快地产生熵。例如地球现<br />
有的天气系统就可以比一个均匀的、静止的大气系统更快地从热带地区传输热量到极地地区。Smith指出,生命也是如此。事实上,他相信这也许恰恰是生命在原始地球环境<br />
下起源的原因,即它是一种最好地释放当时地球上大量热力学能量的途径,而且它的出现是不可避免的[3]。一旦这种生物化学过程能够进行下去,那么后续的化学和达尔文<br />
式的选择就成为了耗散掉地球上积压能量的最好途径,包括天气系统地球热物理的能量或者是太阳能(在光合作用被发明之后)。<br />
<br />
人们很早就猜想到,自组织系统不仅仅比无序的系统更快地消除能量梯度,而且它的速度是所有可能中最快的一种。一些模型假设最大化熵产生可以很好的预测有关地球<br />
的气候系统[4]、土星的Titan卫星[5]以及溶液中的晶体生长[6]等过程。但是直到最近,最大化熵产生还仅仅是一种假说——还没有一种解释或者理论可以告诉我们系统为什<br />
么要趋于这种趋势。经典热力学在这个问题上不会帮我们的忙,因为它仅仅解释封闭系统中的熵,这些系统没有能量的输入和输出。所以经典热力学不能告诉我们像生物体<br />
这样的开放的非平衡系统会产生多少熵。<br />
<br />
==在物理学中讨论自然选择就相当于在问,在所有的可能状态中哪一个是自然将要选择的状态==<br />
<br />
Roderick Dewar是一位在法国Bordeaux的农业科学研究中心(agricultural research agency’s centre)工作的理论物理学家和生态系统模型研究者。他<br />
相信他已经找到了解释上述原理的方法。应用数学的一个分支:信息论(它可以重新叙述热力学定律,见框内文字),Dewar指出了最大化熵产生就是一个由很多相互作用<br />
元素组成的开放的,非平衡系统的最可能行为,前提是这个系统有很多自由的状态可供选择,并且系统没有受到很强的外力[7]。所以,宏观的最大化熵产生状态是最大比例<br />
的可能微观状态的代表,无论这些微观状态起到什么作用。<br />
<br />
==熵==<br />
<br />
熵是一个非常强大的但却是很难掌握的概念,其中一个原因是物理学的很多分支都会用不同的方式来叙述热力学第二定律。这也意味着,其他的领域例如计算科学和生态<br />
学,也可以使用熵这个概念,并且熵在不同的系统中具有不同的形式。<br />
<br />
在热力学中,熵就是无用性的度量。只要有能量梯度存在,例如具有差异的温度场,就可以被用来做功。但是,随着能量梯度的消除,能量就会逐渐转变成没用的均衡态<br />
的热而消散到环境中去。在统计力学中,系统的熵就是某个宏观状态所对应的可能微观状态的排列数目。因此,最大熵状态也就是最可能的、最无序的状态。例如,我们抛<br />
掷1000枚硬币,最可能的状态,也就是最大熵的状态是500个正面、500个反面。这种类型的熵也叫做“混合程度”。例如,一杯白咖啡就比一杯黑色咖啡上面飘着一层白色<br />
的牛奶拥有更多的分子排列数目。<br />
在信息论中,熵表示不确定性。最大熵系统是下一时刻最不确定的系统。在一个非常有序的消息中,例如一串同样的字母,我们可以很有把握地预测出这列字母的下一个字<br />
母,所以这样的系统就没有熵。而一串随机的字母看起来非常混乱,没有携带任何信息,因此它就具有最大可能熵。对熵的数学刻画要归功于数学家Claude Shannon。<br />
Shannon还给生物多样性的度量提供了一个著名的Shannon指数。这个指数表达了生物个体分配到多个种类中的均匀性。种类越多,而在每一个种类中的个体数目越相近,<br />
生物的多样性也就越大;这在数学上就是熵这一概念。因此,在更加多样的生态系统中,生物学家将不太可能甚至无法预言她将会发现什么物种。<br />
<br />
生物中的自然选择也是按照同样的方法运行的,Dewar认为:“在物理学中,我们说自然选择其实就是在问,在所有的可能状态中,哪一个是被自然所选的。”因此,他指<br />
出这就是一个概率问题,“自然所选择的那个状态就应该是可以用更多种途径来实现的状态。虽然生物学家可能不愿意这么想,但是我宁愿假设生物学中的自然选择就是按照<br />
同样的方法运作的过程,然后看看我们能走到哪里。”<br />
<br />
在物理系统中添加生命体可以提高这个系统的熵产生。一个充满了浮游植物的池塘或者一块长满绿草的土地可以比贫瘠的池塘或者赤裸的岩石更快地吸收太阳能,因此也<br />
就能可以产生出更多的熵。地球可以把太阳光转变成微波背景辐射(更接近宇宙背景的平衡态),它比火星或者金星更有效率。生态学过程例如从一片草地到一片森林的渐<br />
变过程(succession),同样可以提高熵产生(图1)。而在进化时间尺度上看,生物体会趋向于更好的获取能量(我们人类自己现在已经使用了大约40%的太阳能,并且<br />
一直忙于释放掉从石油中获取的能量而把它们转化成熵的过程中)。但是我们能够把这样的过程解释成一种趋向于最大化熵产生的趋向而不是达尔文竞争的产物吗?关键问<br />
题在于生命系统是否真正可以自由地实现最大化熵产生的状态,或者自然选择是否是一种可以超越最大化熵产生过程的力量。<br />
<br />
[[File:survival1.jpg|800px]]<br />
<br />
图1:熵和生物多样性在数学上是等价的,它们都使得热带雨林成为地球上的最大熵的环境<br />
<br />
自然选择不是最适者生存,而是最可能者生存,这一点看起来很奇怪,但是Dewar恰恰就是这样坚信的。最近他和他的同事展示了如何用最大化熵产生理论来解释和预测<br />
ATP合成酶的结构和工作机理。这就是说ATP合成过程就是一种产生细胞能量并取消能量梯度的最有效率的方法。总体来说,Dewar想说明生物过程就是要最大化能量获取<br />
速度或者化学物质运输的速度。而他的主要出发点是统计力学(解释宏观的可预测的行为是如何从大量不可预测的微观元素中涌现而出的一个物理学分支)。“统计理论解释<br />
说分子们选择了一种最大化流动的状态,因为这是一种对于系统中的分子来说最可能的排列方式”,Dewar说,“也许,它们之所以选择这种状态就是因为这是一种最可能的<br />
状态。”与传统的进化论观点不同,这种方法可以定量地告诉我们生命系统如何运作。“而达尔文选择是一种很难定量化的假说”,Dewar说,“我们很难用数字去刻画它。”<br />
<br />
有一些生物学家开始应用最大化熵产生原理了。“Dewar的证明很精彩,并且可能在科学的各个领域衍生出很多的结论,”加州大学伯克利分校的生态学家John Harte说。<br />
其中一个可能领域是生态学,他进一步指出:“在这一领域中应用最大化熵产生原理将是非常具有原创性的工作,包括对食物网、物质和能量在生物体中的分配,以及气候与<br />
生态系统相互作用的研究”。<br />
<br />
== 动物运动的模式就是动物们沿着地球表面进行流动的最有效率的方式 ==<br />
<br />
另一个物理学家试图用热力学来预测生物结构的细节信息,他就是Adrian Bejan,一位Duke大学(位于北Carolina的Durham)的工程师。Bejan没有考虑系统的微<br />
观机制,而是提出了一套他称之为“构建定律”的理论[9]。这套理论描述了能量和物质是如何在河流盆地这样的物理网络以及血管这样的生物网络中流动的。Bejan的构建定<br />
律指出,对于一个流动系统来说,如果它要存活下去,就必须给这些经过系统的流动提供更便利的流动路径,换句话说,它必须使得流动由少变多。在整个过程中,系统会<br />
最小化燃料的使用而最大化燃烧每单位燃料所产生的熵。<br />
<br />
Bejan相信演化就是一个不断重塑结构以便让通过系统的能量和物质流更加快速、更有效率的过程[10]。更好的流结构(包括动物的或者河流的网络)会替换掉那些不好<br />
的结构。Bejan指出,这是与热力学第二定律的趋向无序状态的时间箭头并列的第二种时间箭头。动物运动的模式(特别是动物的步幅以及拍打翅膀的频率与他们的体积大小<br />
的关系)就是动物们沿着地球表面进行流动的最有效率的方式[11]。“给定变形的自由度,一个流系统就会不段更新它自己的结构使得流动更顺畅,”Bejan说,“动物们沿着地<br />
球表面流动的方式与亚马逊的河水沿着地表流动的方式遵从了同样的规律。”<br />
<br />
Dewar并不同意Bejan的理论,他认为构建定律处理的是现象而不是背后的基本规律。“Bejan仅仅假设了系统会采取最优行为,并证明了现实系统的确是这样做的,但是<br />
对于系统为什么采用这样行为而不是其他样式的,他没有提供任何解释,”他指出,“同时,什么东西被最大化了也不是很清楚,似乎Bejan认为任何东西都可能成为这个优化<br />
目标。”而对于Bejan来说,Dewar的这种将焦点集中在系统的最小的元素上是不必要的:“我们并不需要深入到微观态中来理解宏观现象。”<br />
<br />
== 也许再过一百年,没有人会认为生物学需要一套理论,而物理学则是另一套 ==<br />
<br />
撇开这些物理学家观点上的分歧不谈,很多生物学家的确抵制这些新的观点。Ernst Mayr就指出生物过程例如繁殖、自然选择以及遗传是不能够被等价地解释为物理过程<br />
的,生物学应该被看作一门独立自主的学科[12]。(虽然并不是所有搞生物的人都这样认为:Francis Crick就写到,生物学的“终极目的”就是要用化学和物理的语言来解释<br />
它自己。)<br />
<br />
Lloyd Demetrius是一个哈佛大学的数学生物学家(不是一个物理学家)。使用统计力学的方法(他将生物个体看作是气体中的分子个体),他定义了一个数学量叫做<br />
“演化熵”[14]。这个数学上与热力学熵等价的概念并不代表物理上的无序,它描述了一个生物体进行繁衍活动的年龄跨度范围。Demetrius希望这个指标会随着演化和自然<br />
选择而增长,因为能够具有更长的繁衍时间跨度的生物体以更好地在不确定的环境中处理有限的资源。<br />
但是在Demetrius的模型中,演化熵并没有被最大化,随着时间的增长这也并非是不可避免的。他说,热力学过程和自然选择,以及生物和仅仅存在于分子尺度上的物理选<br />
择之间存在着基本的不同。任何更复杂的生物系统都会受到物理系统环境的外力的作用。“对一个演化的过程来说,你可以用物理定律来类比,但是它们的机制却是非常不<br />
同的,”Demetrius说。“只要你从分子的水平往上走一直到细胞以至于更高等的生物体,选择就会依赖于自繁殖。但是物理系统中却没有自繁殖现象。这也恰恰是区分活系<br />
统和死系统的一个本质区别。”<br />
<br />
对于物理学家来说,自组织系统和生命系统之间虽然是不同的,但却没有一个清晰的界限。“生命和非生命之间是连续过渡的,它们之间的明显差别可能是被最小化的,”<br />
Charles Lineweaver(Canberra的澳大利亚国立大学的天文学家)说。<br />
<br />
Lineweaver提出了一种叫做“远离平衡的耗散系统”的系统类别,它包括了所有通过耗散能量并不断把自己维持到一种有序的、非均衡的状态的系统,包括星系和飓风,<br />
也包括植物和动物等等(图2)。他认为,很可能所有的这样的系统都可以说成是有生命的,且生命可以用热力学的术语来定义。“作为一名物理学家,我正在寻找基于物<br />
理的生命定义,”Lineweaver说,“生物学家在这一点上来说显得过于保守了。”<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:survival2.jpg|800px]]<br />
[[File:survival3.jpg|800px]]<br />
<br />
图2 如果生命系统可以解释为一种最大化熵产生的系统,那么像星系或者飓风这样的系统也是有生命的。<br />
(A)、Diana飓风的3维卫星云图,图片展示的是它即将从类型III的风暴加强转化为类型IV的风暴;(B)、一个像太阳的形体的死亡过程<br />
<br />
Lineweaver还认为关于自我复制的问题是一种干扰,生命必须在它的内部存储有关复制的信息这一点是模棱两可的。试想星体的形成就要依赖于上一代的星体所产生<br />
的物质以及所更新的引力环境。所有的东西都需要环境提供能量和物质,信息是否在这里存储并不是最主要的。“将生命用热力学的方法来定义会消除我们对生命的神秘<br />
感,就像当年达尔文所说的:‘嘿,我们只不过是另外一种动物罢了’,”Lineweaver说。<br />
<br />
一百年前,生物学中最热门的话题就是活力论——生命系统是否是由非生命系统同样的一些化学物质构成的,还是另外有一种“活力”物质存在于生命体中?一个世纪<br />
过去了,现在我们知道,活系统和死系统都是用同样的物质构成的,并且遵循了同样的规律。也许,再过一百年后,没有人会相信解释生物学现象需要一套理论,而解<br />
释物理现象则要另一套理论。<br />
<br />
“我们注定要寻找通用的原理”Dewar说,“如果这样的原理存在,我们就应该能够把生物中的自然选择和物理中的自然选择融合在一起。动物的竞争与死亡都能最终<br />
归功于受限于能量和资源的分子过程。”<br />
<br />
John Whitfield是一个伦敦的自由作家。他的书“In the beat of a heart: life, energy, and the unity of nature” <br />
(www.inthebeatofaheart.com)现已经上市,他的博客是:gentraso.blogspot.com<br />
<br />
英文原文:http://www.swarmagents.com/thesis/detail.asp?id=209<br />
<br />
==参考文献:==<br />
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9. Bejan A (2000) Shape and structure, from engineering to nature. Cambridge (United Kingdom):Cambridge University Press. 324 p.<br />
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10. Bejan A (2005) The constructal law of organization in nature: Tree-shaped flows and body size. J Exp Biol 208: 1677–1686.<br />
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11. Bejan A, Marden JH (2006) Unifying constructal theory for scale effects in running, swimming and fl ying. J Exp Biol 209: 238–248.<br />
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12. Mayr E (1996) The autonomy of biology: The position of biology among the sciences. Q Rev Biol 71: 97–106.<br />
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13. Crick F (1966) Of molecules and men. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 120 p.<br />
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14. Demetrius L (2000) Thermodynamics and evolution. J Theor Biol 206: 1–16.<br />
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[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E6%95%B0%E7%90%86%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E8%BF%9B%E5%B1%95&diff=15507西方数理科学社会学的进展2020-10-16T11:16:38Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“ {{#seo: |keywords=社会物理学,数理社会学,计算社会学 |description=本文尝试讨论西方在将物理、数学、计算机模拟等领域的工具与…”</p>
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'''西方数理科学社会学的进展'''<br><br />
'''作者''' 顾卓筠<br><br />
'''摘要''' 本文尝试讨论西方在将物理、数学、计算机模拟等领域的工具与方法甚至思想引入社会学研究的实践中所产生的成果,并对他们的意义与局限进行讨论。<br><br />
'''关键词''' 社会物理学 数理社会学 计算社会学<br><br />
<br><br />
在西方社会学的发展历程里,早期的孔德和《社会物理学》的作者凯特尔<sup>1</sup>都已尝试用物理学和概率论的工具来描述和解释社会现象和过程。到当代为止,西方学界(不仅是社会学界)仍有一些人尝试用统计物理(又称统计力学),计算机模拟法,数学中的合理工具来分析和研究社会,并取得了一定的成果。<br><br />
这样的趋势粗略可以分为三个领域:一位来自物理学领域的研究者,二是由计算机科学背景的研究者,三是来自经济学,统计学和数学领域的人。随着这些学科在当代本身的进展<sup>2</sup>,渐渐出现了一些与社会学的研究对象社会很相似的内容,于是他们转而将这些内容的适用范围从自然科学扩大到社会科学,并被国外社会学家接受并建立相应的研究中心或者专刊进而研究(第三个领域的人主要是数学基础深厚所以是将数学应用到社会学的研究中来)。<br><br />
本文的研究方法是文献法,研究的问题是西方在将物理、数学、计算机模拟等领域的工具与方法甚至思想引入社会学研究的实践中所产生的成果,并对他们的意义与局限进行讨论。<br><br />
在社会学理论中,特别是实证主义传统中,引入自然科学模型和思想的努力由来已久。结构功能主义大师帕森斯发展了斯宾塞的社会有机体的概念,将社会看作是一个超有机体,各部分都起着一定的功能,脱离了整体的部分也不能长久存在,他最著名的“AGIL”就是典型的例子。在社会学的宏观理论中有很多都是类似于这种自然语言的推理模型,这种模型的存在在其合理性还不能被整个学界都接受的前提下却在另一方面显示出人类作为“会相互作用的原子”<sup>3</sup>所组成的社会在结构和过程方面与生物学中的有机个体或是生态系统和物理学中的某些所谓“复杂系统”的东西有着很深的渊源。这方面的深入讨论将在后面展开。<br><br />
本文起点是社会的自然主义假设<sup>4</sup>,只有在这种假设下引用自然科学方法才有合理性,因为这种方式更加容易出成果,并且相对而言所付出的代价(经费、人力、时间等)也较小<sup>5</sup>。<br><br />
社会学的本科生教育都会包括一些基本的数理训练,就拿笔者所在的社会学系(本科)为例,包括了止于一元积分学的高等数学,和统计学(止于二元相关和一元线性回归)以及概率论与数理统计的讲授。在下面的讨论中我们将会看到,要理解他们模型的意义所需要的数学基础仅有这些还远远不够<sup>6</sup>,在笔者的资料搜集过程中,发现社会学所用的数学和生物数学有很多类似的地方,所以可以参考一下他们所用的数学工具<sup>7</sup>。对于数学在社会科学中的运用当代社会科学家们总表现出一丝心有余悸。比如如下出自国内外社会学研究者的论述:“这些要求对于一般的社会学者来说是比较高的。其次可能是由于国内社会学界对社会学的‘量化研究’不很重视,有的学者甚至对量化研究不屑一顾,认为定量的研究只是数学家们的游戏,不能真实地把握活生生的社会现实,因为量化的研究不是格尔兹所说的‘深描’。”<sup>8</sup>和Turner《社会学理论的结构》中介绍社会网络分析和大卫·海斯的情感控制理论时对这些数学的内容所表现出来的无奈可以说明这一点。讽刺的是,那些研究者所使用的研究工具大部分(除了计算社会学之外)是理工科大学生在本科低年级就要求熟悉的东西。面对这样的状况,也许我们只能说“生活在不同范式下的科学家是生活在两个不同的世界里”<sup>9</sup>了。<br><br />
