https://wiki.swarma.org/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Xebec&feedformat=atom集智百科 - 复杂系统|人工智能|复杂科学|复杂网络|自组织 - 用户贡献 [zh-cn]2024-03-29T06:39:50Z用户贡献MediaWiki 1.35.0https://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E6%96%87%E4%BB%B6:Xebec%E7%9A%84%E7%AE%80%E4%BB%8B.jpg&diff=14628文件:Xebec的简介.jpg2020-09-30T02:01:57Z<p>Xebec:Xebec上传文件:Xebec的简介.jpg的新版本</p>
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<div>Xebec的基本构成</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13268层次2020-08-23T13:58:34Z<p>Xebec:/* 包容层次 Containment hierarchy */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或低一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个对象的路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象称为节点,上级称为父级,下级称为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">线性层次结构</font>'''的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在'''<font color="#ff8000">分支层次结构</font>'''中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">扁平层次结构</font>'''是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">重叠层次结构</font>'''是指至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”这一英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛的人类需求层次理论 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>'''是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是'''<font color="#ff8000">偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset</font>'''。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经历漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">玛特罗什卡套娃 Matryoshka Doll</font>''',又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是'''<font color="#ff8000">分类学 Taxonomies</font>''' 和'''<font color="#ff8000">系统分类 Systematic Classifications</font>'''背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的'''<font color="#ff8000">林奈分类法 Linnaean Taxonomy</font>'''(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">分类法 Taxonomies</font>'''可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">面向对象编程 Object-oriented Programming</font>'''的'''<font color="#ff8000">类继承 Class Inheritance</font>'''是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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{{col-3}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
<br />
分类: 模式<br />
<br />
[[Category:Structure]]<br />
<br />
Category:Structure<br />
<br />
类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13267层次2020-08-23T13:55:32Z<p>Xebec:/* 数学表达 Mathematical representation */</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
<br />
<br />
层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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<br />
<br />
==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
<br />
{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
<br />
层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
<br />
<br />
在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
<br />
* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
<br />
* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
<br />
* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
<br />
* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
<br />
*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或低一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个对象的路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象称为节点,上级称为父级,下级称为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">线性层次结构</font>'''的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在'''<font color="#ff8000">分支层次结构</font>'''中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">扁平层次结构</font>'''是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">重叠层次结构</font>'''是指至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”这一英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛的人类需求层次理论 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>'''是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是'''<font color="#ff8000">偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset</font>'''。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经历漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">玛特罗什卡套娃 Matryoshka Doll</font>''',又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是'''<font color="#ff8000">分类学 Taxonomies</font>''' 和'''<font color="#ff8000">系统分类 Systematic Classifications</font>'''背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的'''<font color="#ff8000">林奈分类法 Linnaean Taxonomy</font>'''(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">分类法 Taxonomies</font>'''可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
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{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
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* [[Has-a]]<br />
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** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13266层次2020-08-23T13:54:15Z<p>Xebec:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或低一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个对象的路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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<br />
In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
<br />
In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
<br />
在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象称为节点,上级称为父级,下级称为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">线性层次结构</font>'''的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在'''<font color="#ff8000">分支层次结构</font>'''中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">扁平层次结构</font>'''是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">重叠层次结构</font>'''是指至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”这一英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛的人类需求层次理论 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>'''是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是'''<font color="#ff8000">偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset</font>'''。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">玛特罗什卡套娃 Matryoshka Doll</font>''',又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是'''<font color="#ff8000">分类学 Taxonomies</font>''' 和'''<font color="#ff8000">系统分类 Systematic Classifications</font>'''背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的'''<font color="#ff8000">林奈分类法 Linnaean Taxonomy</font>'''(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">分类法 Taxonomies</font>'''可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
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* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
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** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
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* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
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* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
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** Also includes full copies of:<br />
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** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13265层次2020-08-23T13:51:58Z<p>Xebec:/* 视觉层次 Visual hierarchy */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或低一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个对象的路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象称为节点,上级称为父级,下级称为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">线性层次结构</font>'''的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在'''<font color="#ff8000">分支层次结构</font>'''中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">扁平层次结构</font>'''是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">重叠层次结构</font>'''是指至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”这一英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛的人类需求层次理论 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>'''是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是'''<font color="#ff8000">偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset</font>'''。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是'''<font color="#ff8000">分类学 Taxonomies</font>''' 和'''<font color="#ff8000">系统分类 Systematic Classifications</font>'''背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的'''<font color="#ff8000">林奈分类法 Linnaean Taxonomy</font>'''(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">分类法 Taxonomies</font>'''可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
<br />
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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<br />
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{{col-3}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
<br />
** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
<br />
**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
<br />
分类: 模式<br />
<br />
[[Category:Structure]]<br />
<br />
Category:Structure<br />
<br />
类别: 结构<br />
<br />
[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
<br />
Category:Political culture<br />
<br />
类别: 政治文化<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13264层次2020-08-23T13:50:25Z<p>Xebec:/* 术语历史 History of the term */</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或低一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个对象的路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象称为节点,上级称为父级,下级称为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">线性层次结构</font>'''的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在'''<font color="#ff8000">分支层次结构</font>'''中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">扁平层次结构</font>'''是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">重叠层次结构</font>'''是指至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”这一英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛的人类需求层次理论 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>'''是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是'''<font color="#ff8000">偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset</font>'''。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是'''<font color="#ff8000">分类学 Taxonomies</font>''' 和'''<font color="#ff8000">系统分类 Systematic Classifications</font>'''背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的'''<font color="#ff8000">林奈分类法 Linnaean Taxonomy</font>'''(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">分类法 Taxonomies</font>'''可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13263层次2020-08-23T13:48:54Z<p>Xebec:/* 名称 Nomenclature */</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
<br />
<br />
层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
<br />
层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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<br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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<br />
在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
<br />
* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
<br />
* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
<br />
* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
<br />
**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
<br />
**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
<br />
*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或低一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个对象的路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象称为节点,上级称为父级,下级称为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">线性层次结构</font>'''的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在'''<font color="#ff8000">分支层次结构</font>'''中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">扁平层次结构</font>'''是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">重叠层次结构</font>'''是指至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛的人类需求层次理论 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>'''是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是'''<font color="#ff8000">偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset</font>'''。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是'''<font color="#ff8000">分类学 Taxonomies</font>''' 和'''<font color="#ff8000">系统分类 Systematic Classifications</font>'''背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的'''<font color="#ff8000">林奈分类法 Linnaean Taxonomy</font>'''(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">分类法 Taxonomies</font>'''可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
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* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
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** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
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* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
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* [[Is-a]]<br />
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** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
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** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
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* [[Has-a]]<br />
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** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
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* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13262层次2020-08-23T13:42:47Z<p>Xebec:/* 亚型 Subtypes */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或第一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">线性层次结构</font>'''的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在'''<font color="#ff8000">分支层次结构</font>'''中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">扁平层次结构</font>'''是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">重叠层次结构</font>'''是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛的人类需求层次理论 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>'''是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是'''<font color="#ff8000">偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset</font>'''。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是'''<font color="#ff8000">分类学 Taxonomies</font>''' 和'''<font color="#ff8000">系统分类 Systematic Classifications</font>'''背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的'''<font color="#ff8000">林奈分类法 Linnaean Taxonomy</font>'''(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">分类法 Taxonomies</font>'''可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
<br />
** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
<br />
* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
<br />
* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
<br />
** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
<br />
*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
<br />
** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
<br />
* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
<br />
** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
<br />
** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
<br />
** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
<br />
* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
<br />
** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
<br />
** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
<br />
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
<br />
** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
<br />
**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13260层次2020-08-23T13:35:03Z<p>Xebec:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或第一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">线性层次结构</font>'''的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在'''<font color="#ff8000">分支层次结构</font>'''中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">扁平层次结构</font>'''是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">重叠层次结构</font>'''是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛的人类需求层次理论 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>'''是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是'''<font color="#ff8000">偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset</font>'''。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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如果你想知道更多的信息,请访问我们的网站<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多,请点击这里查看更多<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
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* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
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** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
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** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
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* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
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''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
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(For example, in )<br />
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(例如,在<br />
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* [[Is-a]]<br />
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** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
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** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
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* [[Has-a]]<br />
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** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
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{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
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* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13259层次2020-08-23T13:34:52Z<p>Xebec:/* 数学表达 Mathematical representation */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或第一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">线性层次结构</font>'''的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在'''<font color="#ff8000">分支层次结构</font>'''中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">扁平层次结构</font>'''是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">重叠层次结构</font>'''是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛的人类需求层次理论 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>'''是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是'''<font color="#ff8000">偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset</font>'''。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
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{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
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* [[Has-a]]<br />
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** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13258层次2020-08-23T13:33:48Z<p>Xebec:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或第一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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<br />
In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
<br />
In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
<br />
在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">线性层次结构</font>'''的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在'''<font color="#ff8000">分支层次结构</font>'''中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">扁平层次结构</font>'''是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">重叠层次结构</font>'''是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛的人类需求层次理论 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>'''是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
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* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
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** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
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* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
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* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
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** Also includes full copies of:<br />
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** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13257层次2020-08-23T13:32:57Z<p>Xebec:/* 支化度 Degree of branching */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或第一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">线性层次结构</font>'''的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在'''<font color="#ff8000">分支层次结构</font>'''中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">扁平层次结构</font>'''是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">重叠层次结构</font>'''是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多的信息,请访问我的网站<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
<br />
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
<br />
** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
<br />
**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
<br />
分类: 模式<br />
<br />
[[Category:Structure]]<br />
<br />
Category:Structure<br />
<br />
类别: 结构<br />
<br />
[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
<br />
Category:Political culture<br />
<br />
类别: 政治文化<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
<br />
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13256层次2020-08-23T13:30:00Z<p>Xebec:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或第一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构,是指嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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<br />
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==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13255层次2020-08-23T13:28:16Z<p>Xebec:/* 通俗表达 Informal representation */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
<br />
<br />
层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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<br />
==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
<br />
层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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<br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
<br />
<br />
在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
<br />
* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
<br />
* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
<br />
* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
<br />
**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
<br />
**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
<br />
*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或第一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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# 任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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# 其中有一个''层次''元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
<br />
In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
<br />
在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
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** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
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* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
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''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
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(For example, in )<br />
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(例如,在<br />
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* [[Is-a]]<br />
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** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
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** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
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* [[Has-a]]<br />
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** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
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{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
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* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
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* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
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* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
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** Also includes full copies of:<br />
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** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13254层次2020-08-23T13:27:22Z<p>Xebec:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或第一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论是用三角图表呈现层次结构的一个实例。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
<br />
* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
<br />
** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
<br />
** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
<br />
** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
<br />
* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
<br />
** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
<br />
** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
<br />
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
<br />
** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
<br />
**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
<br />
分类: 模式<br />
<br />
[[Category:Structure]]<br />
<br />
Category:Structure<br />
<br />
类别: 结构<br />
<br />
[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
<br />
Category:Political culture<br />
<br />
类别: 政治文化<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
<br />
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13253层次2020-08-23T13:26:03Z<p>Xebec:/* 视觉层次 Visual hierarchy */</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
<br />
A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或第一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如'''<font color="#ff8000">维恩图 Venn diagram</font>'''。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
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}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13252层次2020-08-23T13:24:30Z<p>Xebec:/* 术语历史 History of the term */</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
<br />
<br />
层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
<br />
层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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<br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
<br />
* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
<br />
* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
<br />
* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
<br />
**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
<br />
**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
<br />
*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
<br />
**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或第一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
<br />
In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
<br />
在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
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** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
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* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
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''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
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(For example, in )<br />
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(例如,在<br />
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* [[Is-a]]<br />
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** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
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** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
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* [[Has-a]]<br />
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** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
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{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
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* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
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* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
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* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
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** Also includes full copies of:<br />
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** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13245层次2020-08-23T12:13:30Z<p>Xebec:/* 名称 Nomenclature */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">对象 Object</font>''':一个实体(例如一种成员或配置集的个人、部门、概念、元素)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">系统 System</font>''':层次性配置的整组对象集(例如管理体系)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">维度 Dimension</font>''':联机分析处理(例如立方体)中“系统”的同义词<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
*'''<font color="#ff8000">成员 Member</font>''':分类系统、分类学或维度中任一层级或位阶一个元素或对象<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语 Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">位阶 Rank</font>''':一个对象的相对值、价值、复杂度、力量、重要度、权威性、等级等<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">等级 Level</font>''':同等位阶或重要度的一组对象<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">排序 Ordering</font>''':等级或位阶的配置<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">层次 Hierarchy</font>''':特定成员组位阶或等级的配置。通过忽视所选等级以扁平化结构,一个维度、分类学或体系分类的多层次是可能的<br />
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*'''位置相关的术语Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">顶 Hierarch</font>''':层次的顶,位于维度中顶层的一个独立个体(对象或成员)。倒树形结构的根源<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">构件 Member</font>''':维系(上级或下级)构件的维度中层次结构里任一层的一个构件或节点<br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">孤体 Orphan</font>''':一个没有父级的构件。通常是孤立分支的顶。孤体可通过创建与父级的关系而重新嫁接到层次中。<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">叶 Leaf</font>''':维度中任一层里没有下级的构件<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">近邻 Neighbour</font>''':同一等级或位阶中相邻与另一构件的构件,通常是同级。<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">上级 Superior</font>''':更高等级或更高等级中的对象(父级或祖先级)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">下级 Subordinate</font>''':更低等级或更低等级中的对象(子级或后裔级)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">群 Collection</font>''':一等级中的所有对象(例如同级成员)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">同级 Peer</font>''':同一位阶(即同一等级)的对象<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">交互 Interaction</font>''':对象与其直接上级或下级的关系(例如一对上下级)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
***,一个对象比另一个刚好高一等级或第一等级时(例如在树形图中两个对象间有连线)发生'''<font color="#ff8000">直接 Direct</font>'''交互<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">距离 Distance</font>''':两个对象间的最小连接数,例如若连接数比对象数少1则需要一个对象到另一个路径交叉<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">跨度 Span</font>''':层级宽度图表化的量化表述,例如一个对象所拥有的下级的数量。<br />
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*'''自然相关的术语 Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性 Attribute</font>''':等级中(成员或其下级)的遗传特征(例如''发色'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
**'''<font color="#ff8000">属性值 Attribute-value</font>''':遗传特征的具体值(例如''棕发'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
<br />
* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
<br />
** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
<br />
** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
<br />
** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
<br />
* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
<br />
** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
<br />
** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
<br />
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
<br />
** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
<br />
**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
<br />
分类: 模式<br />
<br />
[[Category:Structure]]<br />
<br />
Category:Structure<br />
<br />
类别: 结构<br />
<br />
[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
<br />
Category:Political culture<br />
<br />
类别: 政治文化<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
<br />
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13236层次2020-08-23T11:27:29Z<p>Xebec:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">“层次 hierarchy”</font>'''(从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来)是一组元素(对象、名称、值、类别等)的结构,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多,请点击这里查看更多<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13231层次2020-08-23T10:10:20Z<p>Xebec:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
<br />
* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
<br />
** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
<br />
** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
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{{col-begin}}<br />
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{{col-3}}<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
<br />
** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
<br />
* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
<br />
* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
<br />
** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
<br />
*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
<br />
** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
<br />
* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
<br />
** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
<br />
** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
<br />
** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
<br />
* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
<br />
** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
<br />
** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
<br />
<br />
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{{col-3}}<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
<br />
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
<br />
** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
<br />
**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
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{{col-3}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13230层次2020-08-23T10:06:18Z<p>Xebec:/* 包容层次 Containment hierarchy */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次是嵌套层次概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的——不存在两个相同的集合。上面的图形示例可稍作改变来论证:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多,请点击这里查看更多<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示x是y的子集,但不等于y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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面向对象程序设计的类继承是包容层次的一个例证。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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包容层次有包含包容层次和组合包容层次两种。包含包容层次“包含”其子级,而组合包容层次“组合”其子级。层次结构也可能同时是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
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}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13229层次2020-08-23T09:54:38Z<p>Xebec:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
<br />
<br />
层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
<br />
层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
<br />
**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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<br />
In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[玛特罗什卡套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,其结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个洋娃娃都被另一个洋娃娃包裹着,一直到最外层的。外部的洋娃娃包含所有其内部的洋娃娃,往外一层的洋娃娃也包含所有其内部剩余的洋娃娃,如此反复。套娃结构是一个每层都只有一个对象的嵌套层次结构,例如在套娃中同样大小的洋娃娃只有一个;广义的嵌套层次可以每层都有多个对象,但每层里的对象都只有一个父级对象。嵌套层次的一般概念的论证及数学表达如下:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形可称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来是层次性的。然而若多边形集采用这种分类法,则正方形只能是四边形,而不会是三角形、六边形等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套层次结构是分类学和系统分类背后的组织性方案。例如,在最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中所列)中,人类可被归为<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁改变(如在生物分类法中所见),但嵌套层次结构这一基本概念始终不变。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和句法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,包括俄罗斯娃娃,嵌套的层次结构也用作自相似和递归性质的呈现。递归本身是层次性编程的一个子集,递归思维可用作层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
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* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
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** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
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* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
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* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
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** Also includes full copies of:<br />
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** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13225层次2020-08-23T09:21:44Z<p>Xebec:/* 数学表达 Mathematical representation */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|层次(数学) Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先对括号内作运算。在需要多步求解的代数问题上这些规则占主导地位。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速高效地解决问题,而不必经理漫长的剖析过程。现在认为大多数这类规则是求解特定方程的适当方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多的信息,请访问我的网站<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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如果你想知道更多的信息,请访问我们的网站<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多,请点击这里查看更多<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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{{col-begin}}<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
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<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
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{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
<br />
分类: 模式<br />
<br />
[[Category:Structure]]<br />
<br />
Category:Structure<br />
<br />
类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
<br />
Category:Political culture<br />
<br />
类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13212层次2020-08-23T07:29:44Z<p>Xebec:/* 数学表达 Mathematical representation */</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
<br />
<br />
层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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<br />
<br />
==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
<br />
{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.[9] The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parentheses is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example: (2 + 5) × (7 - 4). In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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数学上,层次结构最一般的形式是偏序集 Partially Ordered Set或Poset。元素所组成的系统即整个偏序集。系统内每个元素都共享一些具体无歧义的属性。相同属性的元素可集结成群,最终形成类别层次。<br />
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“层次”专用作指称随复杂度增加而组织的偏序集。例如加法、减法、乘法和除法通常按特定序列实施。一般乘除先于加减,括号也是层次的一种表示,表达了哪些运算优先。例如在(2 + 5) × (7 - 4)中,按数学的层次规则本应先作5乘以7,但加入了括号,则表示了应当先作括号内的运算。<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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如果你想知道更多的信息,请访问我们的网站<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多,请点击这里查看更多<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
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{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13211层次2020-08-23T07:15:10Z<p>Xebec:/* 结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy */</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
<br />
<br />
层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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<br />
==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
<br />
{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
<br />
层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
<br />
<br />
在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
<br />
* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
<br />
*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
<br />
**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
<br />
*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
<br />
**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
<br />
**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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<br />
In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
<br />
In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
<br />
在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
<br />
In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
<br />
在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
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** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
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* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
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''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
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(For example, in )<br />
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(例如,在<br />
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* [[Is-a]]<br />
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** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
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** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
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* [[Has-a]]<br />
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** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
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{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
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* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
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* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
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* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
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** Also includes full copies of:<br />
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** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13210层次2020-08-23T07:13:41Z<p>Xebec:/* 包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包容层次结构 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
<br />
* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
<br />
** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
<br />
** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
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{{col-begin}}<br />
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{{col-3}}<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
<br />
** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
<br />
* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
<br />
* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
<br />
** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
<br />
*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
<br />
** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
<br />
* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
<br />
** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
<br />
** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
<br />
** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
<br />
* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
<br />
** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
<br />
** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
<br />
<br />
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{{col-3}}<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
<br />
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
<br />
** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
<br />
**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
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{{col-3}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13209层次2020-08-23T07:12:30Z<p>Xebec:/* 包容层次 Containment hierarchy */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多的信息,请访问我的网站<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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如果你想知道更多的信息,请访问我们的网站<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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===包容层次 Containment hierarchy===<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多,请点击这里查看更多<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
<br />
分类: 模式<br />
<br />
[[Category:Structure]]<br />
<br />
Category:Structure<br />
<br />
类别: 结构<br />
<br />
[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
<br />
Category:Political culture<br />
<br />
类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
<br />
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13208层次2020-08-23T07:11:10Z<p>Xebec:/* 亚型 Subtypes */</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
<br />
<br />
层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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<br />
<br />
==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
<br />
{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
<br />
层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
<br />
<br />
在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
<br />
* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
<br />
* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
<br />
* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
<br />
* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
<br />
*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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====包容层次 Containment hierarchy====<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
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* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
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** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
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** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
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* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
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''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
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(For example, in )<br />
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(例如,在<br />
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* [[Is-a]]<br />
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** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
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** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
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* [[Has-a]]<br />
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** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
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{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
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* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
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* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
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* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
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** Also includes full copies of:<br />
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** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13207层次2020-08-23T07:09:14Z<p>Xebec:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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====包容层次 Containment hierarchy====<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
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* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
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** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
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* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
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* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
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** Also includes full copies of:<br />
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** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13206层次2020-08-23T07:07:38Z<p>Xebec:/* 通俗表达 Informal representation */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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=={{anchor|hierachy}}Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在日常英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不高于自身,且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中有一个层次元素,高于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个前提也可理解为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个要求则确定了层次结构必须有一个所有元素都共有的代表或根源。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多的信息,请访问我的网站<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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====包容层次 Containment hierarchy====<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
<br />
** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
<br />
** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
<br />
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
<br />
** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
<br />
**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
<br />
分类: 模式<br />
<br />
[[Category:Structure]]<br />
<br />
Category:Structure<br />
<br />
类别: 结构<br />
<br />
[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
<br />
Category:Political culture<br />
<br />
类别: 政治文化<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
<br />
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13205层次2020-08-23T07:01:58Z<p>Xebec:/* 视觉层次 Visual hierarchy */</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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=={{anchor|hierachy}}Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文件内容排版和格式的成功很大程度上取决于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于像样的电脑文件组织也至关重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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嵌套集群是层次结构的一个可视化示例。嵌套集群用信息层来表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素之内,例如维恩图。这种结构可有效表示简单层次关系。例如,当需要在打开一个电脑桌面的文件时,可能要先让操作者打开主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹,不断打开直到找到指定文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构用堆叠效果表示层次关系。请从视觉上想象一下从左到右下楼楼梯的顶部,子元素位于楼梯底部而父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,尤其当台阶没有位于明显的序列中时。下一台阶必须基于所有台阶都顺序显示后才会出现。在计算机桌面的例子中,只有先打开别的文件才能找到目标文件,因为通向目标文件的链接位于另一个文件内。所有步骤都必须完成才能到达最终目标。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在简单的英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不优于其本身,并且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中一个元素,大师,优于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个需求也被解释为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个需求断言层次结构必须具有所有对象共有的领导者或根。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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====包容层次 Containment hierarchy====<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
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}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13204层次2020-08-23T06:42:09Z<p>Xebec:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
<br />
<br />
层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
<br />
层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
<br />
**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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=={{anchor|hierachy}}Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==层次的视觉呈现 Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论,是一个用三角图表呈现层次结构的离子。<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为金字塔形,其中高度代表层次状态而宽度代表该层的元素多寡。例如,一个公司的几个董事处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下级的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这样的金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔形图表都是层次分明的;例如1992年美国农业部膳食指南金字塔),两种图表都表现了各层次的大小差异。右侧是一个三角形图表的例子。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机的发展使存储和索引更大的数据集成为可能,人们开发出各种方法来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树图。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文档内容的成功布局和格式化在很大程度上依赖于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于正确组织计算机上的文件也很重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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可视化表示层次结构的一个示例是通过嵌套集群。嵌套集群通过使用信息层表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素中,例如在 Venn 图中。这种表示层次结构的结构在表示简单关系时最为有效。例如,当指示某人在计算机桌面上打开一个文件时,可以首先将他们指向主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹。他们会一直打开文件夹中的文件,直到找到指定的文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构通过使用可视化堆叠表示层次关系。从视觉上想象一下下楼梯的顶部,从左边开始,从右边下楼。子元素位于楼梯的底部,父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,因为这些步骤没有放置在明显的序列中。进一步的步骤是隐藏的,除非所有的步骤是按顺序显示。在计算机桌面示例中,只有在打开另一个文件时才能找到正在寻找的文件。所需文件的链接位于另一个文档中。所有步骤都必须完成,直到到达最终目的地。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在简单的英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不优于其本身,并且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中一个元素,大师,优于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个需求也被解释为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个需求断言层次结构必须具有所有对象共有的领导者或根。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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====包容层次 Containment hierarchy====<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
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* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