正如霍兰德在《隐秩序》<sup>10</sup>中所说“在数学天地之外,很多人不知道,我们的数学工具,从简单的算术、微积分到代数拓扑学,大多数都依赖于线性假设。…一个函数是线性的,如果对其变量赋予任何值,函数的值都只是这些值的加权(用实数乘)求和”<sup>11</sup>,数学300多年的巨大发展帮助了许多科学,但另一方面我们看到,数学在无限数学以及线性方面走得很远了,而对于有穷(或离散)以及非线性方面它却不能为我们贡献多少。在《生物数学》<sup>12</sup>一书中就已经指出数学在做某种改变<sup>13</sup>,笔者认为这种以非数集为基础的改变将向社会学应用数学打开一个窗口,同时又是数学对生物学甚至社会学所提出的非线性和离散<sup>14</sup>的问题的回应。这里可能还需要一个认识的转变。数学是作为理论演绎推论的工具而作用的,也就是说从最初的变量定义和公理设定开始演绎推理到最终结论(对数学来说是定理),实质上是一种理论推演,当然它也可以把自然语言的<sup>15</sup>理论(正像当下社会学理论那样)翻译成为数学。所以数学的运用不同于当下社会学界对于统计数学工具的运用,社会统计学只能对所搜集到的数据进行量化分析,一方面在归纳时告诉我们可能的模型,另一方面在演绎达到操作化结论后用数据加以证明(传统社会学)或是对模型中的代数参数加以赋值(计量经济学与数理经济学<sup>16</sup>),而在理论的逻辑推演中它并不能帮助我们,而数学推理的严格性以及丰富的公理-定理体系都能帮助我们进行逻辑推演,这与我们传统的研究方式<sup>17</sup>可以说有某些不同的<sup>18</sup>。那么统计学的作用是什么呢?就是数据科学<sup>19</sup>,也就是一种将经验研究到理论模型之间的一座桥梁,虽然它的原理涉及到很多数学(尤其是概率论和线性代数),但是作为笔者所指的理论探索的工具是不足够的,然而数学和下面将要提到的计算方法则能够提供相应的方法基础<sup>20</sup>。<br><br />
'''研究范例<sup>21</sup>:'''<br><br />
[[File:shwlxgs1.gif|800px|居中]]<br><br />
社会心理学中海德(Heider)的认知平衡理论用“+”和“-”分别表示了人际关系的积极与消极,并在此基础上定义了四种平衡状态和四种不平衡状态。下面笔者展示对于将群体表示成为图时平衡图的定义,而不只是上图的三人组。在图中的点叫做节点(vertex),连线叫做迹(edge),从某个节点出发又回到该节点时所经过的节点和连线的集合叫做圈(cycle),如果图中包含消极圈则称为平衡图(balanced graph),否则则是非平衡图(imbalanced graph)。在20世纪50年代,数学家卡特莱特和哈拉里(Cartwright & Harary)利用图论作为证明工具,将平衡和积极消极关系用符号所表示,证明了如下定理:如果一个图是平衡的,那么它一定可以被分为两个子图(其中一个可能是空集),子图内所有的关系是积极的,而子图之间的关系是消极的。换言之,消极关系不连接同一集合的点,而积极关系不连接不同集合的点。英文原文可参考Bonacich书中第7章第12页,他称这个定理为结构定理(structure theorem)。<br><br />
计算社会学在网页<sup>22</sup>上的直接定义就是为表述某一问题寻找一种计算机算法(也就是可用高级编程语言表达出来),他们广泛使用了各种计算机科学中已经发展成熟的工具,典型的有:差微分方程的模拟、元胞自动机和一种更新的发展即基于主体的建模(Agent-based Modeling)的技术。这些技术的统一思想是将时间看作系统演化的变量,观察被表达成方程式的系统演化从而发现系统的大致依时间的规律。而其中后两者则相对类似,后者比前者更加适合于社会研究,他们的思想是一群行动者(agent)或元胞(celluar)<sup>23</sup>,为元胞与元胞之间的交流施加一些规则(如最典型的if-then<sup>24</sup>),然后观察他们在时间的变化下遵循规则所表现出来的模式并转化成相应的图表,就可以观察到相应的结构和过程(即结构的产生,稳定或演化和消亡的动力学)<sup>25</sup>。<br><br />
这一种方法只是将计算机模拟技术中合理的成分外推之后将之应用于社会科学,它的作用就是提供一种近似的工具,作为理论探索的一种帮助(无论是自然语言的还是数理的)。它在概括性上低于理论,但高于实际的经验调查。这种方法在自然科学中已大量运用,比如对地震、天气、流体的研究。现在一部分社会学家也已经将此法应用于社会研究<sup>26</sup>。其中比较典型的是对于城市扩展的元胞自动机的研究和对于欧洲农民政策的一些研究。<sup>27</sup>那些自称为社会物理学家的人也已部分抛弃了物理学重视经验实验验证的传统利用计算机语言模拟的方法来研究社会,这也可以说是一种合流的趋势。同样的这种方法也与复杂性相关,详细可在对其进行定义的网页上找到。<br><br />
'''研究范例:'''<br><br />
以下笔者将引用两个相关例子作为范例。一个是基于元胞(细胞)自动机的模型28,另一个是基于Agent based modeling的模型Sugarscape(找糖模型)<sup>29</sup>。<br><br />
元胞自动机的演化规律可用下列公式来表达“如果-相邻的细胞出现某种变化,那么-本细胞也会出现相应的变化。”<sup>30</sup>“White于1993年细胞自动机领域研究出了新成果.他建立了一个细胞自动系统来研究土地利用随时间变更而发展的空间布局.他用高精确度的数据模拟了土地利用的动态发展。但该模型的主要目的是探索城市形态的一些基本问题,而非真实地模拟某些城市的发展状况。因此,该模型力求简单,仅用了纵横各50个格栅,每个格栅算作一个细胞。细胞分别表示空地、房屋、工业或商业用地四者当中的一种。周围的细胞是指以六个细胞之长为半径的圆内的所有细胞。为了减轻计算的负担,White制定了一套土地利用的等级制度和限制细胞发展的规则。规则限定土地利用的方式只能从低级向高级发展。该等级制度的排列顺序为:空地→房屋→工业→商业。该模型多次重复,直至城市发展的用地扩展到了城市边缘位置,并且使边缘效应越来越强烈。研究结果显示,在细胞般的城市里,工业、商业和住宅的分布相对集中。”<sup>31</sup><br><br />
在物理学中,除了它的最前沿――量子物理宇宙学――外还有另一个令人兴奋的方向就是由普里高津所发现的所谓“耗散结构”为代表的复杂性理论<sup>32</sup>。搞社会研究的物理学家利用统计物理(又称统计力学,包括了复杂性理论)<sup>33</sup>。来研究和分析社会结构和过程。但是分析者们同样似乎不太注意研究复杂性理论,它可以说是现代统计物理学的攻坚对象。<sup>34</sup>更加让人出乎意料的是社会学的分支学科中也出现了研究静态社会结构的学科――社会网络分析,同样没有注意到复杂性网络的存在。两个完全不同的学科都出现网络这个词笔者认为并不是一种偶然,一定有什么深刻的原理隐藏在它的背后<sup>35</sup>。<br><br />
'''研究范例<sup>36</sup>:'''<br><br />
“自组织行动(self-organized motion)”<br><br />
因为人们遵守规则所以步行者群呈现出了显著的非随机特征。选择两个路径点之间最短的途径,直着走(所以路径倾向于多边形),以适当的步速前进并且为了及时到达加快速度。我们与边界和其他人保持距离,同时我们自动的进行这一过程。<br><br />
找一个个体α,他的速率是[[File:shwlxgs2.gif]],行动方程为[[File:shwlxgs3.gif]],其中[[File:shwlxgs4.gif]]是随机项。所以影响行动的力量加总后得出方程:<br><br />
<center>[[File:shwlxgs5.gif|居中]]<br></center><br />
其中停步可以用[[File:shwlxgs6.gif]]项来修正,该式中[[File:shwlxgs7.gif]]代表系统中流逝的时间。<br><br />
第二项是路人感觉到的排斥力(repulsive forces,比如墙,其他人等等),并且[[File:shwlxgs8.gif]],其中[[File:shwlxgs9.gif]]是斥力的位置。第三项表示在某路人身后发生的事情对他行为没有影响。最后一项表示吸力(attractive forces,比如街头艺人,车站等)。<br><br />
下图是模拟的结果,他们说明模型与现实路人行动非常吻合(很显然,这是“看上去像的”,依照主观感觉,而不是经验证据)这些路人行动的特征是独立于行动者的数量的(present independent of number of agents)。<br><br />
[[File:shwlxgs10.gif|800px|居中]]<br><br>[[File:shwlxgs11.gif|500px|居中]]<br><br />
<br><br><center>'''文中注释:'''<br><br></center><br />
1 1796 一 1874 ,比利时数学家、天文学家、统计学家和社会学家,以将统计学和概率论应用于社会现象而著名。<br><br />
2 物理学中的非线性统计力学,计算机科学家发展出来的复杂系统的模拟方法和数学的非线性动力学。<br><br />
3 在物理领域里,对象 1L 气体就是大量相互作用(力)的原子组成的,而在传统经济学和心理学中,个体的行为取决于个体的内部动机而不和人际沟通有关,人际没有联系,这样人与人就不互相影响,从而构成没有联系的原子,而这里所谓的互相作用的原子就是指不同于前述的受人际影响的个体或是组织,只是这种相互作用和气体中原子的相互作用是不同的,但就算是不同,仍然是相互作用。<br><br />
4 就是肯定自然与社会是同源的,即自然和社会的统一性、对象的对称性(社会现象总可以在自然界中找到相似的甚至相同的现象)、理论的逻辑简单性(假设尽可能的少,结论尽可能的多)。<br><br />
5 与已经成熟的科学合作可以获得更好的发展空间,从而避免泛泛的哲学争论,例如现代社会学中很多大型的具有批判色彩的理论那样。<br><br />
6 当然本人认为也需要很深的社会学基础,鉴于本人水平,所以后文所涉及的内容会尽量回避本人所不熟悉的社会学的内容。<br><br />
7 http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/meeker/TheMathematicalSociologistSu04%20.pdf<br><br />
8 刘军著,《社会网络分析导论》社会科学文献出版社 2004.12 导言部分第 2 页<br><br />
9 《科学究竟是什么》 [ 澳 ] 艾伦?查尔默斯著 邱仁宗译 2002.4 第 225 页<br><br />
10 《隐秩序 --- 适应性造就复杂性》约翰? H ?霍兰著 周晓牧 韩晖译 上海科技教育出版社 2000.8<br><br />
11 同上,第 15 页。<br><br />
12 《生物数学》科学出版社 许克学著 1999.10<br><br />
13 同上,第 2 页“所谓数学,就是研究从一般集合到信息集合转换的理论、方法以及实现这种转换的运算过程。这就是我们对数学学科扩充以后的认识。在此集合 A 如果指实(复)数集合,信息集合 B 仅仅指一个实(复)数值,这就又回到传统数学的一般集合函数上去了。”<br><br />
14 非线性的典型例子是经济学上的乘数效应,即当投入固定时随着网络的传递次数产出会成几何级数增长,而不是算术级数。而社会学中典型的例子是用路径分析的语言来描述社会现象(假设我们有三个变量,分别为 1 , 2 , 3 )时,其路径图为下图,变量 1 与 3 的相关系数等于路径系数 p12 × p23 + p13 ,而不是直接得出的 p13 或 p12 × p23 ,说明了非线性的存在,即对变量 3 的影响不是变量 1 的单独效应与变量 2 的单独效应,还包括变量 1 与 2 的相互作用。所谓离散量就是只取有限个固定值或值域的变量,社会学中离散量有很多,布劳的宏观结构论就是以这样的离散量作为基础变量建立起来的社会学理论。此外国内有如下文献可供参考“概念格上的传媒表达” 昌明 梁捷 2004.1 《社会学研究》 第 38 至 45 页,这是典型的基于离散数学的研究。<br><br />
[[File:shwlxgs12.gif]]<br><br />
15 什么是自然语言?就是我们的日常语言,是不严格的,而数学的逻辑语言就是最严格的。(《系统经济学探索》 第 215 页)<br><br />
16 计量经济学就是估计经济系统参数,测定经济变量之间的数量关系。而数理经济学通常是从一定的假设条件出发,将经济活动量化为一个或一组变量,继而写出函数式或方程(组)…从而得到相应的经济模型或经济系统,然后运用数学推理方法得出结论。两者之间的差别其实应该是数理经济学 提出 y=f(x)=ax+b, 而计量经济学从实际数据中将函数或方程中的代数转变为具体数值或确定具体的函数形式而发展出来的类似统计估计和拟合的方法。参见《数理经济学导论》 伍超标编著 中国统计出版社 2002.12 第 6 页<br><br />
17 即方法定量而理论演绎定性。<br><br />
18 袁方主编 王汉生副主编 《社会研究方法教程》北京大学出版社 1997.2 第 650 页中声称数理分析是实质科学。<br><br />
《现代社会学-基本内容及评析》沙莲香主编译 中国人民大学出版社 第 88 页中认为数理社会学是理论社会学的一部分,其全称应是数理理论社会学。<br><br />
http://www.baicle.com:8080/cp/resource/articles/176/%E6%95%B0%E7%90%86%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E5%AD%A645938.html 中也表达了类似观点。<br><br />
此外,在社会科学中典型的例子就是经济学对数学的运用,除了统计外,还牵涉到其他数学分支,他们将经济学本身的概念翻译为数学定义,然后进行演绎,这应该是典型的科学对数学的态度。<br><br />
19 《统计学:从数据到结论》 吴喜之遍著 中国统计出版社 2004.6 第 2 页<br><br />
《统计学原理》主编 黄良文 副主编 曾五一 中国统计出版社 2000.6 第 5 页<br><br />
20 当然这不是说用数学就没有问题了,数学虽好毕竟不是完美的工具,封闭形式化体系的哥德尔不可能性定理就是这样的一个限制,它是指在一个封闭的形式系统中,存在着用系统本身既不能证明其为真,也不能证明其为假的命题(当然前提是这种理论能被表达成为数集数学的对象,因为数学家认为所有数学最终都可还原为自然数的问题,而这一定理则是针对自然数的研究的)。然而,数学语言的严谨性仍然是一个值得重视的理论工具。<br><br />
21 http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/faculty/bonacich/textbook.htm 第 7 章<br><br />
22 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_sociology<br><br />
23 事实上,元胞自动机和 agent based modelling 是不同的,前者基元不能在空间上移动,而后者可以有某种空间移动的倾向(比如向资源丰富的空间区域移动)。<br><br />
24 计算机编程中的 IF-THEN 条件语句。<br><br />
25 这两种方法所描述的系统通常无法用数集数学的方法解析地用方程式表达出来。相关论述可参考罗家德著《社会网分析讲义》 清华大学出版社 2005 最后一章网络动态学的研究范例中的内容。另外他们是一种从底向上(bottom-up)的研究方法,所以社会结构是从行动者的互动中出现的,因此更倾向于微观角度,而不是像许多大型理论那样从宏观角度来研究的,关于这一点可参考http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/education/phd/classpapers/Macy_Factors_2001.pdf<br><br />
26 compsoc.bandungfe.net 和 CRESS 所创办的电子杂志《 Journal of Artificial Society and Social Simulation 》网页是 http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/JASSS.html<br><br />
27 http://wwwlisc.clermont.cemagref.fr/ImagesProject/freport.pdf<br><br />
28 具体请参考《美国华裔科学家科普文集 第三卷 社会与行为科学》 王勋 刘国力主编 清华大学出版社 2005.3 第 233 至 246 页 “细胞自动系统模型在城市规划中的应用” 吕佳 美国威斯康星大学<br><br />
29 见网页 http://www.brook.edu/es/dynamics/sugarscape/movies.htm 可以观察它的动态过程。限于篇幅,本文不再赘述。<br><br />
30 《美国华裔科学家科普文集 第三卷 社会与行为科学》第 235 页<br><br />
31 该研究的论文为<br><br />
White R, Engelen G. Cellular automata and fractal urban form: a cellular modeling approach to the evolution of urban land-use patterns Environment and Planning A, 1993, 20: 1175~ 1189<br><br />
32 在这里,复杂性更像一个哲学术语,与简单性相对,没有明确的区分标准,但按照 J ? Holland 《隐秩序》中的看法就是复杂适应系统( Complex Adaptive System,CAS ),而最典型的性质有七点,可参考书中内容,具体在此不再详述。<br><br />
33 这里并不太用到复杂性,而是经典的内容(在那个领域里被称为平衡态和线性区非平衡态统计物理,而与复杂性相对应的则称为非平衡态非线性统计物理)。<br><br />
34 http://www.sfu.ca/~jinshanw/project/net/review_C/review_C.html<br><br />
http://www.oursci.org/news/2003/081501.htm,来源武汉大学复杂网络研究中心: http://www.sklse.org/whucn/<br><br />
35 社会网络分析的量化分析工具来自数学图论,而描述动态的网络就有随机图论和统计物理,事实上这已经在注 3 的论文的引言中给出。因此,孔德的静动力学似乎都有了着落。我们同样可以说,所谓社会结构和它的变动到底是什么了,即作为复杂性网络的社会网络的静态结构,由静态几何量描述(比如社会网络分析中的密度,点度中心度等),动态则是这些量随着时间变量的演化规律。以上是笔者的观点。动态网络的研究目前的成果可见 罗家德著《社会网分析讲义》 清华大学出版社 2005 中的最后一章。<br><br />
36 图片引自http://www.tcd.ie/Physics/Schools/ Posters/SF2003-4/Sociophysics.pdf ,由于打印原因,不同路人的表示颜色打不出来。<br><br />
37 如果有人有深入研究的需要,可以参考《社会科学与当代社会》刘仲亨著 辽宁人民出版社 1986.1 中第四章除了第二、五目的内容,他更深入的介绍了计算机方法和数学方法在科学理论研究中的作用。当然上述文字的认识是基于方法论上的联系,目前笔者认为不能认为他们从理论上建立了统一。<br><br />
38 http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/meeker/FW03TMS.pdf p6<br><br />
39 比如对涌现的定义还需要加以明确。<br><br />
40 即美国社会学家古尔德在其著作《即将到来的西方社会学的危机》中所说的。<br><br><br />
<center>'''参考文献:'''</center><br><br><br />
'''非网络部分'''<br><br />
《社会网络分析导论》 刘军著 社会科学文献出版社 2004.12<br><br />
《科学究竟是什么》[澳] 艾伦·查尔默斯著 邱仁宗译 商务印书馆 2001<br><br />
《隐秩序---适应性造就复杂性》约翰·H·霍兰著 周晓牧 韩晖译 上海科技教育出版社 2000.8<br><br />
《生物数学》科学出版社 许克学著 1999.10<br><br />
《社会学研究》2004.1<br><br />
《系统经济学探索》昝廷全著 科学出版社 2004.3<br><br />
《数理经济学导论》 伍超标编著 中国统计出版社 2002.12<br><br />
《社会研究方法教程》袁方主编 王汉生副主编 北京大学出版社 1997.2<br><br />
《现代社会学-基本内容及评析》沙莲香主编译 中国人民大学出版社<br><br />
《统计学:从数据到结论》 吴喜之遍著 中国统计出版社 2004.6<br><br />
《统计学原理》主编 黄良文 副主编 曾五一 中国统计出版社 2000.6<br><br />
《社会网分析讲义》罗家德著 清华大学出版社 2005<br><br />
《美国华裔科学家科普文集 第三卷 社会与行为科学》 王勋 刘国力主编 清华大学出版社 2005.3<br><br />
《社会科学与当代社会》刘仲亨著 辽宁人民出版社 1986.1<br><br />
《多层线性模型应用》张雷 雷雳 郭伯良著 教育科学出版社 200<br><br />
《中国社会学(第三卷)》中国社会科学院社会学研究所 世纪出版集团 上海人民出版社 2004<br><br />
《宇宙为家》S. Kauffman著 李绍明 徐彬 译 2003.5 湖南科学技术出版社<br><br />
《科学新领域的探索》S. Kauffman 著 池丽平 蔡勖 译 2004.5 湖南科学技术出版社<br><br />
《现代系统科学学》上海科学技术文献出版社 陈忠 盛毅华编著 2005<br><br />
《复杂系统建模与仿真》 方美琪 张树人 编著 中国人民大学出版社<br><br />
《自然杂志》,1990(1)<br><br />
《社会热力学》宋瑞玉 周冰著 湖北教育出版社 1994.9<br><br />
《定量社会学》[联邦德国] 韦德里希 哈格著 郭治安 姜璐 沈小峰编译 1986.9<br><br />
《社会场论》张小军著 团结出版社 1991.8<br><br />
《社会控制论》[荷] 盖叶尔 佐文著 黎鸣等译 华夏出版社 1989.10<br><br />
《火用 一种新的方法论》郑宏飞著 北京理工大学出版社2004.6<br><br />
《社会协同学》曾健 张一方著 科学出版社 2000.6<br><br />
《物理社会学 社会现象演绎理论的探索》钟学富著 中国社会科学出版社 2002.10<br><br />
《临界 为什么世界比我们想象的要简单》 【美】马克·布里斯著 刘杨 陈雄飞译 吉林人民出版社 2001.8<br><br />
《文科生第二种思维方法》湖南大学出版社 何维杰 欧阳玉 龙跃君 何伟光编著 2003.1<br><br />
《混沌学导论》吴祥兴等编 上海科学技术文献出版社 1996.1<br><br />
《社会学理论的结构》(第6版) 上、下【美】乔纳森·特纳著 邱泽奇译 华夏出版社 2001.1<br><br><br />
'''网络部分'''<br><br />
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/faculty/bonacich/textbook.ht<br><br />
http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/meeker/ TheMathematicalSociologistSu04%20.pdf<br><br />
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_sociology<br><br />
http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/education/ phd/classpapers/Macy_Factors_2001.pdf<br><br />
http://compsoc.bandungfe.net<br><br />
http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/JASSS.htm<br><br />
http://www.sfu.ca/~jinshanw/project/net/review_C/review_C.htm<br><br />
http://www.oursci.org/news/2003/081501.htm<br><br />
http://www.tcd.ie/Physics/Schools/Posters/SF2003-4/Sociophysics.pdf<br><br />
http://wwwlisc.clermont.cemagref.fr/ImagesProject/freport.pdf<br><br />
http://www.brook.edu/es/dynamics/sugarscape/movies.htm<br><br />
http://www.sklse.org/whucn/<br><br />
http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0502144 Sociophysics Simulations I: Language Competition<br><br />
http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0503115 Sociophysics Simulations II: Opinion Dynamics<br><br />
http://arxiv.org/abs/q-bio.PE/0503015 Sociophysics Simulations III: Retirement Demography<br><br />
http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0503128 Sociophysics Simulations IV: Hierarchies of Bonabeau et al<br><br />
http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/friedkin/Inpress/Affect_Status.pdf<br><br />
http://www.indiana.edu/~socpsy/ACT/math_model.htm<br><br />
http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/meeker/The%20Mathematical%20SociologistSP04.pdf<br><br />
http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/meeker/Wi98TMS.pdf<br><br />
http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/education/phd/classpapers/Macy_Factors_2001.pdf<br><br />
http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/education/phd/classpapers/Krackhardt_Organizational_1997.pdf<br><br />
http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/meeker/FW03TMS.pdf<br><br />
(本页面待完成)<br />
<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%A4%84%E7%90%86%E4%B8%8E%E6%B7%B1%E5%BA%A6%E5%AD%A6%E4%B9%A0%E7%BA%BF%E4%B8%8A%E8%AF%BE%E7%A8%8B&diff=15506自然语言处理与深度学习线上课程2020-10-16T11:13:40Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“<big>'''关于课程回看,请给[mailto:swarma_era@163.com 班长]写信索要,并请用如下格式:目的-姓名-微信号,如"回看申请-程序员-code…”</p>
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* 简介:目前,自然语言处理和深度学习都是非常火热的内容,鉴于此,集智俱乐部的小s开展了系列课程,以研讨、学习相关的内容。<br />
* 时间:2016年7月底-2016年11月初,预计活动11-13次<br />
* 地点:互联网授课<br />
* 主讲人:李嫣然,北京大学智能科学专业本科,现为香港理工大学在读博士生。研究方向为自然语言处理中的语义表达和语言生成。曾于自然语言领域的顶级会议上发表多篇论文,合著有《科学的极致——漫谈人工智能》一书。集智俱乐部成员,同时是微信公众号[程序媛的日常]的维护者之一小S。<br />
<br />
==课表==<br />
<br />
所有的资料都在这里:[http://pan.baidu.com/s/1qYN9yji http://pan.baidu.com/s/1qYN9yji],密码:j7hu<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! 课次 !! 时间 !! 内容!! 参考资料<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || 2016-7-21 20:00-21:00 || Word2Vec: Basics and Model [https://pan.baidu.com/s/1o8cWVs2 课件下载] [mailto:swarma_era@163.com 课程回看]|| [http://licstar.net/archives/328 Deep Learning in NLP(一) ]、[http://120.52.73.78/arxiv.org/pdf/1301.3781.pdf Efficient Estimation of Word Representations in Vector Space]、[http://www.jair.org/media/2934/live-2934-4846-jair.pdf From Frequency to Meaning: Vector Space Models of Semantics]<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || 2016-7-28 20:00-21:00 || Word2Vec: code and practice [https://pan.baidu.com/s/1qYgqA2S 课件下载] || [https://code.google.com/p/word2vec/ source code], [http://www.jianshu.com/p/e439b43ea464 word2vec/lstm on mxnet with NCE loss], [https://www.tensorflow.org/versions/r0.9/tutorials/word2vec/index.html Vector Representations of Words], [http://techblog.youdao.com/?p=915 Deep Learning实战之word2vec], [http://www.52nlp.cn/中英文维基百科语料上的word2vec实验 中英文维基百科语料上的Word2Vec实验], [https://passport.weibo.com/visitor/visitor?entry=miniblog&a=enter&url=http%3A%2F%2Fweibo.com%2Fp%2F1001603974934580865719&domain=.weibo.com&ua=php-sso_sdk_client-0.6.23&_rand=1469146820.0293 一些关于word2vec实现的人僧经验]<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || 2016-8-4 20:00-21:00 || Word Embeddings: Further Issues [https://pan.baidu.com/s/1kVuEsbt 课件下载] || [http://nlp.stanford.edu/projects/glove/ GloVe: Global Vectors for Word Representation], [http://colah.github.io/posts/2014-07-NLP-RNNs-Representations/ Deep Learning, NLP, and Representations], [http://yanran.li/peppypapers/2015/08/17/post-word-embedding.html “后 Word Embedding ”的热点会在哪里?]<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || 2016-8-11 20:00-21:00 || Foundations of Neural Network (主讲人:钟翰廷)[https://pan.baidu.com/s/1qYlHdCg 课件下载]|| <br />
|-<br />
| 5 || 2016-8-18 20:00-21:00 || RNN 及其在 NLP 中的应用 (主讲人:钟翰廷)[https://pan.baidu.com/s/1mizwNKO 课件下载]||[https://www.cs.ox.ac.uk/people/nando.defreitas/machinelearning/lecture11.pdf Recurrent nets and LSTM], [http://karpathy.github.io/2015/05/21/rnn-effectiveness/ The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Recurrent Neural Networks], [http://www.jmlr.org/proceedings/papers/v28/pascanu13.pdf On the difficulty of training recurrent neural networks], [http://www.fit.vutbr.cz/research/groups/speech/publi/2010/mikolov_interspeech2010_IS100722.pdf Recurrent neural network based language model]<br />
|-<br />
| 6 || 2016-8-25 20:00-21:00 || NLP in Action with RNN (主讲人:钟翰廷)[https://pan.baidu.com/s/1mhVBaNu 课件下载]||[http://aclweb.org/anthology/D/D14/D14-1074.pdf Chinese Poetry Generation with Recurrent Neural Networks]<br />
|-<br />
|-<br />
| 7 || 2016-09-08 20:00-21:00 || LDA简介 (主讲人:谷伟伟)[http://pan.baidu.com/s/1jH9vlbS 课件下载]||<br />
[沈志勇,主题模型简介(PPT):http://dwz.cn/2kC5Av lda数学八卦:http://www.flickering.cn/tag/lda/]<br />
|-<br />
| 8 || 2016-9-22 20:00-21:00 || Convolutional Neural Networks (主讲人:李嫣然)[https://pan.baidu.com/s/1pLq5vw3 课件下载]||[http://colah.github.io/posts/2014-07-Understanding-Convolutions/ Understanding Convolutions]<br />
|-<br />
| 9 || 2016-9-29 20:00-21:00 || Sentiment Analysis (主讲人:李嫣然)[https://pan.baidu.com/s/1hsK69X6 课件下载]||[http://nlp.stanford.edu:8080/sentiment/rntnDemo.html Stanford Sentiment Analysis Demo]<br />
|-<br />
| 10 || 2016-9-29 20:00-21:00 || Machine Translation (主讲人:李嫣然)[https://pan.baidu.com/s/1c2dvt1A 课件下载]||[https://arxiv.org/abs/1609.08144 Google's Neural Machine Translation System: Bridging the Gap between Human and Machine Translation]<br />
|-<br />
| 11 || 2016-10-06 20:00-21:00 || Neural Response Generation (主讲人:李嫣然)[https://pan.baidu.com/s/1kUMSeRt 课件下载]||[https://chatbotslife.com/ultimate-guide-to-leveraging-nlp-machine-learning-for-you-chatbot-531ff2dd870c#.2bmwke3f0 Ultimate Guide to Your Chatbot]<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
课程回放在这里:[http://xue.duobeiyun.com/ http://xue.duobeiyun.com/],邀请码请与[mailto:swarma_era@163.com 班长]联系。<br />
<br />
==内容提纲==<br />
感谢大家对于集智俱乐部《自然语言处理与深度学习》读书会活动感兴趣。由于这次活动我们想采取全新的收费模式,请大家务必在充分了解课程大纲和收费模式后,评估对于课程的预期,再决定是否缴费参加。<br />
<br />
关于收费模式的详细信息,请参考集智俱乐部的公众号文章,点击此处查看。 读书会大纲如下(预计分10次)<br />
<br />
===Word Representations===<br />
108Merely wanna comment on few general things, The website layout is perfect, the articles is real superb. &#8220;Some for renown, on scraps of learning dote, And think they grow immortal as they quo&t.e#8221; by Edward Young.<br />
<br />
===Sentence Modeling===<br />
====RNN====<br />
# neural network basics (back propagation, gradient, regularization, activations) <br />
# RNN (model, calculation, language modeling)<br />
# further reading and related issues (gradient vanishing, GRU, LSTM)<br />
====CNN====<br />