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** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
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** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
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* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
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''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
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(For example, in )<br />
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(例如,在<br />
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* [[Is-a]]<br />
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** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
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** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
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* [[Has-a]]<br />
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** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
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{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
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* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
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* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
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* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
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** Also includes full copies of:<br />
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** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13203层次2020-08-23T06:28:15Z<p>Xebec:/* 术语历史 History of the term */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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“层次”英语单词的首次使用可能是在1881年的牛津英语词典里,被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯 Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite(5-6世纪)所描述的3个天使的3个位阶。伪狄奥尼修斯使用有关的希腊词汇(ἱεραρχία hierarchia) 来指代天界位阶和教会位阶。希腊语 ἱεραρχία表示大祭司的统治(来自ἱερεύς hiereus, “祭司”及 ἀρχή arche等“最初的地方或力量,统治”所衍生出的 ἱεράρχης hierarches,“神圣仪式的主持,“高阶祭司”)。伪狄奥尼修斯首次将其用作抽象名词概念,自阶层式教堂以来,例如罗马天主教和东正教教堂都有着现代语义上的层次性结构(传统意义上层次结构的顶部或头部表示神),该术语在长期预语境下用于指称类似的结构方式。<br />
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=={{anchor|hierachy}}Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论。这是一个用三角形图表可视化的层次结构的例子。]<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为一个金字塔,其中一个层次的高度代表该层次的状态,而一个层次的宽度代表该层次相对于整体的物品数量。例如,一个公司的少数几个董事可能处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下属的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这些金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(但请注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔图表都是层次分明的; 例如,1992年美国农业部食品指南金字塔) ,这两种图表都强调了各层次之间的大小差异。一个三角形图表的例子出现在右边。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机允许存储和导航越来越大的数据集,各种方法被开发出来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕上的可用空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文档内容的成功布局和格式化在很大程度上依赖于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于正确组织计算机上的文件也很重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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可视化表示层次结构的一个示例是通过嵌套集群。嵌套集群通过使用信息层表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素中,例如在 Venn 图中。这种表示层次结构的结构在表示简单关系时最为有效。例如,当指示某人在计算机桌面上打开一个文件时,可以首先将他们指向主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹。他们会一直打开文件夹中的文件,直到找到指定的文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构通过使用可视化堆叠表示层次关系。从视觉上想象一下下楼梯的顶部,从左边开始,从右边下楼。子元素位于楼梯的底部,父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,因为这些步骤没有放置在明显的序列中。进一步的步骤是隐藏的,除非所有的步骤是按顺序显示。在计算机桌面示例中,只有在打开另一个文件时才能找到正在寻找的文件。所需文件的链接位于另一个文档中。所有步骤都必须完成,直到到达最终目的地。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在简单的英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不优于其本身,并且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中一个元素,大师,优于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个需求也被解释为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个需求断言层次结构必须具有所有对象共有的领导者或根。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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====包容层次 Containment hierarchy====<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
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* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
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** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
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* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
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* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
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** Also includes full copies of:<br />
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** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13202层次2020-08-23T06:06:13Z<p>Xebec:/* 支化度 Degree of branching */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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支化度是指对象所有直接下级或子项的数量(在图论中,即有向图通过外向弧所连接的顶点数)。层次可按其“最大度”分类,系统中支化度的最高值表示系统整体,这种分类方式分化出两个分野:线性和支化。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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线性层次结构的最大度是1。即所有对象都可呈现在一个列表中,每个对象(顶部和底部的除外)只有一个直接下级和一个直接上级。注意,这里说的是对象而不是级别;就级别而言每个层次结构都有这种属性,但每个级别通常可以有无限个对象。生命层次结构就是线性层次的一个例子。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在分支层次结构中,至少有一个对象的支化度在2或以上(即支化度下限是2或更高)。对许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了支化层次结构的印象。支化层次存在于很多系统中,包括组织、分类法。广义上的分支层次可据其分支度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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扁平层次是指最大度接近无穷的支化层次结构,例如跨度很大的层次结构。分层系统一般最多只有中等的跨度,故扁平层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,而这些碳原子可进一步分解为亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构是指其中至少有一个对象具有两个父级对象的分支层次结构。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可同等地直接向他们汇报,且二人在大学层级制度中具有同等的权力水平(例如他们都拥有相同的职位或任期)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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牛津英语词典引用的英语单词“等级”的第一次使用可能是在1881年,当时它被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯(5-6世纪)所描述的3个3级天使。伪狄奥尼修斯使用了相关的希腊词汇(something hierarchy)来指代天界等级和教会等级。希腊语“ something”的意思是“大祭司的统治”(来自于 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0057%3aentry%3di%28era%2frxhs ,意思是“大祭司的神圣仪式的主席”),<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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亨利·乔治·李道尔,Robert Scott,希腊语-英语词典,关于珀尔修斯数字图书馆 </ref > 和那从 something 希雷斯,“牧师”和 something arche,其中包括“第一位置或权力,规则”) ,和 Dionysius 被记入第一次使用它作为抽象名词。由于等级制教会,如罗马天主教(见天主教会圣统制)和东正教教堂,有组织表是“等级”的现代意义上的话(传统上上帝作为顶峰或领导的等级) ,这个术语来指类似的组织方法在世俗的设置。<br />
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=={{anchor|hierachy}}Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论。这是一个用三角形图表可视化的层次结构的例子。]<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为一个金字塔,其中一个层次的高度代表该层次的状态,而一个层次的宽度代表该层次相对于整体的物品数量。例如,一个公司的少数几个董事可能处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下属的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这些金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(但请注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔图表都是层次分明的; 例如,1992年美国农业部食品指南金字塔) ,这两种图表都强调了各层次之间的大小差异。一个三角形图表的例子出现在右边。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机允许存储和导航越来越大的数据集,各种方法被开发出来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕上的可用空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文档内容的成功布局和格式化在很大程度上依赖于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于正确组织计算机上的文件也很重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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可视化表示层次结构的一个示例是通过嵌套集群。嵌套集群通过使用信息层表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素中,例如在 Venn 图中。这种表示层次结构的结构在表示简单关系时最为有效。例如,当指示某人在计算机桌面上打开一个文件时,可以首先将他们指向主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹。他们会一直打开文件夹中的文件,直到找到指定的文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构通过使用可视化堆叠表示层次关系。从视觉上想象一下下楼梯的顶部,从左边开始,从右边下楼。子元素位于楼梯的底部,父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,因为这些步骤没有放置在明显的序列中。进一步的步骤是隐藏的,除非所有的步骤是按顺序显示。在计算机桌面示例中,只有在打开另一个文件时才能找到正在寻找的文件。所需文件的链接位于另一个文档中。所有步骤都必须完成,直到到达最终目的地。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在简单的英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不优于其本身,并且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中一个元素,大师,优于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个需求也被解释为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个需求断言层次结构必须具有所有对象共有的领导者或根。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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====包容层次 Containment hierarchy====<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
<br />
* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
<br />
** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
<br />
** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
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{{col-begin}}<br />
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{{col-3}}<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
<br />
** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
<br />
* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
<br />
** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
<br />
* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
<br />
** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
<br />
*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
<br />
** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
<br />
* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
<br />
** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
<br />
** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
<br />
** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
<br />
* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
<br />
** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
<br />
** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
<br />
<br />
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{{col-3}}<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
<br />
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
<br />
** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
<br />
**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
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{{col-3}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13200层次2020-08-23T05:14:13Z<p>Xebec:/* 名称 Nomenclature */</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,这些术语在层次图解(见下)中较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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分支度是指一个对象有多少个直接的下级或子级(在图论中,相当于一个有向图中通过外向弧连接的其他顶点的数量)。层次结构可以根据“最大程度”进行分类,这是整个系统中存在的最高程度。以这种方式进行分类可以得到两大类: 线性和分支。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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在一个线性层次结构中,按 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 > ,最大程度是1。换句话说,所有的对象都可以在一个列表中可视化,每个对象(不包括顶部和底部的对象)只有一个直接下属和一个直接上级。注意,这指的是对象而不是级别; 每个层次结构对于级别都有这个属性,但通常每个级别可以有无限个对象。线性等级的一个例子是生命的等级。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在一个分支层次结构中,按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 > ,一个或多个对象具有2或更高的度(因此最小度为2或更高)。对于许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了分支层次结构的想象。分支层次结构存在于许多系统中,包括组织和分类方案。分支层次的广义范畴可以根据程度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体的扁平层次结构 < ! ! -- 是一个分支层次结构,其中最大度接近无穷大,也就是说,它的跨度很大。最常见的情况是,直观上被认为是分层的系统最多只有一个中等的跨度。因此,平面层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如,钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,这些碳原子可以进一步分解成亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构 < ! -- 按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 -- > 是一个分支层次结构,其中至少有一个对象具有两个父对象。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可以直接和平等地向他们汇报工作,而且他们在大学等级制度中的权力水平相同(即,他们拥有相同的职位或终身职位)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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牛津英语词典引用的英语单词“等级”的第一次使用可能是在1881年,当时它被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯(5-6世纪)所描述的3个3级天使。伪狄奥尼修斯使用了相关的希腊词汇(something hierarchy)来指代天界等级和教会等级。希腊语“ something”的意思是“大祭司的统治”(来自于 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0057%3aentry%3di%28era%2frxhs ,意思是“大祭司的神圣仪式的主席”),<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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亨利·乔治·李道尔,Robert Scott,希腊语-英语词典,关于珀尔修斯数字图书馆 </ref > 和那从 something 希雷斯,“牧师”和 something arche,其中包括“第一位置或权力,规则”) ,和 Dionysius 被记入第一次使用它作为抽象名词。由于等级制教会,如罗马天主教(见天主教会圣统制)和东正教教堂,有组织表是“等级”的现代意义上的话(传统上上帝作为顶峰或领导的等级) ,这个术语来指类似的组织方法在世俗的设置。<br />
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=={{anchor|hierachy}}Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论。这是一个用三角形图表可视化的层次结构的例子。]<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为一个金字塔,其中一个层次的高度代表该层次的状态,而一个层次的宽度代表该层次相对于整体的物品数量。例如,一个公司的少数几个董事可能处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下属的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这些金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(但请注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔图表都是层次分明的; 例如,1992年美国农业部食品指南金字塔) ,这两种图表都强调了各层次之间的大小差异。一个三角形图表的例子出现在右边。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机允许存储和导航越来越大的数据集,各种方法被开发出来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕上的可用空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文档内容的成功布局和格式化在很大程度上依赖于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于正确组织计算机上的文件也很重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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可视化表示层次结构的一个示例是通过嵌套集群。嵌套集群通过使用信息层表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素中,例如在 Venn 图中。这种表示层次结构的结构在表示简单关系时最为有效。例如,当指示某人在计算机桌面上打开一个文件时,可以首先将他们指向主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹。他们会一直打开文件夹中的文件,直到找到指定的文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构通过使用可视化堆叠表示层次关系。从视觉上想象一下下楼梯的顶部,从左边开始,从右边下楼。子元素位于楼梯的底部,父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,因为这些步骤没有放置在明显的序列中。进一步的步骤是隐藏的,除非所有的步骤是按顺序显示。在计算机桌面示例中,只有在打开另一个文件时才能找到正在寻找的文件。所需文件的链接位于另一个文档中。所有步骤都必须完成,直到到达最终目的地。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在简单的英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不优于其本身,并且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中一个元素,大师,优于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个需求也被解释为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个需求断言层次结构必须具有所有对象共有的领导者或根。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多的信息,请访问我的网站<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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如果你想知道更多的信息,请访问我们的网站<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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====包容层次 Containment hierarchy====<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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如果你想知道更多,请点击这里查看更多<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
<br />
** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
<br />
**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
<br />
* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
<br />
** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
<br />
** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
<br />
* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
<br />
<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
<br />
* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
<br />
* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
<br />
* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{col-3}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
<br />
* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
<br />
* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
<br />
** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
<br />
** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
<br />
** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
<br />
** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
<br />
** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
<br />
* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
<br />
** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
<br />
* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
<br />
* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Angels 天使<br />
<br />
** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|<br />
<br />
{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
<br />
* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
<br />
分类: 模式<br />
<br />
[[Category:Structure]]<br />
<br />
Category:Structure<br />
<br />
类别: 结构<br />
<br />
[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
<br />
Category:Political culture<br />
<br />
类别: 政治文化<br />
<br />
<noinclude><br />
<br />
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
<br />
[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13199层次2020-08-23T05:13:31Z<p>Xebec:</p>
<hr />
<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。大体上呈层次结构的系统尽管也可对替代层次作合并,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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层次有其特殊词汇,在层次图解(见下)中这些术语较易理解。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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分支度是指一个对象有多少个直接的下级或子级(在图论中,相当于一个有向图中通过外向弧连接的其他顶点的数量)。层次结构可以根据“最大程度”进行分类,这是整个系统中存在的最高程度。以这种方式进行分类可以得到两大类: 线性和分支。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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在一个线性层次结构中,按 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 > ,最大程度是1。换句话说,所有的对象都可以在一个列表中可视化,每个对象(不包括顶部和底部的对象)只有一个直接下属和一个直接上级。注意,这指的是对象而不是级别; 每个层次结构对于级别都有这个属性,但通常每个级别可以有无限个对象。线性等级的一个例子是生命的等级。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在一个分支层次结构中,按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 > ,一个或多个对象具有2或更高的度(因此最小度为2或更高)。对于许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了分支层次结构的想象。分支层次结构存在于许多系统中,包括组织和分类方案。分支层次的广义范畴可以根据程度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体的扁平层次结构 < ! ! -- 是一个分支层次结构,其中最大度接近无穷大,也就是说,它的跨度很大。最常见的情况是,直观上被认为是分层的系统最多只有一个中等的跨度。因此,平面层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如,钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,这些碳原子可以进一步分解成亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构 < ! -- 按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 -- > 是一个分支层次结构,其中至少有一个对象具有两个父对象。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可以直接和平等地向他们汇报工作,而且他们在大学等级制度中的权力水平相同(即,他们拥有相同的职位或终身职位)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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牛津英语词典引用的英语单词“等级”的第一次使用可能是在1881年,当时它被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯(5-6世纪)所描述的3个3级天使。伪狄奥尼修斯使用了相关的希腊词汇(something hierarchy)来指代天界等级和教会等级。希腊语“ something”的意思是“大祭司的统治”(来自于 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0057%3aentry%3di%28era%2frxhs ,意思是“大祭司的神圣仪式的主席”),<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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亨利·乔治·李道尔,Robert Scott,希腊语-英语词典,关于珀尔修斯数字图书馆 </ref > 和那从 something 希雷斯,“牧师”和 something arche,其中包括“第一位置或权力,规则”) ,和 Dionysius 被记入第一次使用它作为抽象名词。由于等级制教会,如罗马天主教(见天主教会圣统制)和东正教教堂,有组织表是“等级”的现代意义上的话(传统上上帝作为顶峰或领导的等级) ,这个术语来指类似的组织方法在世俗的设置。<br />
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=={{anchor|hierachy}}Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论。这是一个用三角形图表可视化的层次结构的例子。]<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为一个金字塔,其中一个层次的高度代表该层次的状态,而一个层次的宽度代表该层次相对于整体的物品数量。例如,一个公司的少数几个董事可能处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下属的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这些金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(但请注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔图表都是层次分明的; 例如,1992年美国农业部食品指南金字塔) ,这两种图表都强调了各层次之间的大小差异。一个三角形图表的例子出现在右边。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机允许存储和导航越来越大的数据集,各种方法被开发出来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕上的可用空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文档内容的成功布局和格式化在很大程度上依赖于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于正确组织计算机上的文件也很重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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可视化表示层次结构的一个示例是通过嵌套集群。嵌套集群通过使用信息层表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素中,例如在 Venn 图中。这种表示层次结构的结构在表示简单关系时最为有效。例如,当指示某人在计算机桌面上打开一个文件时,可以首先将他们指向主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹。他们会一直打开文件夹中的文件,直到找到指定的文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构通过使用可视化堆叠表示层次关系。从视觉上想象一下下楼梯的顶部,从左边开始,从右边下楼。子元素位于楼梯的底部,父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,因为这些步骤没有放置在明显的序列中。进一步的步骤是隐藏的,除非所有的步骤是按顺序显示。在计算机桌面示例中,只有在打开另一个文件时才能找到正在寻找的文件。所需文件的链接位于另一个文档中。所有步骤都必须完成,直到到达最终目的地。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在简单的英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不优于其本身,并且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中一个元素,大师,优于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个需求也被解释为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个需求断言层次结构必须具有所有对象共有的领导者或根。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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====包容层次 Containment hierarchy====<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
<br />
= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
<br />
* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
<br />
* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
<br />
** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
<br />
** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
<br />
** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
<br />
** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
<br />
*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
<br />
* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
<br />
** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
<br />
* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
<br />
* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
<br />
* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
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}}<br />
<br />
==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
<br />
= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
<br />
* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
<br />
* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
<br />
* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
<br />
* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
<br />
* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
<br />
* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
<br />
* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
<br />
** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
<br />
** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
<br />
* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
<br />
* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
<br />
* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
<br />
''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
<br />
(For example, in )<br />
<br />
(例如,在<br />
<br />
* [[Is-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
<br />
** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
<br />
* [[Has-a]]<br />
<br />
** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
<br />
** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
<br />
* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
<br />
* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
<br />
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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<br />
<br />
[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
<br />
Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13187层次2020-08-22T14:35:31Z<p>Xebec:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
<br />
A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
<br />
“层次 hierarchy”从古希腊语 ἱεραρχία hierarkhia“大祭司的统治”和hierarkhes“神圣仪式的主持”而来,表示相互之间“之上”“之下”或“同级”关系。在哲学、数学、计算机科学、系统论和社会科学(尤其是政治哲学)中,层次都是很重要的概念。<br />
<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
<br />
A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
<br />
<br />
层次结构可直接或间接地、竖向或对角地连接实体。尽管一个大体上是层次结构的系统也可合并替代层次,层次结构中唯一的直接关系就是其直接上级或直接下级关系。层次联系可通过同向的多个联系汇成的路径向上或向下发展。层次结构中所有没有垂直相连的部分都可以通过水平路径(向上找到共同直接或间接上级再向下)相连。就像两个同事、同僚向共同上级汇报,但他们各自都有同等的相对权限。组织形式的存在对层次既是替代也是补充。异质结构也是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
<br />
Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
<br />
层次有其特殊词汇,在层次图解(见下)中这些术语较易理解。<br />
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<br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
<br />
In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织性的语境下,以下术语经常用于层次性:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
<br />
**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
<br />
**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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<br />
In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
<br />
In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学语境下(图论)所用的一般术语则不同。<br />
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<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
<br />
Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构按其主体不同而适用更具体的词汇,但其背后的理念是相同的。例如,在数据结构中,对象成为节点,上级称为父级,下级成为子级。在商业环境中,上级是主管/老板,同级即同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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分支度是指一个对象有多少个直接的下级或子级(在图论中,相当于一个有向图中通过外向弧连接的其他顶点的数量)。层次结构可以根据“最大程度”进行分类,这是整个系统中存在的最高程度。以这种方式进行分类可以得到两大类: 线性和分支。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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在一个线性层次结构中,按 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 > ,最大程度是1。换句话说,所有的对象都可以在一个列表中可视化,每个对象(不包括顶部和底部的对象)只有一个直接下属和一个直接上级。注意,这指的是对象而不是级别; 每个层次结构对于级别都有这个属性,但通常每个级别可以有无限个对象。线性等级的一个例子是生命的等级。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在一个分支层次结构中,按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 > ,一个或多个对象具有2或更高的度(因此最小度为2或更高)。对于许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了分支层次结构的想象。分支层次结构存在于许多系统中,包括组织和分类方案。分支层次的广义范畴可以根据程度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体的扁平层次结构 < ! ! -- 是一个分支层次结构,其中最大度接近无穷大,也就是说,它的跨度很大。最常见的情况是,直观上被认为是分层的系统最多只有一个中等的跨度。因此,平面层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如,钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,这些碳原子可以进一步分解成亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构 < ! -- 按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 -- > 是一个分支层次结构,其中至少有一个对象具有两个父对象。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可以直接和平等地向他们汇报工作,而且他们在大学等级制度中的权力水平相同(即,他们拥有相同的职位或终身职位)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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牛津英语词典引用的英语单词“等级”的第一次使用可能是在1881年,当时它被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯(5-6世纪)所描述的3个3级天使。伪狄奥尼修斯使用了相关的希腊词汇(something hierarchy)来指代天界等级和教会等级。希腊语“ something”的意思是“大祭司的统治”(来自于 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0057%3aentry%3di%28era%2frxhs ,意思是“大祭司的神圣仪式的主席”),<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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亨利·乔治·李道尔,Robert Scott,希腊语-英语词典,关于珀尔修斯数字图书馆 </ref > 和那从 something 希雷斯,“牧师”和 something arche,其中包括“第一位置或权力,规则”) ,和 Dionysius 被记入第一次使用它作为抽象名词。由于等级制教会,如罗马天主教(见天主教会圣统制)和东正教教堂,有组织表是“等级”的现代意义上的话(传统上上帝作为顶峰或领导的等级) ,这个术语来指类似的组织方法在世俗的设置。<br />