# convolutional operation basics<br />
# paper (model, pooling, sentence modeling, variable-length...) <br />
# further reading and related issues (character-level CNN...)<br />
<br />
===NLP Tasks===<br />
====Sentiment Analysis====<br />
# Sentiment Analysis tasks and benchmarks (Stanford TreeBank...) <br />
# papers (GAN, duyu-tang)<br />
====Machine Translation====<br />
# Seq2Seq and encoder-decoder framework<br />
# papers (attention, code)<br />
# further reading and related issues ([http://www.statmt.org/ued/?n=Public.WeeklyMeeting http://www.statmt.org/ued/?n=Public.WeeklyMeeting])<br />
===Fancy topics===<br />
# Machine Comprehension<br />
# Neural Turing Machine<br />
# Dynamic Memory Network <br />
# Neural Conversation Model<br />
<br />
==考核要求==<br />
<br />
# 由于很多人不能保证同一个时间点参与活动,所以我们取消了每次上课都点人数的 规定,也就取消了必须参加完所有课程的规定;<br />
# 每个人登陆都必须用自己的微信昵称;<br />
# 每个人在全部课(10-12次)下来,必须积分达到10分才行。其中完成一次作业为1分,完成一次符合要求(见后面的说明)的笔记积2分,如果笔记被选中发布了集智公众号则这次笔记积4分。其中笔记或者作业可以在所有课中任选。<br />
# 所谓符合要求的一次读书会笔记是指一篇编辑工整的图文并茂的文章,篇幅不得少于3页A4纸(含图,正常五号字,正常行间距),参考文章请[https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?__biz=MjM5NzQyODk2Mw==&mid=401797601&idx=1&sn=41fa2f8148096c3c33e52a73c9da1752&scene=1&srcid=0722gFgefp3Vwb3GdDWMCrRz&key=77421cf58af4a653debb650f538f490ca6cd8c8fd74d797fd42fe50e58f3afb1183f11b0561e07b8f105714f70c34721&ascene=0&uin=MTY5NTc1MDc2MA%3D%3D&devicetype=iMac+MacBookPro11%2C2+OSX+OSX+10.11.6+build(15G31)&version=11020201&pass_ticket=7C4SHQBtViNUtpDJu8DBLgrj5b8C9OavnQ5C%2BKaxNvP3otskuO7%2BBzp6GfUDXDO4 点击这里]查看。<br />
# 每次课的笔记或者作业都必须在下一次讲课前完成,补交不算数!<br />
# 上述要求达到才算完成了整个课程学习,退费80%,否则都算未完成,不退费!<br />
<br />
==前期活动预热==<br />
<br />
在读书会开始之前,集智俱乐部举办了一次公开活动,由小s主讲,内容是对整个读书会的一个更改介绍。有关这次活动信息,请参看[http://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?__biz=MzIzMjQyNzQ5MA==&mid=2247483667&idx=1&sn=658da85489324e125dbd2941cca50bd6&scene=25#wechat_redirect 这里],本次活动的课件可在[https://pan.baidu.com/s/1c1GqtzU 这里]下载。<br />
<br />
==相关负责人信息==<br />
集智《自然语言与深度学习》读书会上课、课后流程负责人<br />
<br />
# 每次活动前三天准备好多贝云系统(或其他听课系统),新建一个教室。负责人: Jake<br />
# 每次活动前一天发送教室地址和讲稿给群中。负责人:年糕<br />
# 所有的作业或笔记统一交给班长侯月源(email:swarma_era@163.com)。班长在下一次活动结束后把上一次活动的作业和笔记打包给助教,并将活动笔记统一交给Jake。<br />
# 助教钟翰廷负责记录每个人交作业的情况<br />
# 年糕负责从作业中抽样(10个),并给成绩,成绩太差则不算这次成绩,并通报。<br />
# Jake 负责从笔记中选出最好的发布公众号,并相应地更改分数。<br />
<br />
==邮件规则==<br />
为了方便大家及时得到邮件反馈,邮箱现在使用脚本管理+人工审核机制,所以希望参课的同学按照主题格式发送邮件。<br />
<br />
主题的格式为:邮件主题-昵称-ID<br />
<br />
现在支持的邮件主题:回看申请,作业(包含笔记)<br />
附件的格式 :作业/笔记-课程日期-昵称<br />
<br />
例如:<br />
<br />
回看申请-程序员-codermonkey<br />
<br />
作业-程序员-codermonkey<br />
<br />
附件名:作业-0721-程序员<br />
<br />
现在id确定为微信号,能搜到的,昵称为微信昵称<br />
<br />
=== '''注意:''' ===<br />
<br />
'''本期课程已经结束,为了方便已经参加课程的同学回看往期课程,回看申请格式变更:'''<br />
<br />
'''回看申请-课程序号-用户名-用户id'''<br />
<br />
'''课程序号参见课程安排表格第一列。'''<br />
<br />
例如:<br />
<br />
'''回看申请-1-程序员-codermonkey'''<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E8%82%BF%E7%98%A4%E7%B3%BB%E7%BB%9F%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6&diff=15505肿瘤系统生物学2020-10-16T11:08:24Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“== 肿瘤系统生物学 == SCB-2011 系统生物学专刊 SCB-2013 肿瘤系统生物学专刊 SCB-2015 系统生物学专刊 === Sui Huang === 个人简介:…”</p>
<hr />
<div>== 肿瘤系统生物学 ==<br />
<br />
SCB-2011 系统生物学专刊<br />
<br />
SCB-2013 肿瘤系统生物学专刊<br />
<br />
SCB-2015 系统生物学专刊<br />
<br />
=== Sui Huang ===<br />
<br />
个人简介:<br />
PHD:瑞士:分子生物学和物理化学:IFN<br /><br />
<br />
PD:波士顿儿童医院:<br /><br />
:肿瘤血管生成及细胞生长调控<br />
:同时在新英格兰复杂系统研究所:学习了动力系统理论<br />
:抗肿瘤生成和IFN不能治愈肿瘤,给了他冲击。对单一因果,还原论和决定论统领生物医学。因此从复杂系统理论的知识开展实验研究。并结合组学技术和系统生物学方法来逼近这个目标。<br />
<br />
在ISB方向:多细胞系统和肿瘤的结构及本质<br /><br />
<br />
===== 实验室简介 =====<br />
生物机体复杂性的的宽度和广度,需要我们结合对分析的整体论(组学)和对整体的分析(复杂系统理论):这两个方向是ISB的核心<br /><br />
<br />
多细胞机体不同表型分化细胞的决定,拥有同样的基因组。稳定表型的不同,挑战基因型-表型的直接对应。<br /><br />
<br />
控制GRN的基本规则如何影响细胞分化稳定性,以及多能干细胞如何转分化为血细胞,表观遗传学景观中的吸引子如何影响基因调控网络的非线性动力学。<br /><br />
<br />
细胞分化不是孤立的,细胞交流与转分化相关。而细胞群体动力学在多细胞发育中也很重要。<br /><br />
干扰基因和细胞的普通合作的自我修复机制,就可能引起肿瘤。该实验室即通过基因网络和细胞群体动力学的角度来看正常细胞和肿瘤发展的区别。<br /><br />
<br />
==== research overview ====<br />
健康和疾病中的多细胞表现,因为肿瘤是我们进化成为复杂多细胞系统的代价。目标是用新的有力的考察细胞群体动力学的表观遗传学景观的形式化工具阐释肿瘤。尤其是,黄实验室的一个高屋建瓴的猜想:肿瘤细胞是被抓到病理性吸引子状态网络的情况。使用“状态”语汇来描述单细胞分辨测量方法对基因表达模式检测其表型结果。检测细胞状态分化的种属特异性,调控多潜能细胞以及肿瘤干细胞的命运变化。上述实验可以揭示肿瘤进程中被忽视的表观遗传方面。<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
对于培养的肿瘤细胞和干细胞的实验,同样由根据复杂动力系统和统计物理理论,且由特别的生物学问题所提出的假说。还给对于系统生物学仍占主流的发现驱动的科学研究留出了余地。黄实验室的成员背景从理论物理到分子和系统生物学,且受益于IBS其他组同事发展的技术。<br /><br />
<br /><br />
<br />
一个重要的基础问题即基因型-表型相关的问题,占据了黄实验室的很多思考。一种特殊的连线图用来展示细胞中调控的生物分子,利用网络结构关系解释基因活性的表型。问题是什么?使用这种网络地图作为解释工具,忽视了一个调控网络是物理地与单个细胞相关联,而身体拥有上亿细胞。因此,当使用这种网络图谱来解释表型,表现整个组织水平时,会下意识地认为总体等于部分之和。而事实上,黄小组和其他人强调,每个单个细胞,即使在细胞系中,也是在不同的细胞状态中的,再加上其它层次的复杂性,使得基因型变成表型。明显地,事物不是简单加和。相反,不可避免的细胞群体是很重要的:这驱动了细胞种类分化成多细胞组织,并在肿瘤中发挥核心作用。<br /><br />
<br />
====research focus:====<br />
实验:定量描述关于单个细胞间的基因表达谱的非遗传多样性的动力学, 在祖细胞和肿瘤干细胞群体中,结合数学模型。目的是获得统计机制的细节,描述基因表达模式的涨落情况,导致同基因群体的异质性,以及控制细胞状态转换的模式,为了理解基因调控网络如何涨落来产生可见的细胞群体行为的。实验室还提供白血病和乳腺癌细胞分析,从一种模式转换为另外的模式,以及肿瘤耐药性问题。<br /><br />
<br /><br />
<br />
理论和模拟:发展一个形式框架来解释“类潜力(quasi-potential)”表面用以刻画基因调控循环的整体动力学,引起多细胞稳态(整体意指吸引子的相对深度)。目的是采用基因网络信息以及单细胞基因表达数据以建立真的表观遗传景观,用以预测进入旁边吸引子的细胞发育路径(重编程),即细胞改变其基因表达谱,在不同的适应性和外界压力下。<br /><br />
<br /><br />
<br />
生物信息学:分析已有基因组和转录组数据,在整体表观遗传学概念框架之下。目标是为了更好理解不连续的基因序列区别图谱如何导致逐渐定量不同的表型特征,假说是,表观遗传学景观的扭曲可导致吸引子状态的改变。<br /><br />
<br />
====重要文章====<br />
=====2016=====<br />
细胞转分化<br />
发育中布尔网络的状态稳定性调控<br />
肿瘤细胞异质性的吸引子和动力学<br />
增殖状态多样性中 的系统的药物摄取<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
=====2015=====<br />
非基因组的肿瘤可塑性及治疗导向的肿瘤干细胞复发<br />
转化医学-SA<br />
乳腺癌细胞上皮成纤维细胞的干细胞化和预后差<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
=====2014=====<br />
肿瘤与反恐<br />
CD4+T细胞的转化变异与可塑性:细胞群体行为<br />
定量PCR中模板浓度对定量循环的。。<br />
减少细胞间药物蓄积在耐药白细胞中不是唯一的。。。<br />
非平衡的群体动力学对于肿瘤细胞表型转化<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
=====2013=====<br />
肿瘤进程中的遗传和非遗传稳定性:肿瘤细胞的表观遗传景观和适应性景观之间的关系<br />
eposyeicosanoids驱动的器官组织再生<br />
杂种辅助T细胞:畸形系统中的稳定适度中心<br />
怎样逃出肿瘤吸引子(与考夫曼合作)<br />
基因对表达特征解释谱系控制<br />
当同行不是同行:Dunning-Kruger效应<br />
在治疗诱发的肿瘤耐药中的非达尔文动力学<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
=====2012=====<br />
类潜能景观在多稳态复杂系统中<br />
细胞损伤的非线性动力学理论<br />
肿瘤进程:机会和必要性在达尔文和拉马克演化之间<br />
自组织循环和涌现计算在鼠胚胎干细胞<br />
分子和数学基础对于沃丁顿表观遗传学景观:一个后达尔文生物学框架<br />
eposyeicosanoids 刺激下的多器官恶化鼠肿瘤的休眠逃逸<br />
临界态是进化当中基因网络的涌现特征<br />
利用流式参数化模拟细胞状态转化<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
=====2011=====<br />
肿瘤的炎症调控<br />
干细胞的系统生物学:超越线性通路范式的三个方法<br />
肿瘤起源的本质:从头倒脚的吸引子<br />
肿瘤亚类分型的转录因子优势:基因调控网络的水母模型<br />
理解基因的重要性在细胞命运分支点对于细胞重编程<br />
预测潘氏细胞分化命运和重编程,用多吸引子模型<br />
普适性模型,对于细胞命运决定。。。<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
=====2010=====<br />
细胞谱系决定在状态空间:系统学视角带来对教条的弹性<br />
碳恶化介导的细胞分化<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
=====2009=====<br />
细胞发育中的非基因组异质性:不仅是噪音<br />
序列分支在细胞命运决定<br />
肿瘤吸引子:系统观点对于肿瘤从基因网络动力学到发育观点<br />
细胞命非遗传异质性——一个突变费依赖的驱动力对于肿瘤的体内演化运重编程:重新。。鲁棒性<br />
非遗传异质性——一个突变费依赖的驱动力对于肿瘤的体内演化<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
=====2008=====<br />
PPAR:肿瘤治疗的双刃剑<br />
对于GRN的稀疏近似的启发式过程<br />
PPAR激动剂通过直接或间接的血管抑制方式 抑制肿瘤生长<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
=====2007=====<br />
随机连接布尔网络的混沌平均场动力学<br />
<br /><br />
<br />
=====2006=====<br />
一个肿瘤进展和恶化的非遗传基础:细胞调控网络的自组织吸引子<br />
系统生物学的尺度<br />
<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E8%80%97%E6%95%A3%E5%BE%8B&diff=15504耗散律2020-10-16T11:06:07Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“所谓流网络中的耗散律是指每个节点的总流量<math>T_i</math>与该节点的耗散流<math>D_i</math>之间存在着幂律关系: <math> D_i\pr…”</p>
<hr />
<div>所谓[[流网络]]中的耗散律是指每个节点的总流量<math>T_i</math>与该节点的耗散流<math>D_i</math>之间存在着幂律关系:<br />
<br />
<math><br />
D_i\propto T_i^{\gamma}<br />
</math><br />
<br />
其中<math>\gamma</math>是耗散律指数。耗散律指数在流网络中起着重要的作用,因为它关系到网络的集中化程度、鲁棒性以及生长。<br />
<br />
==各种流网络的耗散律==<br />
<br />
耗散律是各种流网络普遍具有的实证规律,下面我们针对不同的流网络分别来考察该实证规律。<br />
<br />
===生态流网络===<br />
<br />
[[生态流网络]]描述的是多个物种之间的能量输运的网络,其中每个节点的耗散是指该物种由于呼吸、死亡等因素损失到环境中的能量。<br />
<br />
[[File:dissipationlawecological.PNG|800px]]<br />
<br />
图示为Mangwet和Baywet网络的耗散律<ref name="gravityflownetwokr">{{cite journal|title=Common Patterns of Energy Flow and Biomass<br />
Distribution on Weighted Food Webs|first=Jiang|last=Zhang|first1=Yuanjing|last1=Feng|year=2012|url=http://arxiv.org/abs/1208.1560}}</ref>。<br />
<br />
下表列出了19个生态流网络的耗散律指数与拟合优度<ref name="gravityflownetwokr">{{cite journal|title=Common Patterns of Energy Flow and Biomass<br />
Distribution on Weighted Food Webs|first=Jiang|last=Zhang|first1=Yuanjing|last1=Feng|year=2012|url=http://arxiv.org/abs/1208.1560}}</ref><ref name="zhang">{{cite journal|title=Allometry and Dissipation of Ecological Flow Networks|last1=Zhang|first1=Jiang|last2=Wu|first2=Lingfei|journal=Plos One|year=2013|url=http://arxiv.org/abs/1302.5803}}</ref><br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
!Network!! γ!! R<sup>2</sup><br />
|-<br />
|-Baydry||0.915||0.949<br />
|-<br />
|Baywet||0.917||0.953<br />
|-<br />
|Mangdry||0.978||0.983<br />
|-<br />
|Gramdry||0.973||0.997<br />
|-<br />
|Gramwet||0.977||0.998<br />
|-<br />
|CypDry||0.957||0.949<br />
|-<br />
|CypWet||0.965||0.988<br />
|-<br />
|Mondego||0.979||0.997<br />
|-<br />
|StMarks||0.985||0.950<br />