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=={{anchor|hierachy}}Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论。这是一个用三角形图表可视化的层次结构的例子。]<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为一个金字塔,其中一个层次的高度代表该层次的状态,而一个层次的宽度代表该层次相对于整体的物品数量。例如,一个公司的少数几个董事可能处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下属的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这些金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(但请注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔图表都是层次分明的; 例如,1992年美国农业部食品指南金字塔) ,这两种图表都强调了各层次之间的大小差异。一个三角形图表的例子出现在右边。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机允许存储和导航越来越大的数据集,各种方法被开发出来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕上的可用空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文档内容的成功布局和格式化在很大程度上依赖于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于正确组织计算机上的文件也很重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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可视化表示层次结构的一个示例是通过嵌套集群。嵌套集群通过使用信息层表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素中,例如在 Venn 图中。这种表示层次结构的结构在表示简单关系时最为有效。例如,当指示某人在计算机桌面上打开一个文件时,可以首先将他们指向主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹。他们会一直打开文件夹中的文件,直到找到指定的文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构通过使用可视化堆叠表示层次关系。从视觉上想象一下下楼梯的顶部,从左边开始,从右边下楼。子元素位于楼梯的底部,父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,因为这些步骤没有放置在明显的序列中。进一步的步骤是隐藏的,除非所有的步骤是按顺序显示。在计算机桌面示例中,只有在打开另一个文件时才能找到正在寻找的文件。所需文件的链接位于另一个文档中。所有步骤都必须完成,直到到达最终目的地。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在简单的英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不优于其本身,并且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中一个元素,大师,优于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个需求也被解释为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个需求断言层次结构必须具有所有对象共有的领导者或根。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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= = = 嵌套层次结构 = = = = < ! -- 如果您更改此标题,请更改链接到该标题的文章中的 wiki 链接! -- > <br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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====包容层次 Containment hierarchy====<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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{ columns-list | colwidth = 22em | <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
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* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
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** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
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** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
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* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
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''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
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(For example, in )<br />
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(例如,在<br />
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* [[Is-a]]<br />
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** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
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** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
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* [[Has-a]]<br />
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** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
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{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
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* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
<br />
* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
<br />
** Also includes full copies of:<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
<br />
** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B1%82%E6%AC%A1&diff=13158层次2020-08-22T05:40:13Z<p>Xebec:</p>
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<div>此词条暂由彩云小译翻译,未经人工整理和审校,带来阅读不便,请见谅。<br />
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{{Redirect|Subordinate|other uses|Subordination (disambiguation){{!}}Subordination}}<br />
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{{short description|System of elements that are subordinated to each other}}<br />
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A '''hierarchy''' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ἱεραρχία ''hierarkhia'', "rule of a high priest", from ''[[ordinary (officer)|hierarkhes]]'', "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]], [[computer science]], [[organizational theory]], [[systems theory]], and the [[social sciences]] (especially [[political philosophy]]).<br />
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A hierarchy (from the Greek ἱεραρχία hierarkhia, "rule of a high priest", from hierarkhes, "president of sacred rites") is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an important concept in a wide variety of fields, such as philosophy, mathematics, computer science, organizational theory, systems theory, and the social sciences (especially political philosophy).<br />
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层级(来自希腊的大祭司的统治,来自大祭司的统治,来自于大祭司的统治,来自于神圣仪式的总统)是一种项目的安排(对象,名字,价值观,类别等等)其中项目表示为“上面”、“下面”或“与其他项目处于同一水平”。等级是一个重要的概念,在各种各样的领域,如哲学,数学,计算机科学,组织行为学,系统理论,和社会科学(特别是政治哲学)。<br />
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层级(来自希腊的大祭司的统治,来自大祭司的统治,来自于大祭司的统治,来自于神圣仪式的总统)是一种项目的安排(对象,名字,价值观,类别等等)其中项目表示为“上面”、“下面”或“与其他项目处于同一水平”。等级是一个重要的概念,在各种各样的领域,如哲学,数学,计算机科学,组织行为学,系统理论,和社会科学(特别是政治哲学)。<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a [[path (graph theory)|path]]. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two [[co-worker]]s or [[Comrade|colleague]]s; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. [[Heterarchy]] is one such form.<br />
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A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally. The only direct links in a hierarchy, insofar as they are hierarchical, are to one's immediate superior or to one of one's subordinates, although a system that is largely hierarchical can also incorporate alternative hierarchies. Hierarchical links can extend "vertically" upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. All parts of the hierarchy that are not linked vertically to one another nevertheless can be "horizontally" linked through a path by traveling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues; each reports to a common superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are both alternative and complementary to hierarchy. Heterarchy is one such form.<br />
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层次结构可以直接或间接地连接实体,也可以垂直或对角地连接。层次结构中唯一的直接联系,只要它们是等级的,就是与一个人的直接上级或者与一个人的下级的直接联系,尽管一个主要是等级结构的系统也可以包含替代的等级结构。层次链接可以延伸“垂直”向上或向下通过多个链接在同一方向,遵循一个路径。层次结构中没有垂直相连的所有部分都可以通过一条路径“水平”相连,即沿着层次结构向上走,找到一个共同的直接或间接的上级,然后再向下。这类似于两个同事或同事; 每个人向一个共同的上级汇报,但他们拥有相同的相对权限。组织形式的存在是层次结构的替代和补充。异质结构就是这样一种形式。<br />
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层次结构可以直接或间接地连接实体,也可以垂直或对角地连接。层次结构中唯一的直接联系,只要它们是等级的,就是与一个人的直接上级或者与一个人的下级的直接联系,尽管一个主要是等级结构的系统也可以包含替代的等级结构。层次链接可以延伸“垂直”向上或向下通过多个链接在同一方向,遵循一个路径。层次结构中没有垂直相连的所有部分都可以通过一条路径“水平”相连,即沿着层次结构向上走,找到一个共同的直接或间接的上级,然后再向下。这类似于两个同事或同事; 每个人向一个共同的上级汇报,但他们拥有相同的相对权限。组织形式的存在是层次结构的替代和补充。异质结构就是这样一种形式。<br />
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==名称 Nomenclature==<br />
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{{see also| Glossary of graph theory| Taxonomy (general)| Structure}}<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see [[#Visualization|below]]).<br />
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Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. These terms are easiest to understand when a hierarchy is diagrammed (see below).<br />
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等级制度有它们自己特殊的词汇。当层次结构用图表表示时,这些术语最容易理解(见下)。<br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="Architecture"/><br />
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In an organizational context, the following terms are often used related to hierarchies:<br />
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在组织环境中,以下术语经常与层次结构相关:<br />
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* '''[[Non-physical entity|Object]]''': one entity (e.g., a person, department or [[concept]] or element of arrangement or member of a set)<br />
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* '''[[System]]''': the entire set of objects that are being arranged hierarchically (e.g., an administration)<br />
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* '''[[Dimension]]''': another word for "system" from on-line analytical processing (e.g. cubes)<br />
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* '''[[Element (mathematics)|Member]]''': an (element or object) at any (level or rank) in a (class-system, taxonomy or dimension)<br />
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*'''Terms about Positioning'''<br />
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**'''[[Ranking|Rank]]''': the relative [[value (ethics)|value]], worth, [[complexity]], [[Power (philosophy)|power]], importance, [[authority]], level etc. of an object<br />
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**'''[[wikt:level#Noun|Level]] or Tier''': a set of objects with the same rank OR importance<br />
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**'''[[Order of precedence|Ordering]]''': the arrangement of the (ranks or levels)<br />
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**'''Hierarchy''': the arrangement of a particular set of members into (ranks or levels). Multiple hierarchies are possible per (dimension taxonomy or Classification-system), in which selected levels of the dimension are omitted to flatten the structure<br />
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*'''Terms about Placement'''<br />
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**'''[[wikt:hierarch|Hierarch]]''', the apex of the hierarchy, consisting of one single orphan (object or member) in the top level of a dimension. The root of an inverted-tree structure<br />
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**'''[[wikt:member|Member]]''', a (member or node) in any level of a hierarchy in a dimension to which (superior and subordinate) members are attached <br />
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**'''[[wikt:orphan|Orphan]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without a parent member. Often the apex of a disconnected branch. Orphans can be grafted back into the hierarchy by creating a relationship (interaction) with a parent in the immediately superior level<br />
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**'''[[wikt:leaf|Leaf]]''', a member in any level of a dimension without subordinates in the hierarchy<br />
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**'''[[wikt:neighbour|Neighbour]]''': a member adjacent to another member in the same (level or rank). Always a peer.<br />
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**'''[[Superior (hierarchy)|Superior]]''': a higher level or an object ranked at a higher level (A parent or an ancestor)<br />
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**'''[[wikt:subordinate|Subordinate]]''': a lower level or an object ranked at a lower level (A child or a descendant)<br />
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** '''[[Family of sets|Collection]]''': all of the objects at one level (i.e. Peers)<br />
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** '''[[wikt:peer|Peer]]''': an object with the same rank (and therefore at the same level)<br />
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** '''[[Interpersonal relationship|Interaction]]''': the relationship between an object and its direct superior or subordinate (i.e. a superior/inferior pair)<br />
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*** a '''direct''' interaction occurs when one object is on a level exactly one higher or one lower than the other (i.e., on a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]], the two objects have a line between them)<br />
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** '''[[Distance (graph theory)|Distance]]''': the minimum number of connections between two objects, i.e., one less than the number of objects that need to be "crossed" to trace a [[path (graph theory)|path]] from one object to another<br />
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** '''[[wikt:Span|Span]]''': a [[qualitative data|qualitative]] description of the width of a level when diagrammed, i.e., the number of subordinates an object has<br />
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*'''Terms about Nature'''<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute|Attribute]]''': a heritable characteristic of (members and their subordinates) in a level (e.g. ''hair-colour'')<br />
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** '''[[wikt:attribute-value|Attribute-value]]''': the specific value of a heritable characteristic (e.g. ''Auburn'')<br />
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In a mathematical context (in [[graph theory]]), the [[Glossary of graph theory|general terminology]] used is different.<br />
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In a mathematical context (in graph theory), the general terminology used is different.<br />
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在数学上下文中(在图论中) ,使用的一般术语是不同的。<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with [[data structure]]s, objects are known as [[node (computer science)|nodes]], superiors are called [[parent node|parents]] and subordinates are called [[child node|children]]. In a business setting, a superior is a [[supervisor|supervisor/boss]] and a peer is a [[Comrade|colleague]].<br />
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Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, but the idea behind them is the same. For example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague.<br />
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大多数层次结构使用更具体的与其主题相关的词汇表,但其背后的思想是相同的。例如,对于数据结构,对象称为节点,上级称为父级,下级称为子级。在商业环境中,上司是主管/老板,同事是同事。<br />
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===支化度 Degree of branching <span id="Terminology"></span>===<br />
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[[Degree (graph theory)|Degree]] of [[Bifurcation theory|branching]] refers to the number of direct [[#Terminology|subordinates]] or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: ''linear'' and ''branching''.<br />
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Degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has (in graph theory, equivalent to the number of other vertices connected to via outgoing arcs, in a directed graph) a node has. Hierarchies can be categorized based on the "maximum degree", the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes: linear and branching.<br />
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分支度是指一个对象有多少个直接的下级或子级(在图论中,相当于一个有向图中通过外向弧连接的其他顶点的数量)。层次结构可以根据“最大程度”进行分类,这是整个系统中存在的最高程度。以这种方式进行分类可以得到两大类: 线性和分支。<br />
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In a '''linear hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1.<ref name="Dawkins"/> In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the ''objects'' and not the ''levels''; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the [[hierarchy of life]].<br />
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In a linear hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a line-up, and each object (excluding the top and bottom ones) has exactly one direct subordinate and one direct superior. Note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels; every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a linear hierarchy is the hierarchy of life.<br />
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在一个线性层次结构中,按 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 > ,最大程度是1。换句话说,所有的对象都可以在一个列表中可视化,每个对象(不包括顶部和底部的对象)只有一个直接下属和一个直接上级。注意,这指的是对象而不是级别; 每个层次结构对于级别都有这个属性,但通常每个级别可以有无限个对象。线性等级的一个例子是生命的等级。<br />
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In a '''branching hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher).<ref name="Dawkins"/> For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy.<ref name="Dawkins"/> Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including [[organization]]s and [[classification scheme]]s. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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In a branching hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold-->, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more (and therefore the minimum degree is 2 or higher). For many people, the word "hierarchy" automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes. The broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree.<br />
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在一个分支层次结构中,按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 > ,一个或多个对象具有2或更高的度(因此最小度为2或更高)。对于许多人来说,“层次”这个词自动唤起了分支层次结构的想象。分支层次结构存在于许多系统中,包括组织和分类方案。分支层次的广义范畴可以根据程度进一步细分。<br />
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A '''flat hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span.<ref name="Architecture">{{cite journal|last=Simon|first=Herbert A.|title=The Architecture of Complexity|journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]]|volume=106|issue=6|date=12 December 1962|pages=467–482|publisher=[[American Philosophical Society]]|issn=0003-049X|location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |jstor=985254 |citeseerx=10.1.1.110.961}}{{registration required}}</ref> Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, [[diamond]]s and [[graphite]] are flat hierarchies of numerous [[carbon]] atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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A flat hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity, i.e., that has a wide span. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span. Therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms that can be further decomposed into subatomic particles.<br />
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按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体的扁平层次结构 < ! ! -- 是一个分支层次结构,其中最大度接近无穷大,也就是说,它的跨度很大。最常见的情况是,直观上被认为是分层的系统最多只有一个中等的跨度。因此,平面层次结构通常根本不被视为层次结构。例如,钻石和石墨是由许多碳原子组成的扁平层次结构,这些碳原子可以进一步分解成亚原子粒子。<br />
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An '''overlapping hierarchy'''<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects.<ref name="Dawkins"/> For example, a [[graduate student]] can have two [[research supervisor|co-supervisors]] to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the [[university]] hierarchy (i.e., they have the same [[list of academic ranks|position]] or [[tenure]] status).<br />
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An overlapping hierarchy<!--per WP:R#PLA, this SHOULD be bold--> is a branching hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. For example, a graduate student can have two co-supervisors to whom the student reports directly and equally, and who have the same level of authority within the university hierarchy (i.e., they have the same position or tenure status).<br />
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重叠的层次结构 < ! -- 按照 wp: r # pla,这应该是粗体 -- > 是一个分支层次结构,其中至少有一个对象具有两个父对象。例如,一个研究生可以有两个联合主管,学生可以直接和平等地向他们汇报工作,而且他们在大学等级制度中的权力水平相同(即,他们拥有相同的职位或终身职位)。<br />
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==术语历史 History of the term==<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]] (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word (ἱεραρχία ''hierarchia'') both in reference to the [[De Coelesti Hierarchia|celestial hierarchy]] and the [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Hierarchy<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest"<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy "hierarchy"]. [[Online Etymology Dictionary]].</ref> (from ἱεράρχης ''hierarches'', meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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Possibly the first use of the English word "hierarchy" cited by the Oxford English Dictionary was in 1881, when it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (5th–6th centuries). Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word (ἱεραρχία hierarchia) both in reference to the celestial hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The Greek term ἱεραρχία means "rule of a high priest" (from ἱεράρχης hierarches, meaning "president of sacred rites, high-priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28era%2Frxhs ἱεράρχης],<br />
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牛津英语词典引用的英语单词“等级”的第一次使用可能是在1881年,当时它被用来指伪狄奥尼修斯(5-6世纪)所描述的3个3级天使。伪狄奥尼修斯使用了相关的希腊词汇(something hierarchy)来指代天界等级和教会等级。希腊语“ something”的意思是“大祭司的统治”(来自于 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0057%3aentry%3di%28era%2frxhs ,意思是“大祭司的神圣仪式的主席”),<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς ''hiereus'', "priest"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Di%28ereu%2Fs ἱερεύς], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and ἀρχή ''arche'', amongst others "first place or power, rule"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29rxh%2F ἀρχή], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (see [[Catholic Church hierarchy]]) and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God in Christianity|God]] as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in [[secular]] settings.<br />
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Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from ἱερεύς hiereus, "priest" and ἀρχή arche, amongst others "first place or power, rule"), and Dionysius is credited with first use of it as an abstract noun. Since hierarchical churches, such as the Roman Catholic (see Catholic Church hierarchy) and Eastern Orthodox churches, had tables of organization that were "hierarchical" in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with God as the pinnacle or head of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in secular settings.<br />
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亨利·乔治·李道尔,Robert Scott,希腊语-英语词典,关于珀尔修斯数字图书馆 </ref > 和那从 something 希雷斯,“牧师”和 something arche,其中包括“第一位置或权力,规则”) ,和 Dionysius 被记入第一次使用它作为抽象名词。由于等级制教会,如罗马天主教(见天主教会圣统制)和东正教教堂,有组织表是“等级”的现代意义上的话(传统上上帝作为顶峰或领导的等级) ,这个术语来指类似的组织方法在世俗的设置。<br />
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=={{anchor|hierachy}}Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Visually representing hierarchies==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = = 视觉表现层次结构 = = = < ! -- 如果你更改这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. This is an example of a hierarchy visualized with a triangle diagram.]]<br />
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马斯洛的人类需求层次理论。这是一个用三角形图表可视化的层次结构的例子。]<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]], where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole.<ref>{{cite book | title=Regions of War and Peace | publisher=University of Cambridge | author=Douglas Lemke | year=2002 | location=Cambridge | pages=49}}</ref> For example, the few [[Board of Directors|Directors]] of a company could be at the [[apex (geometry)|apex]], and the [[Base (geometry)|base]] could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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A hierarchy is typically depicted as a pyramid, where the height of a level represents that level's status and width of a level represents the quantity of items at that level relative to the whole. For example, the few Directors of a company could be at the apex, and the base could be thousands of people who have no subordinates.<br />
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层次结构通常被描述为一个金字塔,其中一个层次的高度代表该层次的状态,而一个层次的宽度代表该层次相对于整体的物品数量。例如,一个公司的少数几个董事可能处于顶峰,而基层可能是成千上万没有下属的人。<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a [[tree structure|tree]] or [[triangle]] [[diagram]] (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 [[History of USDA nutrition guides#Food Guide Pyramid|USDA food guide pyramid]]), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An [[organizational chart]] is the diagram of a hierarchy within an [[organization]], and is depicted in tree form in {{section link|#Organizations}}, below.<br />
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These pyramids are typically diagrammed with a tree or triangle diagram (but note that not all triangle/pyramid diagrams are hierarchical; for example, the 1992 USDA food guide pyramid), both of which serve to emphasize the size differences between the levels. An example of a triangle diagram appears to the right. An organizational chart is the diagram of a hierarchy within an organization, and is depicted in tree form in , below.<br />
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这些金字塔通常用树形或三角形图表绘制(但请注意,并非所有的三角形/金字塔图表都是层次分明的; 例如,1992年美国农业部食品指南金字塔) ,这两种图表都强调了各层次之间的大小差异。一个三角形图表的例子出现在右边。组织结构图是组织内部层次结构的图表,在下面的树形图中有所描述。<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include [[fractal]] maps, [[treemapping|TreeMaps]] and [[Radial tree|Radial Trees]].<br />
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More recently, as computers have allowed the storage and navigation of ever larger data sets, various methods have been developed to represent hierarchies in a manner that makes more efficient use of the available space on a computer's screen. Examples include fractal maps, TreeMaps and Radial Trees.<br />