|-<br />
|Michigan||0.995||0.999<br />
|-<br />
|Narragan||0.813||0.942<br />
|-<br />
|ChesUp||0.952||0.991<br />
|-<br />
|ChesMiddle||0.851||0.761<br />
|-<br />
|Chesapeake||0.985||0.985<br />
|-<br />
|ChesLower||0.926||0.971<br />
|-<br />
|CrystalC||0.959||0.995<br />
|-<br />
|CrystalD||0.963||0.996<br />
|-<br />
|Maspalomas||1.150||0.737<br />
|-<br />
|Rhode||1.200||0.963<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===国际贸易网===<br />
<br />
[[File:dissipationlawoftrade.png|600px]]<br />
<br />
[[国际贸易网]]可以按照不同种产品细分为单种产品的贸易网,上图所示为2000年国际贸易网数据中,两类产品的贸易网络所形成的耗散律。它们的耗散律幂指数分别为1.1和0.86。<br />
<br />
===投入产出网===<br />
<br />
下图展示的是不同国家的[[投入产出表]]货币流的耗散律:<br />
<br />
[[File:dissipationlawinputoutput.png|700px]]<br />
<br />
英国的耗散律指数大于1,土耳其的小于1。<br />
<br />
===点击流网络===<br />
<br />
下图展示的是两个点击流网络的耗散律<br />
<br />
[[File:dissipationclickstream.png|700px]]<br />
<br />
==耗散律指数及其意义==<br />
<br />
我们看到,不同流网络都遵循耗散律,但是有些网络的耗散律指数较大,有些则较小。如果我们将网络中的节点按照流量大小排序,则耗散律指数越大,那么大节点的耗散流比例也就会越大,这是因为若耗散律<math>D_i\propto T_i^{\gamma}</math>成立,则:<br />
<br />
<math><br />
\frac{D_i}{T_i}\propto T_i^{\gamma-1}<br />
</math><br />
<br />
上式左边表示耗散流占i节点总流量的比例,右侧为T<sub>i</sub>的γ-1次幂,若γ>1,则随着流量T<sub>i</sub>的增大则节点耗散的比例会增大,因此大节点会浪费更多的流。而当γ<1的时候,则耗散的比例会随着T<sub>i</sub>的增大而减小,因此小节点的耗散比例要大于大节点。<br />
<br />
耗散律指数能够影响整个[[流网络的异速标度律]]指数,因此耗散律指数越小,流网络越趋近于去中心化。而且耗散律指数能够影响流网络的鲁棒性。耗散律指数越大,则整个网络就越鲁棒,这是因为大量小节点分散了网络的流量。最后,耗散律指数可以影响网络的异速生长幂指数。<br />
<br />
==参考文献==<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
==相关页面==<br />
*[[流网络]]<br />
*[[流网络的异速标度律]]<br />
*[[流网络的引力定律]]<br />
*[[流网络的异速生长律]]<br />
<br />
[[category:流网络]]<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BD%97%E4%BC%AF%E5%A1%94%C2%B7%E8%BE%9B%E7%BA%B3%E7%89%B9%E6%8B%89_Roberta_Sinatra&diff=15503罗伯塔·辛纳特拉 Roberta Sinatra2020-10-16T11:03:56Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“{{#seo: |keywords=网络科学,数据科学 |description=卡塔尼亚大学,成功 }} == 基本信息 == 右 ===人物名==…”</p>
<hr />
<div>{{#seo:<br />
|keywords=网络科学,数据科学<br />
|description=卡塔尼亚大学,成功<br />
}}<br />
== 基本信息 ==<br />
[[File:Roberta Sinatra.jpeg|缩略图|右]]<br />
<br />
===人物名===<br />
<br />
Roberta Sinatra(罗伯塔·辛纳特拉)<br />
<br />
===研究方向===<br />
<br />
科学学,网络科学,计算社会科学,数据科学,复杂系统<br />
<br />
=== 研究领域 ===<br />
<br />
Roberta Sinatra 是 CEU 网络科学中心和数学系的助理教授,并且是东北大学(美国马萨诸塞州波士顿)网络科学学院的访问学者。她是一名在网络和数据科学最前沿工作的理论物理学家,开发新颖的理论方法并分析有关社会现象和人类行为的经验数据集。她的研究项目涵盖了随机游走和网络上的人类活动等主题,并通过 EEG 测量来量化合作游戏中的人类行为。目前,她特别关对注成功的集体现象的信息和动态进行分析和建模。<br />
<br />
===教育===<br />
<br />
* 2012年,物理学博士学位,卡塔尼亚大学<br />
* 2007年,理学理论物理学硕士学位,卡塔尼亚大学<br />
* 2005年,物理学和数学学士学位,卡塔尼亚大学<br />
<br />
=== 就职企业、机构或院校 ===<br />
<br />
* 哥本哈根信息技术大学 ITU 计算机科学系 助理教授<br />
* Barabási Lab 副研究助理教授<br />
* ISI (意大利都灵)研究员<br />
* 复杂性科学中心 CSH (奥地利维也纳) 外聘教员<br />
<br />
== 主要文章及著作 ==<br />
<br />
* [https://science.sciencemag.org/content/354/6312/aaf5239.short Quantifying the evolution of individual scientific impact] 《量化个体科学影响的演变》,R Sinatra, D Wang, P Deville, C Song, AL Barabási,Science 354 (6312), aaf5239,2016,被引221次<br />
* [https://science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6379/eaao0185.abstract Science of science] 《科学学》,S Fortunato, CT Bergstrom, K Börner, JA Evans, D Helbing, S Milojević, ...,Science 359 (6379), eaao0185,2018,被引202次<br />
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2995728/ Defecting or not defecting: how to “read” human behavior during cooperative games by EEG measurements] 《有缺陷还是没有缺陷:如何通过EEG测量来“读取”合作游戏中的人类行为》,FDV Fallani, V Nicosia, R Sinatra, L Astolfi, F Cincotti, D Mattia, C Wilke, ...,PloS one 5 (12),2010,被引121次 <br />
<br />
== 近期报道 ==<br />
<br />
* 2019-09-27,[https://10daily.com.au/lifestyle/career/a190927woxqp/want-career-success-study-shows-you-can-work-hard-or-just-cross-your-fingers-and-hope-for-the-best-20190927 想要事业成功?研究表明,你可以努力工作或者只是交叉手指祈祷好运],Network 10 CBS, 10 Daily (采访和报道)<br />
* 2019-09-26,[https://www.newscientist.com/article/2217628-around-half-of-your-chances-of-career-success-comes-down-to-sheer-luck/#ixzz63Gw1gx9g 大约有一半的职业成功机会完全取决于运气],《新科学家》 (采访和报道)<br />
<br />
== 联系方式 ==<br />
<br />
* 地址:Computer Science Department, IT University of Copenhagen, Rued Langgaards Vej 7, 2300 København, Denmark, Office4E13<br />
* 电子邮件:rsin@itu.dk robertasinatra@gmail.com<br />
== 相关链接 ==<br />
<br />
=== 视频 ===<br />
<br />
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hzQ-_jH5UZs Roberta Sinatra @ CSH Vienna | "Success stories"]:“成功故事”<br />
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LFGB2FkCd5U Roberta Sinatra @ CSHVienna | "It is never too late for success"]"成功永不太晚"<br />
<br />
=== 更多信息 ===<br />
[https://www.robertasinatra.com/ 个人主页]<br />
<br />
[https://www.barabasilab.com/people/roberta-sinatra Barabási Lab 主页]<br />
<br />
[https://www.robertasinatra.com/pdf/cv_roberta_sinatra.pdf CV]<br />
[[Category:网络科学]] <br />
[[Category:人物]]<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E7%A4%BE%E5%8C%BA%E5%88%92%E5%88%86%E7%AE%97%E6%B3%95&diff=15502网络社区划分算法2020-10-16T11:02:21Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“ ==简介== 使用许多互联网数据,我们都可以构建出这样的网络,其节点为某一种信息资源,如图片,视频,帖子,新闻等,…”</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
==简介==<br />
<br />
使用许多互联网数据,我们都可以构建出这样的网络,其节点为某一种信息资源,如图片,视频,帖子,新闻等,连边为用户在资源之间的流动。对于这样的网络,使用社区划分算法可以揭示信息资源之间的相关性,这种相关性的发现利用了用户对信息资源的处理信息,因此比起单纯使用资源本身携带的信息来聚类(例如,使用新闻包含的关键词对新闻资源进行聚类),是一种更深刻的知识发现。<br />
<br />
==构建一个点击流网络==<br />
<br />
假设我们手头有一批用户在一段期间内访问某类资源的数据。为了减少数据数理规模,我们一般只考虑最经常被访问的一批资源。因此在数据处理中,我们考虑UV(user visit)排名前V的资源,得到节点集合|V|,然后对于一个用户i在一段时间内(例如一天)内访问的资源,选择属于|V|的子集vi。如果我们有用户访问资源的时间,就可以按照时间上的先后顺序,从vi中产生vi-1条有向边。如果我们没有时间的数据,可以vi两两间建立联系,形成vi(vi-1)/2条无向边。因为后者对数据的要求比较低,下文中,暂时先考虑后者的情况。<br />
对于一天内的n个用户做这个操作,最后将得到的总数为 的连边里相同的边合并,得到|M|个不同的边,每条边上都带有权重信息。这样,我们就得到了V个节点,M条边的一个加权无向网络,反应的是在一天之内用户在主要的信息资源间的流动情况。在这个网络上,我们可以通过社区划分的算法对信息资源进行分类。<br />
<br />
==网络社区划分的两种主要思路:拓扑分析和流分析==<br />
<br />
社区划分的算法比较多,但我个人认为大致可以分为两大类:拓扑分析和流分析。前者一般适用于无向无权网络,思路是社区内部的连边密度要高于社区间。后者适用于有向有权网络,思路是发现在网络的某种流动(物质、能量、信息)中形成的社区结构。这两种分析各有特点,具体应用取决于网络数据本身描述的对象和研究者想要获得的信息。<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:community_figure_1.png|500px]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
我们可以将已知的一些算法归入这两类:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! 算法 !! 优化目标 !! 计算复杂度 !! 适用情况 !! 局限 <br />
|-<br />
| 拓扑分析|| || || || <br />
|-<br />
| Q Modularity || 最大化Q-modularity || |V|^2 || 无向无权多分量 || 不适用小网络 <br />
|-<br />
| Edge-Betweenness || 最小化社区间连边的betweenness || |V|*|E|^2 || 有向有权多分量 || 慢 <br />
|-<br />
| Leading Eigenvector || 对拉普拉斯矩阵第二小特征根对应的特征向量聚类 || C*|V|^2+ |E| || 无向无权多分量 || <br />
|-<br />
| Fast Greedy || 使用社区合并算法来快速搜索最大Q-modularity || C*|E|*log(|V|) || 无向有权多分量 || 不适用小网络 <br />
|-<br />
| Multi Level || 使用社区展开算法来快速搜索最大Q-modularity || C*|V| || 无向有权多分量 || 不适用小网络 <br />
|-<br />
| 流分析 || || || || <br />
|-<br />
| Walk Trap || 最大化社区间的流距离 || |E|*|V|^2 || 无向有权单分量 || <br />
|-<br />
| Label Propagation || 每个节点取邻居中最流行的标签,迭代式收敛 || |V| + |E| || 无向有权单分量 || 结果不稳定 <br />
|-<br />
| Info map || 最小化随机流的编码长度 || |V|*(|V|+|E|) || 有向有权单分量 || <br />
|-<br />
| Role-based community || 划分出在流中地位类似的节点 || |V|^3 || 有向有权单分量 || 结果不稳定 <br />
|-<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
上表中的分量(component)指在网络中的独立“团块”。有向网络里,分量有强弱之分,强分量(strong component )中任意一个节点都可到达另外一个节点,弱分量(weak component)中如果忽略连边方向,则构成强分量。无向网里分量没有强弱之分。在网络中识别强分量的算法有Kosaraju算法,Tarjan算法及其变形Gabow算法等。在这里不展开叙述。<br />
接下来,我们逐一讨论拓扑分析和流分析中的各种算法的具体思路。<br />
<br />
==拓扑分析==<br />
<br />
===计算网络的模块化程度Q-Modularity ===<br />
<br />
Q-Modularity是一个定义在[-0.5,1)区间内的指标,其算法是对于某一种社区结构,考虑每个社区内连边数与期待值之差。实际连边越是高于随机期望,说明节点越有集中在某些社区内的趋势,即网络的模块化结构越明显。Newman在2004年提出这个概念最初是为了对他自己设计的社区划算法进行评估,但因为这个指标科学合理,而且弥补了这个方面的空白,迅速成为一般性的社区划分算法的通用标准。<br />
Q的具体计算公式如下:<br />
[[File:community_figure_2.png|500px]] <br />
<br />
其中A是网络G对应的邻接矩阵,如果从i到j存在边,则Aij=1,否则为0。m是总连接数,2m是总度数,Aij/2m是两节点之间连接的实际概率。Ki和kj分别是i和j的度数。如果我们保持一个网络的度分布但对其连边进行随机洗牌,任意一对节点在洗牌后存在连接的概率为kikj/(2m)<sup>2</sup>。上式中中括号表达的就是节点之间的实际连边概率高于期待值的程度。后面跟着一个二元函数,如果节点ij属于同一个社区,则为1,否则为0,这就保证了我们只考虑社区内部的连边。刚才这个定义是以节点为分析单位。实际上,如果以社区为分析单位看Q指标,可以进一步将其化简为eii和ai之间的差。其中eii是在第i个社区内部的link占网络总link的比例,ai是第i个社区和所有其他社区的社区间link数。<br />
<br />
上式已经清楚定义了Q,但在实际计算里,上式要求对社区及其内部节点进行遍历,这个计算复杂度是很大的。Newman(2006)对上式进行了化简,得到矩阵表达如下:<br />
我们定义Sir为n * r的矩阵,n是节点数,r是社区数。如果节点i属于社区r,则为1,否则为0。则有<br />
[[File:community_figure_3.png|200px]] <br />
<br />
于是有<br />
<br />
[[File:community_figure_4.png|400px]]<br />
<br />
其中B是modularity matrix,其元素为<br />
<br />
[[File:community_figure_5.png|200px]] <br />
<br />
该矩阵的行列和都是0,因为实际网络和随机洗牌后的网络度分布是不变的。特别地,在仅仅有两个社区的情况下(r=2),可以s定义为一个n长的向量,节点属于一个社区为1,属于另一个社区为-1,Q可以写成一个更简单的形式:<br />
<br />
[[File:community_figure_6.png|200px]] <br />
<br />
通过对社区的划分可能空间进行搜索,可以得到最大化Q值的社区划分。在这个过程会涉及数值优化的部分,例如表一中的fast greedy和multilevel就是用不同方法进行快速搜索的例子。以fast greedy为例Newman(2006),它通过不断合并社区来观察Q的增加趋势,得到了一个在最差的情况下复杂度约为O( |E|*log(|V|) ),在最好的情况下接近线性复杂度的算法。<br />
<br />
===计算网络的连边紧密度Edge betweenness===<br />
<br />
这个思路出现得比较早(Newman, 2001)。Freeman (1975) 提出过一个叫betweenness的指标,它衡量的是网络里一个节点占据其他n-1节点间捷径的程度。具体而言,首先对每一对节点寻找最短路径,得到一个n * (n-1)/2的最短路径集合S,然后看这个集合中有多少最短路径需要通过某个具体的节点。Newman借鉴了这个标准,但不是用来分析节点而是分析连边。一个连边的edge betweenness就是S集合里的最短路径包含该连边的个数。<br />