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最近,随着计算机允许存储和导航越来越大的数据集,各种方法被开发出来表示层次结构,以便更有效地利用计算机屏幕上的可用空间。例如分形图、树形图和辐射状树。<br />
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==视觉层次 Visual hierarchy==<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of [[visual hierarchy]]. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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In the design field, mainly graphic design, successful layouts and formatting of the content on documents are heavily dependent on the rules of visual hierarchy. Visual hierarchy is also important for proper organization of files on computers.<br />
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在设计领域,主要是平面设计,文档内容的成功布局和格式化在很大程度上依赖于视觉层次规则。视觉层次对于正确组织计算机上的文件也很重要。<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a [[Venn diagram]]. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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An example of visually representing hierarchy is through the Nested clusters. The Nested clusters represents hierarchical relationships by using layers of information. The child element is within the parent element, such as in a Venn diagram. This structure of representing hierarchy is most effective in representing simple relationships. For example, when directing someone to open a file on a computer desktop, one may first direct them towards the main folder, then the subfolders within the main folder. They will keep opening files within the folders until the designated file is located.<br />
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可视化表示层次结构的一个示例是通过嵌套集群。嵌套集群通过使用信息层表示层次关系。子元素位于父元素中,例如在 Venn 图中。这种表示层次结构的结构在表示简单关系时最为有效。例如,当指示某人在计算机桌面上打开一个文件时,可以首先将他们指向主文件夹,然后是主文件夹中的子文件夹。他们会一直打开文件夹中的文件,直到找到指定的文件。<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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For more complicated hierarchies, the stair structure represents hierarchical relationships through the use of visual stacking. Visually imagine the top of a downward staircase beginning at the left and descending on the right. The child elements are towards the bottom of the stairs and the parent elements are at the top. This structure is effective when representing more complicated hierarchies where steps are not placed in obvious sequences. Further steps are concealed unless all of the steps are revealed in sequence. In the computer desktop example, a file that is being sought after can only be found once another file is opened. The link for the desired file is within another document. All the steps must be completed until the final destination is reached.<br />
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对于更复杂的层次结构,楼梯结构通过使用可视化堆叠表示层次关系。从视觉上想象一下下楼梯的顶部,从左边开始,从右边下楼。子元素位于楼梯的底部,父元素位于顶部。当表示更复杂的层次结构时,这种结构非常有效,因为这些步骤没有放置在明显的序列中。进一步的步骤是隐藏的,除非所有的步骤是按顺序显示。在计算机桌面示例中,只有在打开另一个文件时才能找到正在寻找的文件。所需文件的链接位于另一个文档中。所有步骤都必须完成,直到到达最终目的地。<br />
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==通俗表达 Informal representation==<br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] in which:<ref name="Dawkins">{{cite conference|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|authorlink=Richard Dawkins|title=Hierarchical organization: a candidate principle for ethology|conference=Growing points in ethology: based on a conference sponsored by St. John's College and King's College, Cambridge|editor1=Bateson, Paul Patrick Gordon |editor2=Hinde, Robert A.|year=1976|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-29086-4|pages=7–54}}</ref><br />
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In plain English, a hierarchy can be thought of as a set in which:<br />
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在简单的英语中,层次可以被看作是一个集合,其中:<br />
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# No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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No element is superior to itself, and<br />
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任何元素都不优于其本身,并且<br />
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# One element, the ''hierarch'', is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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One element, the hierarch, is superior to all of the other elements in the set.<br />
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其中一个元素,大师,优于集合中的所有其他元素。<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no [[Cycle (graph theory)|circular relationships]]; the association between two objects is always [[Transitive relation|transitive]].<br />
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The first requirement is also interpreted to mean that a hierarchy can have no circular relationships; the association between two objects is always transitive.<br />
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第一个需求也被解释为层次结构不能有循环关系; 两个对象之间的关联总是可传递的。<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or [[root node|root]] that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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The second requirement asserts that a hierarchy must have a leader or root that is common to all of the objects.<br />
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第二个需求断言层次结构必须具有所有对象共有的领导者或根。<br />
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==数学表达 Mathematical representation==<br />
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{{Main|Hierarchy (mathematics)}}<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a [[partially ordered set]] or ''poset''.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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Mathematically, in its most general form, a hierarchy is a partially ordered set or poset.<ref name="Lehmann">{{cite conference|last=Lehmann|first=Fritz|title=Big Posets of Participatings and Thematic Roles|pages=50–74|conference=Conceptual structures: knowledge representation as interlingua—4th International Conference on Conceptual Structures, ICCS '96, Sydney, Australia, August 19–22, 1996—proceedings<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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在数学上,从最一般的形式来看,层次结构是一个偏序集或偏序集。1996年8月19日至22日,在澳大利亚悉尼举行的第四届国际概念结构会议ー会议录<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The [[#Terminology|system]] in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting [[#Terminology|levels]] is referred to as a [[class (set theory)|class]].<br />
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|isbn=3-540-61534-2|year=1996|publisher=Springer|editor-last=Eklund|editor-first=Peter G.|editor2-last=Ellis|editor2-first=Gerard|editor3-last=Mann|editor3-first=Graham|series=Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 115|location=Germany}}</ref> The system in this case is the entire poset, which is constituted of elements. Within this system, each element shares a particular unambiguous property. Objects with the same property value are grouped together, and each of those resulting levels is referred to as a class.<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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[参考译文]本例中的系统是由元素组成的整个波集。在这个系统中,每个元素都具有一个明确的特性。具有相同属性值的对象组合在一起,每个产生的级别都称为类。<br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a [[combinatorial]] [[object]].--><br />
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"Hierarchy" is particularly used to refer to a poset in which the classes are organized in terms of increasing complexity. <!--Mathematically, a hierarchy can be depicted as a combinatorial object.--><br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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“层次结构”特别用来指按照不断增加的复杂性来组织类的偏序集。< ! ——从数学上讲,等级可以被描述为一个组合对象。 -- > <br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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Operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are often performed in a certain sequence or order. Usually, addition and subtraction are performed after multiplication and division has already been applied to a problem. The use of parenthesis is also a representation of hierarchy, for they show which operation is to be done prior to the following ones. For example:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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诸如加、减、乘、除等运算通常是按照一定的顺序进行的。通常,加法和减法是在乘法和除法已经应用到一个问题之后进行的。圆括号的使用也是层次结构的一种表示,因为它们显示了在下列操作之前要完成的操作。例如:<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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(2 + 5) × (7 - 4).<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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In this problem, typically one would multiply 5 by 7 first, based on the rules of mathematical hierarchy. But when the parentheses are placed, one will know to do the operations within the parentheses first before continuing on with the problem. These rules are largely dominant in algebraic problems, ones that include several steps to solve. The use of hierarchy in mathematics is beneficial to quickly and efficiently solve a problem without having to go through the process of slowly dissecting the problem. Most of these rules are now known as the proper way into solving certain equations.<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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在这个问题中,根据数学层次规则,一个人通常会先乘以5乘以7。但是当放置括号时,人们会知道在继续处理问题之前先在括号内做操作。这些规则在代数问题中占主导地位,这些问题包括需要解决的几个步骤。在数学中使用层次结构有利于快速有效地解决问题,而不必经历慢慢剖析问题的过程。这些规则中的大多数现在被认为是解决某些方程的正确方法。<br />
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==亚型 Subtypes==<br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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===嵌套层次 Nested hierarchy===<!--if you change this title, change the wiki links within the article that link to it!--><br />
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[[File:Russian-Matroshka no bg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]]s, also known as ''nesting dolls'' or ''Russian dolls''. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of ''nesting''. When the concept is applied to [[set (mathematics)|sets]], the resulting ordering is a ''nested hierarchy''.]]<br />
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[[Matryoshka dolls, also known as nesting dolls or Russian dolls. Each doll is encompassed inside another until the smallest one is reached. This is the concept of nesting. When the concept is applied to sets, the resulting ordering is a nested hierarchy.]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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[俄罗斯套娃,又称嵌套娃娃或俄罗斯套娃。每个洋娃娃都被包裹在另一个洋娃娃里面,直到最小的洋娃娃被够到。这就是嵌套的概念。当这个概念应用于集合时,结果排序是一个嵌套的层次结构。]]<br />
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A nested hierarchy or ''inclusion hierarchy'' is a hierarchical ordering of [[nested set]]s.<ref name="natsocsci-ch4">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Hierarchy, Complexity, Society|last=Lane|first=David|pages=81–120|encyclopedia=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|editor=Pumain, Denise|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}</ref> The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian [[matryoshka doll]]s. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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A nested hierarchy or inclusion hierarchy is a hierarchical ordering of nested sets. The concept of nesting is exemplified in Russian matryoshka dolls. Each doll is encompassed by another doll, all the way to the outer doll. The outer doll holds all of the inner dolls, the next outer doll holds all the remaining inner dolls, and so on. Matryoshkas represent a nested hierarchy where each level contains only one object, i.e., there is only one of each size of doll; a generalized nested hierarchy allows for multiple objects within levels but with each object having only one parent at each level. The general concept is both demonstrated and mathematically formulated in the following example:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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嵌套层次结构或包含层次结构是嵌套集的层次结构排序。嵌套的概念在俄罗斯套娃中得到了体现。每个娃娃都被另一个娃娃包围着,一直到外面的娃娃。外部的玩偶包含所有的内部玩偶,下一个外部的玩偶包含所有剩余的内部玩偶,等等。表示一个嵌套层次结构,其中每个层次只包含一个对象,也就是说,每个娃娃的大小只有一个; 一个广义的嵌套层次结构允许在层次中有多个对象,但每个对象在每个层次上只有一个父对象。一般概念在下面的例子中得到了证明和数学上的表述:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subset \text{quadrilateral} \subset \text{polygon} \subset \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can ''only'' be a quadrilateral; it can never be a [[triangle]], [[hexagon]], etc.<br />
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A square can always also be referred to as a quadrilateral, polygon or shape. In this way, it is a hierarchy. However, consider the set of polygons using this classification. A square can only be a quadrilateral; it can never be a triangle, hexagon, etc.<br />
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正方形也可以称为四边形、多边形或形状。这样看来,它是一个等级制度。但是,请考虑使用这种分类的多边形集。正方形只能是四边形,不能是三角形、六边形等等。<br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]] and systematic classifications. For example, using the original [[Linnaean taxonomy]] (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''), a human can be formulated as:<ref>{{cite book|title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis|last=Linnaei|first=Carl von|authorlink=Carl Linnaeus|year=1959|edition=10th|language=Latin|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#|location=[[Stockholm]]|publisher=Impensis Direct|isbn=0-665-53008-0|accessdate=2011-09-24}}</ref><br />
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Nested hierarchies are the organizational schemes behind taxonomies and systematic classifications. For example, using the original Linnaean taxonomy (the version he laid out in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae), a human can be formulated as:<br />
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嵌套的层次结构是分类法和系统分类法背后的组织方案。例如,使用最初的林奈分类法(他在《自然系统》第10版中列出的版本) ,人类可以被规划为:<br />
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: <math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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<math>\text{H. sapiens} \subset \text{Homo} \subset \text{Primates} \subset \text{Mammalia} \subset \text{Animalia}</math><br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in [[biological classification|biological taxonomy]]), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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Taxonomies may change frequently (as seen in biological taxonomy), but the underlying concept of nested hierarchies is always the same.<br />
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分类法可能会频繁更改(如在生物分类法中所见) ,但是嵌套层次结构的基本概念始终是相同的。<br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of [[self-similarity]] and [[recursion]]. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<ref name=Corballis>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Corballis |title=The Recursive Mind |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0691145471}}</ref><br />
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In many programming taxonomies and syntax models (as well as fractals in mathematics), nested hierarchies, including Russian dolls, are also used to illustrate the properties of self-similarity and recursion. Recursion itself is included as a subset of hierarchical programming, and recursive thinking can be synonymous with a form of hierarchical thinking and logic.<br />
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在许多编程分类法和语法模型(以及数学中的分形)中,嵌套的层次结构,包括俄罗斯娃娃,也被用来说明自相似和递归的性质。递归本身是层次编程的一个子集,递归思维可以是层次思维和逻辑的同义词。<br />
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====包容层次 Containment hierarchy====<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the [[#Nested hierarchy|nested hierarchy]] concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "[[strict subset|strict]]"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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A containment hierarchy is a direct extrapolation of the nested hierarchy concept. All of the ordered sets are still nested, but every set must be "strict"—no two sets can be identical. The shapes example above can be modified to demonstrate this:<br />
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包容层次结构是嵌套层次结构概念的直接外推。所有的有序集仍然是嵌套的,但是每个集合必须是“严格”的ーー没有两个集合是相同的。上面的图形例子可以通过修改来演示:<br />
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: <math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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<math> \text{square} \subsetneq \text{quadrilateral} \subsetneq \text{polygon} \subsetneq \text{shape} \, </math><br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means ''x'' is a subset of ''y'' but is not equal to&nbsp;''y''.<br />
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The notation <math> x \subsetneq y \, </math> means x is a subset of y but is not equal to&nbsp;y.<br />
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符号 < math > x subsetneq y,</math > 表示 x 是 y 的子集,但不等于 y。<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in [[inheritance (computer science)|class inheritance]] in [[object-oriented programming]].<br />
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A general example of a containment hierarchy is demonstrated in class inheritance in object-oriented programming.<br />
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一个包容层次结构的通用例子在面向对象程序设计的类继承中得到了演示。<br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the ''subsumptive'' containment hierarchy and the ''compositional'' containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "[[wikt:subsume|subsumes]]" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "[[wikt:composed|composed]]" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive ''and'' compositional{{example needed|date=August 2018}}.<ref name="AI industrial">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Industrial and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems|last=Kopisch|first=Manfred|last2=Günther|first2=Andreas|doi=10.1007/BFb0024994|editor-last=Belli|editor-first=Fevzi|encyclopedia=Industrial and engineering applications of artificial intelligence and expert systems: 5th international conference, IEA/AIE-92, Paderborn, Germany, June 9–12, 1992 : proceedings|year=1992|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=424–427|isbn=3-540-55601-X|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science Series|volume=602|issn=0302-9743|editor6-last=Radermacher|editor8-first=Franz-Josef|chapter=Configuration of a passenger aircraft cabin based on conceptual hierarchy, constraints and flexible control}}</ref><br />
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Two types of containment hierarchies are the subsumptive containment hierarchy and the compositional containment hierarchy. A subsumptive hierarchy "subsumes" its children, and a compositional hierarchy is "composed" of its children. A hierarchy can also be both subsumptive and compositional.<br />
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两种类型的包容层次结构是包含层次结构和组合包容层次结构。一个包含型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构,一个组合型层次结构“包含”其子层次结构。层次结构也可以是包含的和组合的。<br />
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=====包含的包容层次 Subsumptive containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''[[Category theory|subsumptive]]'' containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "[[is-a|IS-A]] hierarchy".<ref name="Lehmann"/><ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130103052727/http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/wtxdoc/v8r2m0/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.websphere.dtx.md.doc/concepts/c_map_design_Compositional_Hierarchy.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 January 2013|title=Compositional hierarchy|work=WebSphere Transformation Extender Design Studio|accessdate=9 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="sys model">{{cite book|chapter=An advanced modeling environment based on a hybrid AI-OR approach|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=ds2eIQ6XZy0C&pg=PA366|pages=366–75|last=Funke|first=Birger|last2=Sebastian|first2=Hans-Jürgen|title=Systems modelling and optimization: proceedings of the 18th IFIP TC7 conference|volume=396|series=Research notes in mathematics series|editor1-last=Polis|editor1-first=Michael P.|editor2-last=Dontchev|editor2-first=Asen L.|editor3-last=Kall|editor3-first=Peter|editor4-last=Lascieka|editor4-first=Irena|editor5-last=Olbrot|editor5-first=Andrzej W.|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-8493-0607-5}}</ref> The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level ''Mammalia'' "is a" member of the level ''Animalia''; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "[[concept]]s".<ref name="sys model"/> For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like ''Animalia'' is a way to group all the species that fit the [[wikt:conceptualization|conceptualization]] of an animal.<br />
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A subsumptive containment hierarchy is a classification of object classes from the general to the specific. Other names for this type of hierarchy are "taxonomic hierarchy" and "IS-A hierarchy". The last term describes the relationship between each level—a lower-level object "is a" member of the higher class. The taxonomical structure outlined above is a subsumptive containment hierarchy. Using again the example of Linnaean taxonomy, it can be seen that an object that is part of the level Mammalia "is a" member of the level Animalia; more specifically, a human "is a" primate, a primate "is a" mammal, and so on. A subsumptive hierarchy can also be defined abstractly as a hierarchy of "concepts". For example, with the Linnaean hierarchy outlined above, an entity name like Animalia is a way to group all the species that fit the conceptualization of an animal.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">包容层次结构 subsumptive containment hierarchy</font>是对象类从一般到特定的分类。这类层次结构的其他名称是“分类层次结构”和“ IS-A 层次结构”。最后一个术语描述了每个级别之间的关系——较低级别的对象“是”较高级别类的成员。上面概述的分类结构是一个包容性的层次结构。再次使用林奈分类系统的例子,可以看到,属于<font color="#ff8000">哺乳动物 Mammalia </font>等级的物体“是”动物等级的成员;更具体地说,人类“是”灵长类动物,灵长类动物“是”哺乳动物等等。也可以抽象地将包含的层次结构定义为“概念”的层次结构。例如,根据上述的林奈分类系统,像动物这样的实体名称是对所有符合动物概念的物种进行分类的一种方法。<br />
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=====结构包容层次 Compositional containment hierarchy=====<br />
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A ''compositional'' containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts.<ref name="Parsons">{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=David|title=Object Oriented Programming in C++|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2002|pages=110–185|isbn=0-8264-5428-3}}</ref> Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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A compositional containment hierarchy is an ordering of the parts that make up a system—the system is "composed" of these parts. Most engineered structures, whether natural or artificial, can be broken down in this manner.<br />
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<font color="#32CD32">组合包容层次结构 Compositional containment hierarchy</font>是组成系统的各个部分的顺序——系统是由这些部分“组成”的。大多数工程结构,无论是自然的还是人工的,都可以用这种方式分解。<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the [[hierarchy of life]]. Every person can be reduced to [[organ system]]s, which are composed of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], which are composed of [[tissue (biology)|tissues]], which are composed of [[cells (biology)|cells]], which are composed of [[molecule]]s, which are composed of [[atom]]s. In fact, the last two levels apply to all [[matter]], at least at the [[macroscopic scale]]. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their [[#Terminology|children]].<br />
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The compositional hierarchy that every person encounters at every moment is the hierarchy of life. Every person can be reduced to organ systems, which are composed of organs, which are composed of tissues, which are composed of cells, which are composed of molecules, which are composed of atoms. In fact, the last two levels apply to all matter, at least at the macroscopic scale. Moreover, each of these levels inherit all the properties of their children.<br />
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每个人每时每刻都会遇到的组合层次就是<font color="#ff8000">生命的层次 hierarchy of life</font>。每个人都可以归结为<font color="#ff8000">器官系统 organ system</font>,器官系统是由组织构成的,组织是由细胞构成的,分子是由原子构成的。事实上至少在宏观,最后两个层次适用于所有物质。此外,每个级别都继承了它们子级别的所有属性。<br />
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In this particular example, there are also ''[[emergent properties]]''—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., [[cognition]] is not a property of [[neuron]]s but is of the [[Human brain|brain]])—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These ''level hierarchies'' are characterized by bi-directional [[Causality|causation]].<ref name="natsocsci-ch4"/> ''Upward causation'' involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. ''[[Downward causation]]'' refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity ''x'' into a higher-level entity can have on ''x'''s properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are ''[[autonomous]]''.<br />
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In this particular example, there are also emergent properties—functions that are not seen at the lower level (e.g., cognition is not a property of neurons but is of the brain)—and a scalar quality (molecules are bigger than atoms, cells are bigger than molecules, etc.). Both of these concepts commonly exist in compositional hierarchies, but they are not a required general property. These level hierarchies are characterized by bi-directional causation. Upward causation involves lower-level entities causing some property of a higher level entity; children entities may interact to yield parent entities, and parents are composed at least partly by their children. Downward causation refers to the effect that the incorporation of entity x into a higher-level entity can have on xs properties and interactions. Furthermore, the entities found at each level are autonomous.<br />
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在这个特定的例子中,还有一些<font color="#ff8000">涌现特性 emergent properties</font>——在较低层次上看不到的功能(例如<font color="#ff8000">认知 cognition</font>不是神经元的特性,而是大脑的特性)——以及标度特性(分子比原子大,细胞比分子大等等)。这两个概念通常都存在于组合层次结构中,但它们不是必要的一般属性。这些层次结构是拥有属性的双向因果关系。涉及较低层次实体的<font color="#ff8000">上向因果关系 Upward causation</font>导致较高层次实体的某些属性;子实体可以相互作用产生父实体,并且父实体至少部分由他们的子实体组成。<font color="#ff8000">下向因果关系 Downward causation</font>是指将实体 x 并入更高级别的实体可能对 x 的属性和相互作用产生的影响。此外,每个级别上的实体都是<font color="#ff8000">自治的 autonomous</font>。<br />
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==语境与应用 Contexts and applications==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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==Contexts and applications 语境和应用==<!--if you change this section's title, please also change the wikilinks throughout the article that link to it! --><br />
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= = 上下文和应用 = = < ! ——如果你更改了这个部分的标题,请也更改文章中链接到它的 wikileink!--><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically.<ref name="electrodynamics">{{cite book|title=Hierarchical Methods: Hierarchy and hierarchical asymptotic methods in electrodynamics|last=Kulish|first=V. V.|isbn=1-4020-0757-4|year=2002|volume=1|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|pages=xvii–xx; 49–71}}</ref> By their common definitions, every [[nation]] has a government and every government is hierarchical.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=government|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/government?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|contribution=nation|title=Compact Oxford English Dictionary|contribution-url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/nation?view=uk|isbn=978-0-19-861022-9|year=1991|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary|last1=Soanes|first1=Catherine|last2=Hawker|first2=Sara}}</ref> Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the [[social stratification]] of societies), and all [[systematic name|systematic classification schemes]] ([[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomies]]) are hierarchical. Most [[organized religion]]s, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under [[God]]. Many [[Christian denomination]]s have an [[autocephalous]] [[ecclesiastical hierarchy]] of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of [[cousinship]] (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), [[ancestry]] (as depicted in a [[family tree]]) and [[inheritance]] ([[order of succession|succession]] and [[heir]]ship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]] can be organized using [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of human needs]]. [[Learning]] must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn [[differential equation]]s one must first learn [[calculus]]; to learn calculus one must first learn [[elementary algebra]]; and so on. Even [[nature]] itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as [[Linnaean taxonomy]], the [[biological organisation|organization of life]], and [[biomass pyramid]]s attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<ref name="Dawkins"/><ref name="electrodynamics"/><br />
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According to Kulish, V. V. (2002), almost every system of organization applied to the world is arranged hierarchically. By their common definitions, every nation has a government and every government is hierarchical. Socioeconomic systems are stratified into a social hierarchy (the social stratification of societies), and all systematic classification schemes (taxonomies) are hierarchical. Most organized religions, regardless of their internal governance structures, operate as a hierarchy under God. Many Christian denominations have an autocephalous ecclesiastical hierarchy of leadership. Families are viewed as a hierarchical structure in terms of cousinship (e.g., first cousin once removed, second cousin, etc.), ancestry (as depicted in a family tree) and inheritance (succession and heirship). All the requisites of a well-rounded life and lifestyle can be organized using Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. Learning must often follow a hierarchical scheme—to learn differential equations one must first learn calculus; to learn calculus one must first learn elementary algebra; and so on. Even nature itself has its own hierarchies, as numerous schemes such as Linnaean taxonomy, the organization of life, and biomass pyramids attempt to document. Hierarchies are so infused into daily life that they are viewed as trivial.<br />
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根据 Kulish v. v. (2002) 的研究,几乎世界上所有的组织系统都是等级分明的。按照他们的共同定义,每个<font color="#ff8000">国家 nation</font>都有一个政府,每个政府都是层级制度。社会经济系统被划分为一个社会层级(<font color="#ff8000">社会阶层 social stratification</font>) ,所有的系统分类方案(分类法)都是分等级的。大多数有组织的宗教,不管它们的内部管理结构如何,都在上帝之下按照层级运作。许多<font color="#ff8000">基督教教派 Christian denominations</font>都有一个独立的教会领导层次。从表亲关系(例如,第一代表兄弟,第二代表兄弟等等)、祖先(由<font color="#ff8000">家谱 family tree</font>描述)和继承(继承和继承权)的角度来看,家庭可以看作是一种等级结构。一个全面的生活和生活方式的所有必需品都可以用<font color="#ff8000">马斯洛人类需求层次 Maslow's hierarchy of human needs</font>来组织。学习通常必须遵循一个层次框架——学习微分方程必须先学习微积分;学习微积分必须先学习初等代数等等。甚至自然本身也有它自己的层级,许多方案试图记录下来,例如林奈分类学、生命的组织和生物量金字塔。层级制度如此深入到日常生活中,以至于人们认为它们微不足道。<br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most [[postal code]] systems are hierarchical. Using the [[Postal codes in Canada|Canadian postal code system]] as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "[[forward sortation area|postal district]]", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an [[#Degree_of_branching|overlapping hierarchy]], because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format ''A0A 0A0'' (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most [[library classification]] systems are also hierarchical. The [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal System]] is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<ref name="Dewey">{{cite journal|title=Tracking Nuclear Sources|date=May–June 2009|last=Walker|first=Randy|publisher=wellservicingmagazine.com|pages=28–30|url=http://wellservicingmagazine.com/sites/default/files/pdfmag/WSM_MAYJUN09.PDF}}{{dead link|date=November 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} See also [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Wikipedia article]].</ref><br />
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While the above examples are often clearly depicted in a hierarchical form and are classic examples, hierarchies exist in numerous systems where this branching structure is not immediately apparent. For example, most postal code systems are hierarchical. Using the Canadian postal code system as an example, the top level's binding concept is the "postal district", and consists of 18 objects (letters). The next level down is the "zone", where the objects are the digits 0–9. This is an example of an overlapping hierarchy, because each of these 10 objects has 18 parents. The hierarchy continues downward to generate, in theory, 7,200,000 unique codes of the format A0A 0A0 (the second and third letter position allow 20 objects each). Most library classification systems are also hierarchical. The Dewey Decimal System is regarded as infinitely hierarchical because there is no finite bound on the number of digits can be used after the decimal point.<br />
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虽然上面的例子通常以层次形式清楚地描述并且很经典,但是层次结构也存在于许多分支结构并不是很明显的系统中。例如,大多数<font color="#ff8000">邮政编码 postal code</font>系统是分层的。以加拿大邮政编码系统为例,顶层的概念是“<font color="#ff8000">邮区 postal district</font>”,由18个对象(字母)组成。下一层是“<font color="#ff8000">地区 zone</font>”,其中的对象是数字0-9。这是重叠层次结构的一个例子,因为这10个对象中的每一个都有18个父对象。层次继续向下生成,理论上存在720万个 A0A 0A0 (第二个和第三个字母的位置每个允许20个对象)格式的唯一代码。大多数图书分类法系统也是分层级的。<font color="#ff8000">杜威十进制图书分类法 Dewey Decimal System</font>被认为是无限层次的,因为在小数点之后可以使用的数字数量是没有限制的。<br />
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[[File:Organizational chart.svg|thumb|200px|A simple [[hierarchical organization|organizational hierarchy]] depicted in the form of a [[tree structure|tree]]. Diagrams like this are called [[organizational chart]]s.]]<br />
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organizational hierarchy depicted in the form of a tree. Diagrams like this are called organizational charts.]]<br />
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以树的形式描述的组织层次结构。这样的图被称为<font color="#ff8000">组织结构图 organizational charts</font>。<br />
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===Organizations 组织===<br />
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{{Main|Organizational structure|Hierarchical organization}}<br />
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[[Organization]]s can be structured as a [[dominance hierarchy]]. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[authority]], and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including [[Forms of government|governments]], [[Company|companies]], [[militia]] and [[organized religion]]s. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an [[organizational chart]].<br />
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Organizations can be structured as a dominance hierarchy. In an organizational hierarchy, there is a single person or group with the most power and authority, and each subsequent level represents a lesser authority. Most organizations are structured in this manner, including governments, companies, militia and organized religions. The units or persons within an organization are depicted hierarchically in an organizational chart.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">组织 Organizations</font>可以被构建成一个<font color="#32CD32">支配等级 dominance hierarchy</font>。在一个组织的层次结构中,有一个人或一个群体拥有最大的权力和权威,每个后续的层次代表一个较小的权威。大多数组织都是这样构建的,包括政府、公司、民兵和有组织的宗教。组织中的单位或人员在组织结构图中按等级进行描述。<br />
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In a [[reverse hierarchy]], the conceptual [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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In a reverse hierarchy, the conceptual pyramid of authority is turned upside-down, so that the apex is at the bottom and the base is at the top. This mode represents the idea that members of the higher rankings are responsible for the members of the lower rankings.<br />
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在<font color="#32CD32">反向层次结构 reverse hierarchy</font>中,权力的概念金字塔是颠倒的,因此顶点在底部,底部在顶部。这种模式代表了等级较高的成员对等级较低的成员负责的思想。<br />
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=== Life 生命===<br />
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{{Main|Biological organisation#Fundamentals}}<br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. [[Systems theory|System]] hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s,<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1951}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1956}}</ref> laid the empirical foundations for a [[Branches of science|field]] that would be, from the 1980s, '''hierarchical ecology'''.<ref>{{harvnb|Margalef|1975}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|O'Neill|1986}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wicken|Ulanowicz|1988}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Pumain|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|Jørgensen|2012}}</ref><br />
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Empirically, we observe in nature a large proportion of the (complex) biological systems, they exhibit hierarchic structure. On theoretical grounds we could expect complex systems to be hierarchies in a world in which complexity had to evolve from simplicity. System hierarchies analysis performed in the 1950s, laid the empirical foundations for a field that would be, from the 1980s, hierarchical ecology.<br />
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在实践中,我们观察到自然界中很大一部分(复杂的)生物系统呈现出层次结构。从理论上讲,在一个复杂性必须从简单性演化而来的世界中,我们可以预期复杂系统具有层次结构。20世纪50年代进行的系统层次分析,为从20世纪80年代开始的层次生态学领域奠定了经验基础。<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When [[biological systems]] are modeled as [[physical system]]s, in its most general abstraction, they are [[Thermodynamic system#Open system|thermodynamic open systems]] that exhibit [[self-organisation|self-organised]] behavior, and the [[Set theory|set/subset]] relations between [[dissipative structures]] can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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The theoretical foundations are summarized by Thermodynamics. When biological systems are modeled as physical systems, in its most general abstraction, they are thermodynamic open systems that exhibit self-organised behavior, and the set/subset relations between dissipative structures can be characterized in a hierarchy.<br />
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这些理论基础由热力学的方法来总结。当生物系统被模拟为物理系统时,在其最一般的抽象中,它们是表现出自组织行为的热力学开放系统,<font color="#ff8000">耗散结构 dissipative structures</font>之间的集合/子集关系可以用层次来刻画。<br />
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===Computer graphic imaging 计算机图形成像===<br />
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{{Main|3D modeling}}<br />
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[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] and [[computer animation]] [[computer program|programs]] mostly use hierarchies for models. On a [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[3d modeling|model]] of a [[human]] for example, the [[chest]] is a [[parent]] of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the [[hand]]. This is used in [[3D modeling|modeling]] and [[animation]] for almost everything built as a 3D [[Digital data|digital]] model.<br />
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CGI and computer animation programs mostly use hierarchies for models. On a 3D model of a human for example, the chest is a parent of the upper left arm, which is a parent of the lower left arm, which is a parent of the hand. This is used in modeling and animation for almost everything built as a 3D digital model.<br />
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CGI 和<font color="#ff8000">计算机动画程序 computer animation programs</font>大多使用层次结构建模。例如在一个人体的三维模型中,胸部是左上臂的母体,而左上臂是左下臂的母体。层次结构用于几乎所有三维数字模型的建模和动画。<br />
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===Linguistics 语言学===<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as [[phrase-structure grammar]], involve hierarchy.<br />
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Many grammatical theories, such as phrase-structure grammar, involve hierarchy.<br />
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许多语法理论都涉及层次,例如短语结构语法。<br />
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[[Direct–inverse language]]s such as [[Cree language|Cree]] and [[Mapudungun language|Mapudungun]] distinguish subject and object on [[verb]]s not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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Direct–inverse languages such as Cree and Mapudungun distinguish subject and object on verbs not by different subject and object markers, but via a hierarchy of persons.<br />
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克里语(Cree)和马普敦根语(Mapudungun)等<font color="#32CD32">正动-反动语言 Direct–inverse languages</font>不是通过不同的主语和宾语标记来区分动词的主语和宾语,而是通过人的层级来区分。<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with [[Algonquian languages]]) persons are placed in a hierarchy of [[salience (language)|salience]]. To distinguish which is subject and which object, ''inverse markers'' are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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In this system, the three (or four with Algonquian languages) persons are placed in a hierarchy of salience. To distinguish which is subject and which object, inverse markers are used if the object outranks the subject.<br />
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在这个系统中,三个人(或者阿尔冈昆诸语言中四个人)被放在显著的等级中。为了区分哪个是主语,哪个是宾语,如果宾语的级别高于主语,则使用反向标记。<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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On the other hand, languages include a variety of phenomena that are not hierarchical. For example, the relationship between a pronoun and a prior noun phrase to which it refers, commonly crosses grammatical boundaries in non-hierarchical ways.<br />
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另一方面,语言包括多种不分等级的现象。例如,代词和它所指的名词短语之间的关系,通常以非等级的方式跨越语法界限。<br />
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===Music 音乐===<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by [[Heinrich Schenker]] (1768–1835, see [[Schenkerian analysis]]), and in the (1985) [[Generative theory of tonal music|Generative Theory of Tonal Music]], by composer [[Fred Lerdahl]] and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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The structure of a musical composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich Schenker (1768–1835, see Schenkerian analysis), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray Jackendoff). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or Ursatz, which is one of only a few basic "long-range counterpoint" structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature.<br />
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音乐作品的结构通常是按层次来理解的(例如 Heinrich Schenker (1768-1835,见 Schenkerian 分析) ,以及 Fred Lerdahl 和语言学家 Ray Jackendoff 1985年的《<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐的生成理论 Generative Theory of Tonal Music</font>》)。一段乐曲中所有音符的总和被理解为一个包含所有音符的曲面,它可以简化为更加稀疏和更加基本的运动类型。在申克的理论中运作的结构层次包括前景层次,这在音乐乐谱的所有细节中都可以看到;中间层次,大致上是对位进行和主音的总结; 背景层次,即 Ursatz,这是调性音乐著作中仅有的几个共享的基本“远距离对位”结构之一。<br />
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The [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[Musical form|form]] of [[Tonality|tonal]] music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] [[Key signature|key]], and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. [[Susan McClary]] connects this specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]] to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book ''Feminine Endings'', even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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The pitches and form of tonal music are organized hierarchically, all pitches deriving their importance from their relationship to a tonic key, and secondary themes in other keys are brought back to the tonic in a recapitulation of the primary theme. Susan McClary connects this specifically in the sonata-allegro form to the feminist hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, even pointing out that primary themes were often previously called "masculine" and secondary themes "feminine."<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">调性音乐 tonal music</font>的<font color="#ff8000">音高 pitches</font>和形式是按等级组织的,所有音高的重要性来自于它们与<font color="#ff8000">主调 tonic key</font>的关系,其他调中的次要主题在主要主题的再现中被带回主调。苏珊·麦克拉里(Susan McClary)在她的《女性结局((Feminine Endings)一书中将这一点在奏鸣曲式中具体地与女性主义的性别层次结构(见上文)联系起来,甚至指出,主要的主题通常以前被称为“阳性” ,而次要主题被称为“阴性”。<br />
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==Criticisms of views, concerning distinctions of type and categories well as distinguishability 关于类型和范畴的区别以及区别性的观点的批判==<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842–1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926–1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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In the work of diverse theorists such as William James (1842–1910), Michel Foucault (1926–1984) and Hayden White, important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved.<br />
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在威廉·詹姆斯(1842-1910)、米歇尔·福柯(1926-1984)和海登·怀特等不同理论家的著作中,提出了对等级认识论的重要批判。詹姆斯在他的著作“彻底经验主义 Radical Empiricism”中断言,明确类型和范畴的区分是科学推理的一个恒定但不成文的目标,因此当他们被发现的时候,就是宣告成功的时候。但是,如果世界的各个方面以不同的方式组织起来,涉及到固有的和难以解决的模糊性,那么科学问题通常被认为是没有解决的。<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. [[Feminists]], [[Marxists]], [[anarchists]], [[communists]], [[critical theorists]] and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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Hierarchy in ethics emerged in Western Europe, West Asia and North Africa around the 1600s. In this aspect, the term hierarchy refers to how distinguishable they are from real to unreal. Feminists, Marxists, anarchists, communists, critical theorists and others, all of whom have multiple interpretations, criticize the hierarchies commonly found within human society, especially in social relationships. Hierarchies are present in all parts of society: in businesses, schools, families, etc. These relationships are often viewed as necessary. Entities that stand in hierarchical arrangements are animals, humans, plants, etc.<br />
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17世纪左右,伦理学的等级制度在西欧、西亚和北非出现。在这方面,术语层次是指它们从真实到非真实是如何区分的。<font color="#ff8000">女权主义者 Feminists、马克思主义者 Marxists、无政府主义者 anarchists、共产主义者 communists、批判理论家 critical theorists</font>以及其他人,他们对人类社会中普遍存在的等级制度,尤其是社会关系中的等级制度,都有不同的解释。等级制度存在于社会的各个部分:企业、学校、家庭等等。这些关系通常被认为是必要的。站在等级结构中的实体是动物、人类、植物等等。<br />
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===Ethics, behavioral psychology, philosophies of identity 伦理,行为心理学,同一哲学 philosophies of identity ===<br />
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[[File:Hierarchy Of Purposes.jpg|thumb|right|alt=|Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.]]<br />
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Career-oriented purposes can be diagrammed using a hierarchy describing how less important actions support a larger goal.<br />
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以事业为导向的目标可以用层次来描述,描述次要的行动如何支持一个更大的目标。<br />
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In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].<br />
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In ethics, various virtues are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of virtue theory.<br />
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<font color="#ff8000">伦理学 ethics</font>中列举的各种<font color="#ff8000">美德 virtues</font>,有时根据某些美德理论有层次地组织起来。<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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In some of these random examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. There is a hierarchy of activities in human life: productive activity serves or is guided by the moral life; the moral life is guided by practical reason; practical reason (used in moral and political life) serves contemplative reason (whereby we contemplate God). Practical reason sets aside time and resources for contemplative reason.<br />
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在一些随机的例子中,结构层次之间的“组合”意义是不对称的,因此整个层次数组的小部分依赖于它们在更大部分中的隶属关系。人类生活中的活动有一种层次:生产活动服务于或被道德生活所指导;道德生活被实践理性所指导;实践理性(用于道德和政治生活)服务于冥想理性(我们借以思考上帝)。实用理性为深思的理由留出时间和资源。<br />
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==Examples of other applications 其他应用的例子==<br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- This section is for direct examples of a hierarchical system ONLY, and only ones that have not been summarized above. Methodologies belong in the appropriate section below. Related concepts are listed under the "See also" section. If you are uncertain where a link belongs, place it in the "See also" section. HINT: If you can't easily say what it's a hierarchy OF, it doesn't belong here (but that doesn't imply that if you can say what its a hierarchy of, it belongs here). --><br />
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<!-- 本节仅供直接举例说明等级制度,仅供上文未概述的例子参考。方法学属于下面的适当部分。相关概念列在“请参阅”部分。如果您不确定链接属于哪个位置,请将其放在“请参阅”部分。提示: 如果你不能很容易地说出它的层次结构是什么,它就不属于这里(但这并不意味着如果你能说出它的层次结构是什么,它就属于这里)。--><br />
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====Information-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Information-based 基于信息====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "information-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 信息为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“信息为基础的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Library classification 图书馆分类法]]<br />
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** [[Dewey Decimal Classification 杜威十进制分类法]]<br />
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====City planning-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====City planning-based 基于城市规划====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "city planning-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of roads|Roads 道路]]<br />
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** [[Street hierarchy|Streets 街道]]<br />
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* [[Settlement hierarchy 聚落等级]]<br />
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** [[Settlement hierarchy#Example of a settlement hierarchy|As of 2010 截至2010年]]<br />
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** [[Ekistic units|As of 2100 (estimate according to Doxiadis, 1968) 截至2010年(根据Doxiadis 1968年的估计)]]<br />
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====Linguistics-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Linguistics-based 基于语言学====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "linguistics-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于语言学的 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于语言学的层次” -- > <br />
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* [[Tree model|Language family tree 语言家谱]]<br />
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* [[Levels of adequacy|Levels of adequacy for evaluating grammars 评价语法的充分性等级]]<br />
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* [[Direct–inverse languages 正对-反对语言]]<br />
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* [[Structural linguistics 结构语言学]]<br />
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** [[Parse tree 分析树]]<br />
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** [[Formal grammars 形式语法]]<br />
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** [[Abstract syntax tree 抽象语法树]]<br />
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* [[Color terms#Basic color terms|Evolution of basic color terminology in languages 语言中基本颜色术语的演变]]<br />
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====Power- or authority-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Power- or authority-based 基于权利或权威====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "power- or authority-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 权力-或基于权威 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“权力-或基于权威的层次结构” -- > <br />