定义了连边的betweenness后,就可以通过迭代算法来进行社区划分了。具体做法是先计算所有连边的betweenness,然后去除最高值连边,再重新计算,再去除最高值连边,如此反复,直到网络中的所有连边都被移除。在这个过程中网络就逐渐被切成一个个越来越小的component。在这个过程中,我们同样可以用Q-modularity来衡量社区划分的结果。这种算法定义比较清晰,也不涉及矩阵数学等运算,但问题是计算复杂度比较大。<br />
<br />
===计算网络拉普拉斯矩阵的特征向量Leading eigenvector===<br />
<br />
一个有n个节点的网络G可以被表达为一个n x n的邻接矩阵(adjacency matrix)A。在这个矩阵上,如果节点i和j之间存在连边,则Aij=1,否则为0。当网络是无向的时候,Aij=Aji。另外我们可以构造n x n的度矩阵(degree matrix)D。D对角线上的元素即节点度数,例如Dii为节点i的度数,所有非对角线的元素都是0。无向网的分析不存在度数的选择问题,有向网则要根据分析目标考虑使用出度还是入度。将度数矩阵减去邻接矩阵即得到拉普拉斯矩阵,即L = D-A。<br />
<br />
L的特征根<math>\lambda_0 <= \lambda_1 <= ...<= \lambda_{n-1} </math>存在一些有趣性质。首先,最小的特征根总等于0。因为如果将L乘以一个有n个元素的单位向量,相当于计算每一行的和,刚好是节点的度的自我抵消,结果等于0。其次,特征根中0 的个数即无向网G中分量的个数。这意味着如果除了最小特征根,没有别的特征根为0,则整个网络构成一个整体。<br />
<br />
在这些特征根里,第二小的特征根(或者最小的非零特征根)<math>\lambda_1 </math>又叫做代数连通性(algebraic connectivity),其对应的特征向量叫做Fidler vector。当<math>\lambda_1 >0</math>,说明网络是一个整体。<math>\lambda_1 </math>越大,说明网络彼此间的链接越紧密。从这个定义来看,非常像前面讨论的Q-Modularity,实际上在Newman2006的文章里,确实讨论了二者在数学上的对应关系。例如对示例网络所对应的进行分析,可以得到拉普拉斯矩阵如下:<br />
<br />
[[File:community_figure_7.png|500px]]<br />
<br />
<br />
这个矩阵的特征根如下:{5.5, 4.5, 4.0, 3.4, 2.2, 1.3, 1.0, 0}。取<math>\lambda_1 =1</math>时, Fidler vector={0.29, 0.00, 0.29, 0.29, 0.29, -0.58, -0.58, 0.00}。因为Fidler vector的值分别对应着图里的节点,于是可以写成{a:0.29, b: 0.00, c:0.29, d:0.29, e:0.29, f:-0.58, g:-0.58, h:0.00}。仅仅从元素的正负号就可以看出,该分析建议我们把f和g节点与其他节点分开,更细致的,对元素值大小的考察则建议把矩阵分成三个社区,{{a, c, d, e}, {b, h}, {e, f}}。回到图中考察,我们发现这个社区分类基本是合理的。<br />
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===通过fast greedy方法搜索网络模块化程度Q-Modularity的最大值===<br />
===通过multi level方法搜索网络模块化程度Q-Modularity的最大值===<br />
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因为以上两种方法都是基于Q-modularity的,只不过是搜索策略的不同,所以在此不展开讨论。<br />
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==流分析==<br />
===随机游走算法Walk Trap===<br />
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P. Pons 和 M. Latapy 2005年提出了一个基于随机游走的网络社区划分算法。他们提出可以使用两点到第三点的流距离之差来衡量两点之间的相似性,从而为划分社区服务。其具体过程如下:首先对网络G所对应的邻接矩阵A按行归一化,得到概率转移矩阵(transition matrix)P。使用矩阵计算表达这个归一化过程,可以写作<br />
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[[File:community_figure_8.png|600px]]<br />
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其中A是邻接矩阵,D是度矩阵。利用P矩阵的马可夫性质可知,它的t次方的元素Pijt就代表着随机游走的粒子经过t步从节点i到j的概率。其次,定义两点ij间的距离如下:<br />
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[[File:community_figure_9.png|400px]] <br />
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其中t是流的步长。步长必须恰当选择,因为如果t太小,不足以体现网络的结构特征,如果t太大,则Pijt趋近于与j的度数d(j)成正比, 随机游出发点i的拓扑信息被抹去。作者建议的t经验值为3到5之间。k是某一个目标节点。所以这个公式描述的是经过t步,ij到目标节点k的平均流转移概率(因为这个概率与中间节点k的度数d(k)成正比,所以要除以d(k)来去除这个影响)。ij到网络所有其他点之间的距离差别越小,说明ij很可能位于及其类似的位置上,彼此之间的距离也越接近。值得注意的是,这个思路如果只考虑一个或少数的目标节点,是不合适的。因为rij实际上只是结构对称性。有可能ij在网络的两端,距离很远,但到中间某个节点的距离是相等的。但因为公式要求k要遍历网络中除了ij以外的所有节点,这个时候ij如果到所有其他节点的流距离都差不多,比较可能是ij本身就是邻居,而不仅仅是结构上的对称。如公式所示,rij表达可以写成矩阵表达,其中Pti•是第P的t次方后第i行。<br />
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定义了任意两点之间的距离rij后,就可以将其推广,得到社区之间的距离rc1c2了:<br />
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[[File:community_figure_10.png|500px]] <br />
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容易看出,这个距离与节点之间的距离很相似,只不过这次是计算两个社区分别到目标节点k的流距离,而计算单个社区C到节点k的流距离时,又是对社区C内所有节点到k流距离取平均。<br />
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一旦从流结构中提取了节点相似性,社区划分就是一个比较简单的聚类问题。例如可以采取合并式聚类法如下:先将每个节点视为一个社区,然后计算所有存在连边的社区之间的流距离。然后,取两个彼此连接且流距离最短社区进行合并,重新计算社区之间的距离,如此不断迭代,直到所有的节点都被放入同一个社区。这个过程社区的数目不断减小,导致出现一个树图分层(dendrogram)结构。在这个过程中,可以使用Q-modularity的变化来指导搜索的方向。<br />
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===标签扩散算法label propagation===<br />
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这种算法的思路源于冯诺依曼在50年代提出的元胞自动机模型(cellular automata)和Bak等人在2002年左右做的沙堆模型。该算法的基本原理如下:首先,给全网每个节点分配一个不重复的标签(label);其次,在迭代的每一步,让一个节点采用在它所有的邻居节点中最流行的标签(如果最佳候选标签超过一个,则在其中随机抽一个),;最后,在迭代收敛时,采用同一种标签的节点被归入同一个社区。<br />
这个算法的核心是通过标签的扩散来模拟某种流在网络上的扩散。其优势是算法简单,特别适用于分析被流所塑造的网络。在大多数情况下可以快速收敛。其缺陷是,迭代的结果有可能不稳定,尤其在不考虑连边的权重时,如果社区结构不明显,或者网络比较小时,有可能所有的节点都被归入同一个社区。<br />
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===流编码算法 the Map Equation===<br />
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Rosvall和Axelsson 2009年提出了一种很有意思的方法来研究网络中的流动。其核心思想是,好的社区划分要令网络上流的平均描述长度最短。他们认为,分析有向加权网络的一个好的视角是观察某类实体(货币、能量、信息)在网络上的流动。即使没有实体流动的数据,我们也可以根据网络的基本结构来推测随机游走的粒子的轨迹,然后对得到的“平均流”进行信息编码。对“平均流”的描述长度最短的编码机制,就对应着对社区的一种最有效划分。<br />
<br />
首先要讨论的是节点层编码。最简单的方式是给每个节点分配一个独特的二进制签名。但这种编码方式并不高效,因为节点被访问的概率并不一样。为了改进,我们可以引入一个Huffman编码表(code book),在这个编码表上,每个节点都对应一个独立的二进制编码,但码长与节点被访问的概率(通过转移矩阵P在无穷步后的收敛结果来计算)相反。这样,“平均流”的信息长度就大大被降低了。<br />
其次,我们还可以通过引入两层编码,节点编码和社区编码,来进一步降低信息长度。有了社区编码的好处是,两个或多个社区内部的节点编码是可以重复的,这就进一步降低了信息长度。需要注意的是,两层编码并不意味着像国际电话区号那样,在每个节点前加一个社区前缀码,因为这样的话其实就和单层编码没有什么区别了。这里的两层编码实际上是在利用流的“局域性”。只需要我们标识出社区的入口(即社区编码)和出口(定义在社区间连边上的编码),在此区域内访问的节点,可以直接使用节点层的编码,不用考虑社区编码。例如:11-0000-11-01-101-100-101-01-0001-0-110-011-00-110-00-111-… 在这个流中,加粗的0前面,节点都在一个社区里游走,所以直接使用节点编码,0001是一个社区出口连边(exit)编码,使用了这个编码意味着节点要跳转社区,接下来0这个社区编码被使用,意味着流进入0社区,在这里面再次直接使用节点编码,直到跳出0社区(0社区的exit被使用)。<br />
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在这个两层编码体系中,包括三类码表(code book)。第一个是主码表(master code book),决定每个社区的编码;第二个是传送门码表(exit code book),决定每个社区的出口连边的编码;第三个是节点码表(node code book),决定每个社区内的节点的编码。一旦对网络的社区划分P(partition)给定,就存在一个社区码表,一个传送门码表,和m个节点码表,其中m是社区的个数。最后,社区划分的目标就是要最小化所有码表的总长,或者按论文中的说法,平均随机游走中的一步所耗费的信息成本。<br />
这个思路以一种很有趣的方式利用了网络社区的定义。网络社区的存在,意味着社区内的流动较多,跨越社区的流动较少。因此,一个好的社区划分意味着主码表和传送门码表被调用的次数都很少,描述的信息配额(quota)主要用于描述社区内的流动。相反,如果待分析的是一个随机的网络,或者研究者构造了一种低效的社区划分,那么主码表和传送门码表被调用的次数将会很多。特别是传送门码表,也就是错误的社区划分会大大加大这个码长。<br />
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一个总结了以上思想的公式可以表达如下,作者称之为the map equation。<br />
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[[File:community_figure_11.png|600px]] <br />
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其中M即对网络的某种社区划分得到m个社区。L是该划分所对应的信息描述长度。qi->代表进出第i个社区的概率(先考虑无向网络),因此q->代表社区间跳转的总概率。H(Q)是社区间跳转行为的香农信息量。Pi->代表第i个社区内节点间跳转的总概率,H(Pi)是第i个社区内节点间跳转行为的香农信息量。在公式的两个部分,信息量都用其被使用的频率进行加权。经过展开化简,可以得到简化形式如下:<br />
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[[File:community_figure_12.png|400px]] <br />
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最后,使用某种社区划分的搜索策略(主要有细分与合并两种)来寻找该描述长度的最小值即可。值得注意的是,在实际计算中,节点层的信息量(第三项)是不需要考虑的。<br />
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===流层级算法 Role-based Similarity===<br />
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Cooper和Barahona 在2010年提出了一个算法,可以揭示网络中流的层级关系。他们认为,通过对网络的邻接矩阵A进行分析,可以得到一个节点从一步到k步的出流或入流的画像(flow profile),在任意两个节点之间比较这种流画像,就可以得到节点之间的相似性,从而为社区划分服务。<br />
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具体过程如下:先得到网络的邻接矩阵A,这个时候V=AKI中的元素Vi就代表第i个节点在k步的所有出流之和。类似地,U=(AT)KI中的元素Ui就代表第i个节点在k步的入流之和。<br />
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[[File:community_figure_13.png|350px]] <br />
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如公式所示,我们可以构造n * k的矩阵Xin,其元素Xinij代表第i个节点在第k步的入流;也可以构造Xout,其元素Xoutij代表第i个节点在第k步的出流。把Xin和Xout横着拼在一起,就是X。其维度为n * 2k。在X矩阵上,第i行正好描述了节点i在k步内的所有入流和出流的信息。因此,可以通过计算第i行和j行的Cosine距离或者Manhattan距离等来定义节点相关性rij,最后得到的相关性矩阵,就可以用于聚类。<br />
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[[File:community_figure_14.png|600px]]<br />
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图3展示了将role-based similarity方法用于分析一个示例流网络的结果。发现分类的结果确实反映了流的层级关系。值得注意的是,虽然在论文中作者建议使用Cosine距离,但我发现在这个实例网络上,使用Manhattan距离的结果能更清晰地揭示流层级结构。因此,具体的分析要看数据的情况,这也是应用这种算法需要考虑的局限之一。<br />
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==总结==<br />
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[[File:community_figure_15.png|700px]]<br />
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本文中我们总结了构建点击流网络之后,使用社区划分算法来对点进行聚类的不同思路。主要可以分为拓扑分析和流分析两种,从数学角度看,前者以频谱分析(Spectral analysis)为主要手段,后者以马可夫链(Markov chain)为主要建模工具。其中流编码算法较为独特,以信息论为主要工具。但值得注意的是,由于编码算法仍然是在处理流,所以本质上只是对马可夫链的一种处理。例如在图4中,编码算法没有能区分开节点,而是将所有的节点归为一个区,每个节点被访问的流概率恰好等于其Page rank值(与节点的大小和颜色深度成正比)。而我们知道Page rank也仍然是基于马可夫链的。这个时候平均每走一步要消耗2.71比特信息。<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E6%A8%A1%E5%9D%97%E5%8C%96&diff=15501网络模块化2020-10-16T10:59:20Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“{{#seo: |keywords=模块化, 网络, 社团结构 |description=模块化, 网络, 社团结构 }} 该词条由Dawn翻译、编辑,由Elena审校,【张江】…”</p>
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<div>{{#seo:<br />
|keywords=模块化, 网络, 社团结构<br />
|description=模块化, 网络, 社团结构<br />
}}<br />
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该词条由Dawn翻译、编辑,由Elena审校,【张江】总审校,翻译自Wikipedia词条[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modularity_(networks) Modularity]<br />
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'''Modularity'''(模块化)是[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_network network](网络)或[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics) graph](图形)结构的一种度量,用于衡量网络划分为模块(也称为组,集群或社团)的强度。具有高模块化的网络在模块内的节点之间具有密集连接,但在不同模块的节点之间具有稀疏连接。在检测网络中[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_structure community structure](社团结构)的优化方法中常使用模块化。但是,模块化受到分辨率限制,因此无法检测小社团。生物网络,包括动物的大脑,具有高度的模块化。<br />
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==动机==<br />
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许多科学领域中的重要问题可以用网络来表示或进行实证研究。例如,生物和社会模式,万维网,代谢网络,食物网,神经网络和病理网络,这些现实世界中的问题都可以通过数学表示和拓扑研究来发现一些意想不到的结构特征<ref name="a1">Newman, M. E. J. (2006). "[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1482622/ Modularity and community structure in networks]". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (23): 8577–8696. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv arXiv]: [https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0602124 physics/0602124] .[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode Bibcode]:[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PNAS..103.8577N 2006PNAS..103.8577N]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier doi]:[http://www.pnas.org/content/103/23/8577 10.1073/pnas.0601602103]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central PMC] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1482622/ 1482622 ]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed#PubMed_identifier PMID] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16723398 16723398].</ref>。其中的大多数网络都具有某种社团结构,这对理解网络的动态具有重要意义,比如一个密切联系的社交社团意味着他们之间的信息或谣言传播速度要快于松散联系的社团。因此,如果网络由通过链路连接的多个单独节点表示,其中链路表示节点之间的某种程度的交互,则社团被定义为内部节点稠密互连,但仅与网络的其余部分稀疏连接的组。因此,确定网络中的社团往往是必要的,因为社团可能具有与普通网络完全不同的属性,如节点度,聚类系数,中介性,中心性<ref name="a2">Newman, M. E. J. (2007). Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, eds. "Mathematics of networks". The New Palgrave Encyclopedia of Economics (2 ed.).</ref>等等。模块化就是确定社团的一种方式,在最大化模块化时,会导致特定网络中社团的出现。<br />
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==定义==<br />
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当边满足随机分布时,模块化的值是落在给定组内的边的分数减去预期分数,模块化的值在<math>[-1,1]</math>的范围内<ref name="a3">Li, Wenye; Schuurmans, Dale (2011). "Modular Community Detection in Networks". IJCAI Proceedings-International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence. 22 (1): 2. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier doi]:[http://ijcai.org/Proceedings/11/Papers/231.pdf 10.5591/978-1-57735-516-8/IJCAI11-231].</ref>。若组内边的数量超过基于偶然性的预期数量,则模块化值为正。对于网络顶点到某些模块的给定划分,模块化反映了模块内边的集中度与所有节点之间链路随机分布的对比,而非模块本身。<br />
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计算模块化的方法有很多<ref name="a1"></ref>。在该概念最通用的版本中,总是对边进行随机化以便保持每个顶点的[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_(graph_theory) degree](度)。我们考虑一个有<math>n</math>个[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory) node](节点)和<math>m</math>条链路([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_graph_theory_terms#Graph 边])的图,它可以通过成员变量<math>s</math>划分为两个社团。如果节点<math>v</math>属于社团1,<math>s_v = 1</math>,反之,若<math>v</math>属于社团2,则<math>{s_v} = -1</math>。网络的[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjacency_matrix adjacency matrix](邻接矩阵)用<math>A</math>表示,其中,<math>A_{{vw}}=0</math>意味着节点<math>v</math>和<math>w</math> 之间没有边(没有交互),<math>A_{{vw}}=1</math>意味着两者之间存在边。为简单起见,考虑一个无向网络,则<math>A_{{vw}} = A_{{wv}}</math>。(重要的是要注意两个节点之间可能存在多条边,但在此我们只考虑最简单的情况)。<br />
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那么,模块化Q被定义为落入组1或组2内的边的分数,减去组1和2内具有与给定网络相同节点度分布的随机图的预期边数量。<br />
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预期的边数量可以使用配置模型的概念计算<ref name="a4">van der Hofstad, Remco (2013). "Chapter 7". [http://www.win.tue.nl/~rhofstad/NotesRGCN.pdf#page=149 Random Graphs and Complex Networks] (PDF).</ref>,配置模型是特定网络的随机实现。给定一个具有<math>n</math>个节点的网络,其中每个节点<math>v</math>具有节点度为<math>k_v</math>,配置模型将每个边切割成两半,然后每个半边(也称为存根)随机地与网络中的任何其他存根重新连接,甚至允许自循环。因此,配置模型能在保持图的节点度分布不变的情况下构建完全随机的网络。<br />
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假设总存根数为<math>l_n</math>,那么:<br />
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:<math>l_{n}= \sum_{v} k_{v} =2m. \qquad(1)</math><br />
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现在,随机选取两个节点<math>v</math>和<math>w</math>,它们的节点度分别为<math>k_v</math>,<math>{k_w}</math>,重新用存根将两节点连接,那么:<br />
<br />
:<math>\text{Expectation of full edges between }v \text{ and }w =\frac{\text{ (Full edges between }v\text{ and }w\text{)}}{ \text{(Total number of rewiring possibilities)}}. \qquad(2)</math><br />
<br />
可能重新连接的接线总数等于选择特定存根后剩余的存根数<math>{l_{n-1}}</math>,当<math>n</math>很大时,<math>\ l_{n-1}\approx l_n</math>,故有:<br />
<br />
:<math><br />
\text{Expected number of full edges between }v\text{ and }w = \frac{k_v k_w}{l_n} = \frac{k_v k_w}{2m}<br />
</math><br />
<br />
因此,节点<math>v</math>和<math>w</math>之间的实际边的数量与它们之间预期边的数量之间的差异值为:<br />
<br />
:<math><br />
A_{vw} - \frac{k_v k_w}{2m}<br />
</math><br />
<br />
对所有节点对求和得到模块化值Q的计算公式<ref name="a1"></ref>:<br />
<br />
:<math><br />
Q = \frac{1}{2m} \sum_{vw} \left[ A_{vw} - \frac{k_v k_w}{2m} \right] \frac{s_{v} s_{w}+1}{2}. \qquad(3) <br />
</math><br />
<br />
注意,等式(3)仅适用于将网络划分为两个社团的情况。分层划分(即先划分为两个社团,然后将两个子社团进一步划分为两个较小的子社团,只需最大化Q)是将网络划分为多个社团的可行方法。此外,等式(3)可以推广到将网络划分为''c''个社团<ref name="a5">Clauset, Aaron and Newman, M. E. J. and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cris_Moore Moore, Cristopher] (2004). "Finding community structure in very large networks". Phys. Rev. E. 70 (6): 066111. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv arXiv]: [https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0408187 cond-mat/0408187 ]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode Bibcode]: [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhRvE..70f6111C 2004PhRvE..70f6111C]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier doi]:[https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevE.70.066111 10.1103/PhysRevE.70.066111]. </ref>。<br />
<br />
:<math><br />
Q = \frac{1}{(2m)}\sum_{vw} \left[ A_{vw} - \frac{k_v k_w}{(2m)} \right] \delta(c_{v}, c_{w}) <br />
=\sum_{i=1}^{c} (e_{ii}-a_{i}^2). \qquad(4) <br />
</math><br />
<br />
其中,''e''<sub>''ij''</sub>为一个末端顶点在社团''i'',另一个末端顶点在社团''j''的边的分数:<br />
<br />
:<math><br />
e_{ij}= \sum_{vw} \frac{A_{vw}}{2m} 1_{v\in c_i} 1_{w\in c_j}<br />
</math><br />
<br />
而''a''<sub>''i''</sub>是连接到社团''i''中的顶点的边的末端分数:<br />
<br />
:<math><br />
a_i=\frac{k_i}{2m}<br />
= \sum_{j} e_{ij}<br />
</math><br />
<br />
==多社团检测实例==<br />
<br />
<br />
我们考虑一个由10个节点,12条边组成且对应以下邻接矩阵的无向网络。<br />
[[File:模块化1.jpg|200px|缩略图|右|图1 网络示例<br />
10个节点,12条边且对应左侧的邻接矩阵]]<br />
[[File:模块化2.jpg|200px|缩略图|右|图2 最大化Q值的网络分区示例图<br />
''Q''<sub>''max''</sub>=0.4896]]<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! 节点 ID !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10<br />
|-<br />
| 1 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0|| 0 || 0 || 0 || 1<br />
|-<br />
| 2 || 1 || 0|| 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0<br />
|-<br />
| 3 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0<br />
|-<br />
| 4 || 0 || 0 ||0 || 0 || 1 || 1|| 0 || 0 || 0 || 1<br />
|-<br />
| 5|| 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0<br />
|-<br />
| 6 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0<br />
|-<br />
| 7 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 1<br />
|-<br />
| 8 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0<br />
|-<br />
| 9 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0<br />
|-<br />
| 10 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0<br />
|}<br />
<br />
图1中,红色、绿色和蓝色节点组成的集群分别表示不同的社团。优化社团分区如图2所示。<br />
<br />
<br />
==矩阵表述==<br />
<br />
<br />
模块化的另一种在频谱优化算法中常用的替代公式,如下所述<ref name="a1"></ref>。假设当顶点''v''属于组''r''时,''S''<sub>''vr''</sub>为1,否则为0。那么:<br />
<br />
:<math><br />
\delta(c_v,c_w) = \sum_r S_{vr} S_{wr}<br />
</math><br />
<br />
因此,<br />
<br />
:<math><br />
Q = \frac{1}{2m} \sum_{vw} \sum_r \left[ A_{vw} - \frac{k_v k_w}{2m} \right] S_{vr} S_{wr}<br />
= \frac{1}{2m} \mathrm{Tr}(\mathbf{S}^\mathrm{T}\mathbf{BS}),<br />
</math><br />
<br />
其中,'''S'''是具有元素''S''<sub>''vr''</sub>和'''B'''的(非方块)矩阵,即所谓的模块化矩阵,它有元素<br />
<br />
:<math><br />
B_{vw} = A_{vw} - \frac{k_v k_w}{2m}.<br />
</math><br />
<br />
模块化矩阵的所有行和列总和为零,这意味着未分割网络的模块化的值也始终为零。<br />
<br />
对于划分成两个社团的网络,通过定义''s''<sub>''v''</sub> = &plusmn;1来表示节点''v''所属的社团,于是<br />
<br />
:<math><br />
Q = {1\over 4m} \sum_{vw} B_{vw} s_v s_w = {1\over 4m} \mathbf{s}^\mathrm{T}\mathbf{Bs},<br />
</math><br />
<br />
其中'''s'''是具有元素''s''<sub>''v''</sub>的列向量<ref name="a1"></ref>。<br />
<br />
此函数与Ising(伊辛)[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_glass spin glass](自旋玻璃)的[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_(quantum_mechanics) Hamiltonian](哈密顿量)具有相同的形式,利用一个连接来创建简单的计算机算法,例如使用[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulated_annealing simulated annealing](模拟退火算法),从而最大化模块化。任意数量社团的模块化的一般形式则等同于Potts自旋玻璃,同样可开发类似的算法<ref name="a6">Joerg Reichardt & Stefan Bornholdt (2006). "Statistical mechanics of community detection". Physical Review E. 74 (1): 016110. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv arXiv]:[https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0603718 cond-mat/0603718]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode Bibcode]: [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhRvE..74a6110R 2006PhRvE..74a6110R].[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier doi]:[https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevE.74.016110 10.1103/PhysRevE.74.016110].</ref>。<br />
<br />
<br />
==分辨率限制==<br />
<br />
<br />
模块化是集群中边的数目与<br />