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* [[Noble ranks|Aristocratic hierarchies 贵族等级]]<br />
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** In [[Royal and noble ranks#General chart of "translations" between languages|Europe 欧洲]]<br />
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** In [[Chinese nobility#Princehood and peerage|China 中国]]<br />
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* [[Ecclesiastical hierarchy|Ecclesiastical hierarchies 教会等级]]<br />
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** [[Catholic Church hierarchy 天主教会圣统制]]<br />
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** [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|LDS Church hierarchy 摩门教教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Kimbanguism#Hierarchy|Kimbanguist Church hierarchy Kimbanguist教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Raëlism#Member hierarchy|Raëlism Church hierarchy Raëlism教堂层次结构]]<br />
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** see also [[autocephaly]] 另见[[自治 autocephaly]]<br />
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* Administrative branch of government geographical hierarchies<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of China (disambiguation)|Administrative divisions of China]] <!--do NOT disambiguate--><br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of India]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of the United States]]<br />
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** [[Administrative divisions of Russia]]<br />
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* Political party hierarchies 政党的层次结构<br />
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** [[Ranks and insignia of the Nazi Party|Nazi Party 纳粹党]]<br />
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*** [[SS Ranks#Final SS ranks 1934–1945|SS]]<br />
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*** [[Glossary of Nazi Germany#G|Hierarchy of subdivisions within the Gau Gau内部的细分层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union#Structure|Communist Party of the Soviet Union 苏联共产党]]<br />
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** [[Communist Party of China 中国共产党]]<br />
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* [[Command hierarchy|Chain of command 指挥系统]]<br />
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** [[List of comparative military ranks|Military ranks 军衔]]<br />
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** [[Military organization#Hierarchy of modern armies|Military units 部队]]<br />
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** [[Unified Combatant Command|U.S. Military Combatant Commands 美国军事战斗司令部]]<br />
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* [[Dominance hierarchy|Intraspecial dominance 种内优势]]<br />
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** [[Pecking order 啄食顺序]]<br />
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* [[Social stratification|Social classes 社会阶级]]<br />
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** [[Caste system in India 印度种姓制度]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical structure of Feudal Japan 封建日本的等级结构]]<br />
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** [[Master race#White racist hierarchy|White racist hierarchy 白人种族主义的层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of Exclusion 层次结构的排斥]] (Ender's Game 安德的游戏)<br />
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====Value-based====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Value-based 基于价值====<!--value meaning both money and relative importance--><!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "value-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = = 基于价值的价值 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = <br />
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* [[Hierarchy of genres|Hierarchy of genres in art 艺术流派的等级]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of evidence|Evidence 证据]]<br />
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* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Human needs 人类需求]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of precious substances|Precious substances 贵重物品]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy of values|Judicial hierarchy of social values 社会价值的司法等级]]<br />
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====Perception-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Perception-based 基于感知====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "perception-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 基于感知的感知 = = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于感知的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Color wheel 色环]]<br />
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** [[Primary colors 三原色]]<br />
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*** [[Secondary colors 二次色]]<br />
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**** [[Tertiary colors 三次色]]<br />
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====History-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====History-based 基于历史====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "history-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = 历史为基础 = = = = < ! -- 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于历史的层级” -- > <br />
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* [[Three-age system 史前三时代分类系统]]<br />
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* [[Comparative history|Cyclic theory of civilization 文明的循环说]]<br />
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** [[Spengler's civilization model|Oswald Spengler 奥斯瓦尔德·斯宾格勒]]<br />
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** [[A Study of History#List of civilizations|Arnold J. Toynbee]]<br />
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* [[Spiral dynamics 螺旋动力学]]<br />
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====Science-based 基于科学====<br />
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<!--[[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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<!--WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "science-based hierarchies"--><br />
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< ! -- wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是"科学层次"> <br />
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* [[Earth's location in the universe#Earth in the universe|Hierarchy of organization within the Universe 宇宙中的组织层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical ternary star system|Star systems 恒星系统]]<br />
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* [[Biological classification 生物分类]]<br />
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* [[Biological organization 生物组织]]<br />
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* [[Phylogenetic tree 进化树]]<br />
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* [[Timeline of evolution|Evolutionary development 进化发展]]<br />
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* [[Ecological land classification#Hierarchy of classification levels in ecology compared to other fields|Hierarchy of ecological georegions 生态地理等级]]<br />
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====Technology-based 基于技术====<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy 存储层次结构]]<br />
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** [[Cache hierarchy 缓存层次]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering|Clusters 聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Class constructs 类构造]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical database model|Data organization 数据组织]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical query 层次查询]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Data Format|Data storage 数据存储]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical File System|Computer files (Macintosh) 计算机文件(Macintosh)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical control system|Devices 设备]]<br />
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* [[Classless inter-domain routing|IP addresses IP地址]]<br />
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* [[Memory hierarchy|Memory 内存]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical page tables|Virtual memory allocation 虚拟内存分配]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical internetworking model|Networks 网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical cell structure|Radio cells 无线电单元]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical state machine|States (configurations) 状态(配置)]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical name space|Web addresses 网页地址]]<br />
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* [[Structure 结构]]<br />
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** [[Data Structure 数据结构]]<br />
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* [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming) 继承(面向对象编程)]]<br />
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====Religion-based====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per [[WP:HYPHEN]]—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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====Religion-based 基于宗教====<!--yes, that hyphen IS correct, even per WP:HYPHEN—this category's logical title is "religion- and mythology-based hierarchies"--><br />
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= = = = 基于宗教的 = = = = = = = = = = 是的,连字符是正确的,即使按照 wp: hyphen ー这个类别的逻辑标题是“基于宗教和神话的等级制度” -- > <br />
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* Levels of consciousness 意识层次<br />
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** [[Chakra#The seven major chakras|Chakras 轮穴]]<br />
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** [[Great chain of being 存在之链]]<br />
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** [[Ray of Creation|G.I. Gurdjieff]]<br />
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** [[Eight Circuit Model of Consciousness#The eight circuits|Timothy Leary 蒂莫西·利里]]<br />
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* Levels of spiritual development 精神发展层次<br />
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** In [[Four stages of enlightenment|Theravada Buddhism 南传上座部佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Bhumi (Buddhism)|Mahayana Buddhism 大乘佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Initiation (Theosophy)|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Ages in the evolution of society 社会发展的时代<br />
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** In [[Astrological age#Past ages|Astrology 占星术]]<br />
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** In [[Ages of Man|Hellenism (the Ancient Greek Religion) 希腊文化(古希腊的宗教)]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Protestant dispensations|Dispensations in Protestantism 新教的豁免]]<br />
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** [[Dispensation (period)#Latter Day Saint dispensations|Dispensations in Mormonism 摩门教特许]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical communion|Degrees of communion between various Christian churches 不同基督教会之间的交流程度]]<br />
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* [[UFO religions UFO宗教]]<br />
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** [[Master Jesus#Airborne Division of the Brotherhood of Light|Command hierarchy of the ''Ashtar Galactic Command'' flying saucer fleet 阿斯塔银河司令部”飞碟舰队的指挥等级]]<br />
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* Deities 神灵<br />
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** In [[Japanese Buddhist pantheon#Hierarchical structure of the Buddhist pantheon|Japanese Buddhism 日本佛教]]<br />
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** In [[Spiritual Hierarchy#Levels of the spiritual hierarchy|Theosophy 神智学]]<br />
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* Angels 天使<br />
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** In [[Christian angelic hierarchy|Christianity 基督教]]<br />
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** In [[Islamic view of angels#Angel hierarchy|Islam 伊斯兰教]]<br />
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** In [[Jewish angelic hierarchy|Judaism 犹太教]]<br />
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*** [[Kabbalistic angelic hierarchy|Kabbalistic 卡巴拉教派]]<br />
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** In [[Yazata|Zoroastrianism 琐罗亚斯德教]]<br />
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* Devils and Demons 撒旦与恶魔<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of devils|Devils]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchy of demons|Demons]]<br />
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* [[Hells 地狱]]<br />
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** In [[Inferno (Dante)|Catholicism (Nine Levels of Hell) 天主教(九层地狱)]]<br />
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** In [[Naraka (Buddhism)|Buddhism (Sixteen Levels of Hell) 佛教(十六层地狱)]]<br />
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* [[Religious stratification|Religions in society 社会上的宗教]]<br />
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* (organizational&nbsp;hierarchies are listed under 组织和层次列举于{{nowrap|"[[#Power- or authority-based|Power- or authority-based]]"}})<!--non-breaking spaces used for neatness at all resolutions--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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===Methods using hierarchy 使用层次结构的方法===<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = = = 使用层次结构的方法 = = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Analytic Hierarchy Process 层次分析法]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical Decision Process 层次决策过程]]<br />
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* [[HOOD method|Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design 分层的面向对象设计]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Bayes model 贝叶斯层次模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical clustering 层次聚类]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical clustering of networks 网络层次聚类]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical constraint satisfaction 层次约束满足]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical linear modeling 多层阶线性模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical modulation 分层调制]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical proportion 分层比例]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical RBF|Hierarchical radial basis function 层次径向基函数]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical storage management 分级存储管理]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical task network 分层任务网络]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical temporal memory 皮质学习算法]] <br />
--[[用户:Jxzhou|Jxzhou]]([[用户讨论:Jxzhou|讨论]])根据上下文感觉应该是计算机方面的术语,memory是内存,但是维基百科这个词条对应的连接也是神经生物学相关的HTM算法<br />
<br />
* [[Hierarchical Token Bucket|Hierarchical token bucket 分层令牌桶]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical visitor pattern 分层访问者模式]]<br />
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* [[Presentation-abstraction-control 表示-抽象-控制]]<br />
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** [[Hierarchical-Model-View-Controller 层次-模型-视图-控制器]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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==See also==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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==See also 参见==<!-- See note at "Further applications"--><br />
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= = 也见 = = < ! -- 参见“ further applications” -- > <br />
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* [[Anarchy 无政府状态]]<br />
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* [[Class browser 类浏览器]]<br />
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* [[Forms of government 政体]]<br />
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* [[Graph theory 图论]]<br />
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* [[Heterarchy 差异化结构]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical classifier 层次化分类器]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical epistemology 分层认识论]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical hidden Markov model 分层隐马尔科夫模型]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical INTegration 阶层统整]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchical Music Specification Language 分级音乐规范语言]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy Open Service Interface Definition 层次结构开放服务接口定义]]<br />
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* [[Hierarchy problem 等级问题]]<br />
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* {{section link|Holarchy#Different meanings 合弄结构#不同意义}}<br />
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* [[Instrumental value 工具价值]]<br />
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* [[Layer (disambiguation) 层(消歧)]]<br />
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* [[Multilevel model 多层模型]]<br />
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* [[Multitree 多树]] <br />
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* [[Ordinary (officer) 牧师]]<br />
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** {{section link|Characters of Halo#High Prophets}}<br />
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** [[List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria 亚历山大科普特东正教教皇名单]]<br />
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* [[Peter Principle 彼得原理]]<br />
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* [[Ring (computer security) 环(计算机安全)]]<br />
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* [[Social dominance theory 社会支配论]]<br />
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}}<br />
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}}<br />
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===Strucure-related concepts 结构相关概念===<br />
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''(For example, in {{section link|#Subtype}})''<br />
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(For example, in )<br />
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(例如,在<br />
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* [[Is-a]]<br />
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** [[Hypernymy 上位关系]] (and [[supertype 超类型]])<br />
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** [[Hyponymy 下义关系]] (and [[subtype 亚类型]])<br />
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* [[Has-a]]<br />
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** [[Holonymy 整体-部分]]<br />
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** [[Meronymy 部分-整体]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
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{{Reflist}}<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
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* {{cite book|first=Valerie|last=Ahl|first2=Timothy F. H.|last2=Allen|authorlink2=Timothy F. H. Allen|year=1996|title=Hierarchy Theory|location=New York|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-08481-1}}<br />
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* {{cite conference|last=Akl |first=Selim G. |authorlink=Selim Akl |last2=Taylor |first2=Peter D. |title=Cryptographic solution to a multilevel security problem |conference=Advances in Cryptology: Proceedings of [[CRYPTO]] '82 |pages=237–249 |publisher=[[Plenum Publishing Corporation]] |year=1983 |location=New York |url=http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021229212150/http://dsns.csie.nctu.edu.tw/research/crypto/HTML/PDF/C82/237.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-12-29 |isbn=0-306-41366-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal | last1 = Carbone | first1 = June | last2 = Cahn | first2 = Naomi |title= Is marriage for rich men? |journal = [[Nevada Law Journal]]| volume = 13 | issue = 2 | page = 6 | publisher = [[William S. Boyd School of Law]] | url = http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/nlj/vol13/iss2/6 | date = 2013}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Regulatory hierarchies in auxin signal transduction and vascular tissue development|last=Ckurshumova|first=Wenzislava|isbn=978-0-494-27682-2|year=2007|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=5|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.}}<br />
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* {{Cite book|last1=Galindo|first1=Cipriano|last2=Fernández-Madrigal|first2=Juan-Antonio|title=Multiple Abstraction Hierarchies for Mobile Robot Operation in Large Environments|series=Studies in Computational Intelligence|editor-last=Kacprzyk|editor-first=Janusz|year=2007|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-72688-3}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|first=Julie|last=Nelson|authorlink=Julie Nelson (economist)|year=1992|title=Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics|journal=Economics and Philosophy|volume=8|issue=1|pages=103–25|doi=10.1017/S026626710000050X}}<br />
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* {{cite book|last=Pumain|first=Denise|title=Hierarchy in Natural and Social Sciences|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]|location=New York, New York|year=2006|isbn=978-1-4020-4126-6}}<br />
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* {{cite book|first=A.|last=Rosenbaum|authorlink=Alexis Rosenbaum|year=2000|title=Les représentations hiérarchiques en philosophie|language=French|location=Paris|publisher=Desclee de Brouwer}}<br />
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* {{cite journal|title=Improving classification models when a class hierarchy is available|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|isbn=978-0-494-28076-8|journal=Dissertation Abstracts International|volume=68|issue=6|page=section B|place=University of Toronto|publication-place=|postscript=. Ph.D. dissertation.|year=2007}}<br />
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** Also includes full copies of:<br />
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** {{cite journal|title=Improving Classification When a Class Hierarchy is Available Using a Hierarchy-Based Prior|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|journal=Bayesian Analysis|volume=2|issue=1|pages=221–228|year=2007|issn=1936-0975|publisher=[[International Society for Bayesian Analysis]]|location=[[Carnegie Mellon University]], Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|url=http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|bibcode=2005math.....10449S|arxiv=math/0510449|doi=10.1214/07-ba209|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903231224/http://ba.stat.cmu.edu/journal/2007/vol02/issue01/shahbaba.pdf|archivedate=2015-09-03}}<br />
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** {{cite journal|last=Shahbaba|first=Babak|last2=Neal|first2=Radford M.|title=Gene function classification using Bayesian models with hierarchy-based priors|journal=[[BMC Bioinformatics]]|publisher=[[BioMed Central]]|location=London, England|year=2006|volume=7|page=448|doi=10.1186/1471-2105-7-448|pmc=1618412|pmid=17038174|issn=1471-2105|bibcode=2006q.bio.....5015S|arxiv=q-bio/0605015}}<br />
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==External links==<br />
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{{wikiquote}}<br />
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* {{commons category-inline}}<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020207202512/http://isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]<br />
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201540/http://www.nbi.dk/%7Enatphil/salthe/Summary_of_the_Principles_o.pdf Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] — S.N. Salthe<br />
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{{Authority control}}<br />
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[[Category:Hierarchy| ]]<br />
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[[Category:Patterns]]<br />
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Category:Patterns<br />
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分类: 模式<br />
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[[Category:Structure]]<br />
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Category:Structure<br />
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类别: 结构<br />
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[[Category:Political culture]]<br />
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Category:Political culture<br />
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类别: 政治文化<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Hierarchy]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[层次/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12742工作记忆2020-08-16T13:06:01Z<p>Xebec:/* 参见 See also */</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff8000">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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====衰变理论 Decay theories====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,'''<font color="#ff8000">资源理论 Resource Theories</font>'''旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退假说 Decay Theories</font>'''的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。'''<font color="#ff8000">干扰理论 Interference Theories</font>'''似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务并发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人的这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,且随时间推移其相关性更强,表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能的原因是区域间更强的连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)</font>''': 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定 '''<font color="#ff8000">执行功能(EF) Executive Function (EF)</font>'''领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">帕金森病 Parkinson's Disease</font>''': 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">阿尔茨海默病 Alzheimer's Disease</font>''': 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">亨廷顿氏病 Huntington's Disease</font>''': 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[多重记忆模型 Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|注意力和记忆 Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[孤独症与工作记忆 Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[模糊痕迹理论 Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[中期记忆 Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[记忆与老化 Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|前额叶基底节工作记忆 Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[意识结构 Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[提姆・沙丽斯 Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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{{Dyslexia}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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[[Category:Problem solving]]<br />