若有一个与指定网络具有相同节点数且每个节点的度与原网络保持一致,但网络中的边随机连接的随机网络,那么,模块化是原集群中边的数目与随机网络的集群所期望的边数目的对比。其中,该随机零模型隐含地假设了每个节点可以连接到网络的任何节点。然而,此假设在网络非常大时是不合理的,因为节点的范围只包括了网络的一小部分,而忽略了大部分网络。这也意味着随着网络变大,两个组的节点之间的预期边数量将减少。当网络足够大时,模块化的零模型中两个组的节点之间的预期边数甚至可能小于1。在这种情况下,两个集群之间单条边的连接将被模块化解释为两个集群之间强相关性的标志,且优化模块化将导致两个集群的合并,而此过程未考虑到集群本身的特征。因此,对于弱互连的完整图,只要它们具有最高可能的内部边密度,且表示最佳可识别的社团,那么当网络足够大时,模块化优化算法也将对这些图进行合并<ref name="a7">Santo Fortunato & Marc Barthelemy (2007). [http://www.pnas.org/content/104/1/36 "Resolution limit in community detection"]. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (1): 36–41. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv arXiv]:[https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0607100 physics/0607100]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode Bibcode]: [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..104...36F 2007PNAS..104...36F].[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier doi]:[https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0605965104 10.1073/pnas.0605965104]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central PMC] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1765466/ 1765466]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed#PubMed_identifier PMID] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17190818 17190818].</ref>。出于这个原因,在大型网络中即使对社团进行良好定义,模块化优化算法仍然无法解决小型社团的情况。在诸如模块化优化算法这种依赖于全局零模型的方法中,这个偏差是不可避免的<ref name="a8">J.M. Kumpula; J. Saramäki; K. Kaski & J. Kertész (2007). "Limited resolution in complex network community detection with Potts model approach". European Physical Journal B. 56 (1): 41–45. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv arXiv]:[https://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0610370 cond-mat/0610370]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode Bibcode]: [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007EPJB...56...41K 2007EPJB...56...41K].[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier doi]:[http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.1140/epjb/e2007-00088-4 10.1140/epjb/e2007-00088-4].</ref>。<br />
<br />
<br />
==多分辨率方法==<br />
<br />
<br />
解决模块化中的分辨率限制问题主要有两种方法:以自循环的形式向每个节点添加电阻''r'',让增加(''r&gt;0'')或减小(''r&lt;0'')的两类节点分别形成社团<ref name="a9">Alex Arenas, Alberto Fernández and Sergio Gómez (2008). "Analysis of the structure of complex networks at different resolution levels". New Journal of Physics. 10 (5): 053039. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv arXiv]:[https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0703218 physics/0703218]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode Bibcode]: [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008NJPh...10e3039A 2008NJPh...10e3039A].[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier doi]:[http://iopscience.iop.org/1367-2630/10/5/053039/ 10.1088/1367-2630/10/5/053039].</ref>; 或在模块化定义中,当空案例时,在前面添加参数''γ&gt;0'',用它控制社团内部连接和空模型之间的相对重要性<ref name="a6"></ref>。在这些参数各自适当的范围内,通过优化模块化调整参数值,这可以覆盖整个网络的中尺度,从所有节点属于同一社团的宏观尺度,到每个节点属于各自社团的微观尺度,因此称为多分辨率方法。但是,当社团规模差异较大时,这些方法具有局限性<ref name="a10">Andrea Lancichinetti & Santo Fortunato (2011). "Limits of modularity maximization in community detection". Physical Review E. 84: 066122. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv arXiv]:[https://arxiv.org/abs/1107.1155 1107.1155]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode Bibcode]: [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PhRvE..84f6122L 2011PhRvE..84f6122L].[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier doi]:[https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.84.066122 10.1103/PhysRevE.84.066122].</ref>。<br />
<br />
<br />
==参见==<br />
<br />
<br />
*[[复杂网络]]<br />
*[[社团结构]]<br />
*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_model Null_model(零模型)]<br />
<br />
==参考文献==<br />
<br />
<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
<br />
==相关链接==<br />
<br />
<br />
*M. E. J. Newman (2006). [http://www.pnas.org/content/103/23/8577.full "Modularity and community structure in networks"]. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103 (23): 8577–8582. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv arXiv]:[https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0602124 physics/0602124].[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode Bibcode]:[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PNAS..103.8577N 2006PNAS..103.8577N]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier doi]:[http://www.pnas.org/content/103/23/8577 10.1073/pnas.0601602103]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central PMC] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1482622/ 1482622 ]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed#PubMed_identifier PMID] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16723398 16723398]. Retrieved 2008-07-11.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:网络理论]]<br />
[[Category:代数图论]]<br />
[[Category:网络模块化]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:旧词条迁移]]<br />
本词条内容翻译自 [https://en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org],遵守 [http://creativecommons.net.cn/tag/cc3-0许可协议/ CC3.0]协议。</div>小趣木木https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E7%BB%B4%E4%B9%9F%E7%BA%B3%E5%A4%8D%E6%9D%82%E6%80%A7%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83_Complexity_Science_Hub_Vienna&diff=15500维也纳复杂性科学中心 Complexity Science Hub Vienna2020-10-16T10:57:49Z<p>小趣木木:创建页面,内容为“== 基本信息 == 缩略图 === 名称 === 维也纳复杂性科学中心(Complexity Science Hub Vienna,CSH) === 所在地 === 奥…”</p>
<hr />
<div>== 基本信息 ==<br />
[[File:CSH Logo.png|右|缩略图]]<br />
=== 名称 ===<br />
维也纳复杂性科学中心(Complexity Science Hub Vienna,CSH)<br />
=== 所在地 ===<br />
奥地利维也纳<br />
=== 创办时间 ===<br />
2016年<br />
=== 管理人员 ===<br />
* 复杂性科学家斯蒂芬 · 瑟纳(Stefan Thurner)是 CSH 成立以来的第一位总裁和科学主管;<br />
* 国际科学咨询委员会由奥地利社会学家赫尔加 · 诺沃特尼(Helga Nowotny)担任主席。<br />
=== 宗旨 ===<br />
该机构的成立是为了促进大数据科学造福社会和提高奥地利复杂性研究的国际知名度而发起的一项联合倡议。<br />
=== 研究方向 ===<br />
* 复杂性科学的理论基础:F.I.复杂系统的性质、复杂系统的熵、统计力学、幂律的起源、崩溃的数学、演化和协进化、路径依赖、基于代理的模型;<br />
* 卫生与医学:卫生保健系统的效率和弹性,基于卫生保健数据;个性化医疗;疾病预测和预防<br />
* 系统性风险:为什么银行网络等复杂系统会崩溃?崩溃的可能性有多大?崩塌可以预测吗?如何建立一个稳定的复杂系统?<br />
* 城市(“城市科学”):如何将数据用于城市、人口、管理(“智能城市”)的利益?城市如何变得更可持续?如何增加公民参与?城市规模和城市生活之间有直接的联系吗?<br />
* “物联网”相关:更高效的生产是否会自动导致更大的脆弱性?一个完全数字化的产品在受到攻击时有多安全?如何使用传感器数据来回答系统性问题?<br />
* 计算社会科学(社会网络和异质社会中的意见形成):冲突是如何产生的?如何解决冲突?男人和女人的网络有什么区别;<br />
* 大数据分析:我们会失去隐私吗?社交媒体是对民主的威胁吗?如何识别假新闻? 社交媒体怎么评价性别?基于代理的社会大数据模型。<br />
== 组织结构 ==<br />
* 首先4个成员机构分别是是维也纳理工大学、格拉茨技术大学、维也纳医科大学和澳大利亚理工学院;<br />
* 2016年,维也纳经济与商业大学和国际应用系统分析研究所(IIASA)成为 CSH 的成员;<br />
* 2018年以来,多瑙河大学克雷姆斯分校和奥地利经济商会成为其成员机构;<br />
* CSH 包含了复杂性研究中心和大学的国际网络,包括新墨西哥州的圣菲研究所、新加坡的南洋理工大学、亚利桑那州立大学和阿姆斯特丹的高级研究所;<br />
* 2017年4月以来,与设在布达佩斯的中欧大学建立了伙伴关系;<br />
== 研究成果(出版物) ==<br />
* Hanel, P. Klimek,[https://www.csh.ac.at/publication/introduction-theory-of-complex-systems/ S. Thurner, R. 《INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORY OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS(复杂系统理论导论)》],Oxford University Press (2018)<br />
* J. Sakellariou, F. Tria, V. Loreto, F. Pachet,[https://www.csh.ac.at/publication/maximum-entropy-models-capture-melodic-styles/ 《MAXIMUM ENTROPY MODELS CAPTURE MELODIC STYLES》(最大熵模型捕捉旋律风格)],Sci Rep 7 (2017) 9172<br />
* H. Whitehouse, P. François, P. Savage, [...] P. Turchin,[https://www.csh.ac.at/publication/complex-societies-precede-moralizing-gods-throughout-world-history/《COMPLEX SOCIETIES PRECEDE MORALIZING GODS THROUGHOUT WORLD HISTORY(在整个世界历史中,复杂的社会先于道德化的神)》],Nature 568, 226–229 (2019)<br />
* L. Liu, Y. Wang, R. Sinatra, C. Giles, C. Song, D. Wang,[https://www.csh.ac.at/publication/hot-streaks-artistic-cultural-scientific-careers/《HOT STREAKS IN ARTISTIC, CULTURAL, AND SCIENTIFIC CAREERS(艺术、文化和科学领域的热门职业)》],Nature 559, 151–152 (2018)<br />
* S. Poledna, A. Hinteregger, S. Thurner,[https://www.csh.ac.at/publication/identifying-systemically-important-companies-through-credit-network-nation/ 《IDENTIFYING SYSTEMICALLY IMPORTANT COMPANIES BY USING THE CREDIT NETWORK OF AN ENTIRE NATION(利用全国信用网络识别具有系统重要性的公司)》],Entropy 20 (2018) 792<br />
* D. Garcia, B. Rimé,[https://www.csh.ac.at/publication/collective-emotions-and-social-resilience-digital-traces-terrorist-attack/ 《COLLECTIVE EMOTIONS AND SOCIAL RESILIENCE IN THE DIGITAL TRACES AFTER A TERRORIST ATTACK(恐怖袭击后数字痕迹中的集体情感和社会适应力)》],Psychological Science, Vol 30(4) (2019) 617–628<br />
== 成员 ==<br />
* 副教授托马斯 · 贝德纳(THOMAS BEDNAR),联系方式:thomas.bednar@tuwien.ac.at<br />
* 副教授NADIA ABOU_NABOUT,联系方式:nadia.abounabout@wu.ac.at<br />
* 副教授克雷斯波 · 库雷斯马(JESÚS CRESPO CUARESMA)联系方式: jcrespo@wu.ac.at<br />
更多成员信息浏览[https://www.csh.ac.at/associate/ 这里]<br />
== 学术成就及科研团队 ==<br />
== 联系方式 ==<br />
* 奥地利维也纳约瑟夫施塔德街39号维也纳复杂性科学中心<br />
* 联系电话:+43 1 59991 600<br />
* 电子邮箱:office@csh.ac.at<br />
== 相关链接 ==<br />
1、[https://www.csh.ac.at/ CSH官网]<br />
<br />
2、[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity_Science_Hub_Vienna wiki词条]<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:复杂系统]] <br />
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[[Category:机构]]<br />
[[category:旧词条迁移]]</div>小趣木木