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Category:Problem solving<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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[[Category:Human behavior]]<br />
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Category:Human behavior<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12739工作记忆2020-08-16T12:51:43Z<p>Xebec:/* 衰变理论 Decay Theories */</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff8000">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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====衰变理论 Decay theories====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,'''<font color="#ff8000">资源理论 Resource Theories</font>'''旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退假说 Decay Theories</font>'''的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。'''<font color="#ff8000">干扰理论 Interference Theories</font>'''似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务并发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人的这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,且随时间推移其相关性更强,表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能的原因是区域间更强的连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)</font>''': 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定 '''<font color="#ff8000">执行功能(EF) Executive Function (EF)</font>'''领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">帕金森病 Parkinson's Disease</font>''': 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">阿尔茨海默病 Alzheimer's Disease</font>''': 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">亨廷顿氏病 Huntington's Disease</font>''': 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12738工作记忆2020-08-16T12:50:31Z<p>Xebec:/* 脑内定位 Localization in the brain */</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff8000">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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==== '''<font color="#ff8000">衰变理论 Decay Theories</font>'''====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,'''<font color="#ff8000">资源理论 Resource Theories</font>'''旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退假说 Decay Theories</font>'''的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。'''<font color="#ff8000">干扰理论 Interference Theories</font>'''似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务并发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人的这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,且随时间推移其相关性更强,表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能的原因是区域间更强的连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)</font>''': 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定 '''<font color="#ff8000">执行功能(EF) Executive Function (EF)</font>'''领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">帕金森病 Parkinson's Disease</font>''': 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">阿尔茨海默病 Alzheimer's Disease</font>''': 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">亨廷顿氏病 Huntington's Disease</font>''': 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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{{Dyslexia}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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[[Category:Problem solving]]<br />
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Category:Problem solving<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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[[Category:Human behavior]]<br />
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Category:Human behavior<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12736工作记忆2020-08-16T12:36:24Z<p>Xebec:/* 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders */</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff8000">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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==== '''<font color="#ff8000">衰变理论 Decay Theories</font>'''====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,'''<font color="#ff8000">资源理论 Resource Theories</font>'''旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退假说 Decay Theories</font>'''的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。'''<font color="#ff8000">干扰理论 Interference Theories</font>'''似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务,发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人在这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,随时间推移其相关性更强,表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能是由于更强连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)</font>''': 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定 '''<font color="#ff8000">执行功能(EF) Executive Function (EF)</font>'''领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">帕金森病 Parkinson's Disease</font>''': 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">阿尔茨海默病 Alzheimer's Disease</font>''': 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">亨廷顿氏病 Huntington's Disease</font>''': 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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{{Dyslexia}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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[[Category:Problem solving]]<br />
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Category:Problem solving<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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[[Category:Human behavior]]<br />
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Category:Human behavior<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12735工作记忆2020-08-16T12:32:13Z<p>Xebec:/* 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders */</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff8000">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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==== '''<font color="#ff8000">衰变理论 Decay Theories</font>'''====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,'''<font color="#ff8000">资源理论 Resource Theories</font>'''旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退假说 Decay Theories</font>'''的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。'''<font color="#ff8000">干扰理论 Interference Theories</font>'''似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务,发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人在这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,随时间推移其相关性更强,表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能是由于更强连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD)</font>''': 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定 '''<font color="#ff8000">执行功能(EF) Executive Function (EF)</font>'''领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">帕金森病 Parkinson's Disease</font>''': 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">阿尔茨海默病 Alzheimer's Disease</font>''': 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">亨廷顿氏病 Huntington's Disease</font>''': 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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{{Dyslexia}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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[[Category:Problem solving]]<br />
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Category:Problem solving<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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[[Category:Human behavior]]<br />
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Category:Human behavior<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12734工作记忆2020-08-16T12:28:59Z<p>Xebec:/* 极限 Limitations */</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff8000">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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==== '''<font color="#ff8000">衰变理论 Decay Theories</font>'''====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,'''<font color="#ff8000">资源理论 Resource Theories</font>'''旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退假说 Decay Theories</font>'''的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。'''<font color="#ff8000">干扰理论 Interference Theories</font>'''似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务,发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人在这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,随时间推移其相关性更强,表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能是由于更强连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD): 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定执行功能(EF)领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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帕金森病: 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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阿尔茨海默病: 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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亨廷顿氏病: 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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{{Dyslexia}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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[[Category:Problem solving]]<br />
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Category:Problem solving<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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[[Category:Human behavior]]<br />
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Category:Human behavior<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12733工作记忆2020-08-16T12:20:36Z<p>Xebec:/* 衰变理论 Decay theories */</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff8000">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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==== '''<font color="#ff8000">衰变理论 Decay Theories</font>'''====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,资源假说旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。衰退假说的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。干扰理论似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务,发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人在这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,随时间推移其相关性更强,表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能是由于更强连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD): 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定执行功能(EF)领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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帕金森病: 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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阿尔茨海默病: 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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亨廷顿氏病: 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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[[Category:Problem solving]]<br />
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Category:Problem solving<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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[[Category:Human behavior]]<br />
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Category:Human behavior<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12732工作记忆2020-08-16T12:19:59Z<p>Xebec:</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff8000">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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==== 衰变理论 Decay theories====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,资源假说旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。衰退假说的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。干扰理论似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务,发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人在这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,随时间推移其相关性更强,表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能是由于更强连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD): 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定执行功能(EF)领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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帕金森病: 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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阿尔茨海默病: 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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亨廷顿氏病: 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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{{Dyslexia}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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[[Category:Problem solving]]<br />
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Category:Problem solving<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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[[Category:Human behavior]]<br />
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Category:Human behavior<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12731工作记忆2020-08-16T12:15:07Z<p>Xebec:</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff800">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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==== 衰变理论 Decay theories====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,资源假说旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。衰退假说的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。干扰理论似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务,发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人在这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,随时间推移其相关性更强,表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能是由于更强连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD): 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定执行功能(EF)领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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帕金森病: 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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阿尔茨海默病: 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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亨廷顿氏病: 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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{{Dyslexia}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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[[Category:Problem solving]]<br />
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Category:Problem solving<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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[[Category:Human behavior]]<br />
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Category:Human behavior<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<noinclude><br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12730工作记忆2020-08-16T12:11:10Z<p>Xebec:/* 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory */</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff800">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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==== 衰变理论 Decay theories====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,资源假说旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。衰退假说的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。干扰理论似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务,发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人在这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,随时间推移其相关性更强,表明表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能是由于更强连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD): 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定执行功能(EF)领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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帕金森病: 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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阿尔茨海默病: 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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亨廷顿氏病: 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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[[Category:Problem solving]]<br />
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Category:Problem solving<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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[[Category:Human behavior]]<br />
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Category:Human behavior<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12729工作记忆2020-08-16T11:52:02Z<p>Xebec:/* 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders */</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff800">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能为让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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==== 衰变理论 Decay theories====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,资源假说旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。衰退假说的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。干扰理论似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务,发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人在这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,随时间推移其相关性更强,表明表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能是由于更强连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD): 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定执行功能(EF)领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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帕金森病: 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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阿尔茨海默病: 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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亨廷顿氏病: 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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{{Dyslexia}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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[[Category:Problem solving]]<br />
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Category:Problem solving<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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[[Category:Human behavior]]<br />
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Category:Human behavior<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebechttps://wiki.swarma.org/index.php?title=%E5%B7%A5%E4%BD%9C%E8%AE%B0%E5%BF%86&diff=12728工作记忆2020-08-16T11:50:26Z<p>Xebec:/* 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology */</p>
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<div>已由[[Xebec]]进行初步翻译。<br />
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{{short description|Cognitive system for temporarily holding information}}<br />
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}<br />
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'''Working memory''' is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can [[Memory|hold information]] temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D’Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold.<br /><br />WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.<br />{{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior.&nbsp;...<br /> working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings&nbsp;... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression).&nbsp;... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with [[short-term memory]], but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | title = What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | author=Cowan, Nelson | journal=Prog. Brain Res. | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid=18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to [[cognitive psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[neuroscience]].<br />
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Working memory is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior. Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information. Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''是一种能临时容纳有限信息的认知系统,对推理、决策倾向和行为倾向起到至关作用。工作记忆常作为短期记忆的同义词,但一些理论学者认为工作记忆能够处理所调用的既存信息,而'''<font color="#ff800">短期记忆 Short-term Memory</font>''', 仅指短期存储的信息,故二者不同。工作记忆是认知心理学、神经心理学和神经科学的核心理论概念。<br />
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== 历史 History ==<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by [[George Armitage Miller|Miller]], [[Eugene Galanter|Galanter]], and [[Karl H. Pribram|Pribram]],<ref name="isbn0-03-010075-5">{{cite book |author1=Pribram, Karl H. |author2=Miller, George A. |author3=Galanter, Eugene |title=Plans and the structure of behavior |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |location=New York |year=1960 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 65] |isbn=978-0-03-010075-8 |oclc=190675 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/plansstructureo00mill/page/65 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Baddeley A |title=Working memory: looking back and looking forward |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=4 |issue=10 |pages=829–39 |date=October 2003 |pmid=14523382 |doi=10.1038/nrn1201}}</ref> and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model|Atkinson and Shiffrin]]<ref name="Atkinson Shiffrin 1968">{{cite book | last1 = Atkinson | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Shiffrin | first2 = R.M. | title = Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes | volume = 2 |pages = 89–195| editor1 = Kenneth W Spence |editor2= Janet T Spence | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1968 | isbn = 978-0-12-543302-0 |oclc = 185468704 |doi = 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60422-3}}</ref> used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or [[short-term memory]], primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory.<ref name="Fuster 1997">{{cite book |author=Fuster, Joaquin M. |title=The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe |publisher=Lippincott-Raven |location=Philadelphia |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-397-51849-4 |oclc=807338522 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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The term "working memory" was coined by Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, and was used in the 1960s in the context of theories that likened the mind to a computer. In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin used the term to describe their "short-term store". What we now call working memory was formerly referred to variously as a "short-term store" or short-term memory, primary memory, immediate memory, operant memory, and provisional memory. Short-term memory is the ability to remember information over a brief period (in the order of seconds). Most theorists today use the concept of working memory to replace or include the older concept of short-term memory, marking a stronger emphasis on the notion of manipulating information rather than mere maintenance.<br />
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“'''<font color="#ff800">工作记忆 Working Memory</font>'''”这个术语由米勒 Miller、加兰特 Galanter和普里布拉姆 Pribram 提出,在20世纪60年代用于把大脑类比作计算机的理论中。1968年,阿特金森 Atkinson和谢福林 Shiffrin 用该术语来表述“短期存储”。我们现在所说的工作记忆就是之前的“短期存储”、“短期记忆”、“初级记忆”、“即时记忆”、“操作记忆”或“临时记忆”。短期记忆是在再短时间内(以秒为单位)记住信息的能力。大多数理论学者现在使用“工作记忆”概念取代或包含早期“短期记忆”的概念,体现出更强调信息操纵的观念。<br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when [[Eduard Hitzig|Hitzig]] and [[David Ferrier|Ferrier]] described [[ablation]] experiments of the [[prefrontal cortex]] (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes.<ref name=Fuster1>{{Cite book|last1= Fuster|first1= Joaquin |title= The prefrontal cortex |page= 126 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zuZlvNICdhUC&pg=PT140 |edition= 4 |year= 2008 |publisher= Elsevier |location= Oxford, UK |isbn= 978-0-12-373644-4}}</ref> In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<ref name=Fuster1 /><ref name=Benton>{{Cite book|last1= Benton|first1= A.&nbsp;L.|editor1-first= Harvey,&nbsp;S.|editor1-last= Levin|editor2-first= Howard,&nbsp;M.|editor2-last= Eisenberg|editor3-first= Arthur,&nbsp;L.|editor3-last= Benton|title= Frontal lobe function and dysfunction|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9b1htO0V0rwC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Jacobsen++prefrontal+ablation&q=Jacobsen%20%20prefrontal%20ablation|year= 1991|publisher= Oxford University Press|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-19-506284-7|page= 19|chapter= The prefrontal region:Its early history}}</ref><br />
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The earliest mention of experiments on the neural basis of working memory can be traced back to more than 100 years ago, when Hitzig and Ferrier described ablation experiments of the prefrontal cortex (PFC); they concluded that the frontal cortex was important for cognitive rather than sensory processes. In 1935 and 1936, Carlyle Jacobsen and colleagues were the first to show the deleterious effect of prefrontal ablation on delayed response.<br />
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提及工作记忆神经学基础的实验最早可追溯到100多年前希齐格 Hitzig 和费里尔 Ferrier 用于描述前额叶皮质消融实验研究(PFC),当时得出结论认为额叶皮层对认知程序比对感官程序更重要。在1935年和1936年, 卡莱尔 · 雅各布森 Carlyle Jacobsen及其同事们首次揭示了前额叶切除对延时反映的不良影响。<br />
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== 理论 Theories ==<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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Numerous models have been proposed for how working memory functions, both anatomically and cognitively. Of those, the two that have been most influential are summarized below.<br />
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在解刨学和认知学上,神经模型已经提出工作记忆发挥功能的机制,其中最有影响力的两个模型概括如下:<br />
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=== 多组件模型 The multicomponent model ===<br />
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{{Main|Baddeley's model of working memory}}<br />
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[[File:Baddeley and Hitch's Working Memory Model.png|thumb|300px|巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型]]<br />
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Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory<br />
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巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch 的工作记忆模型<br />
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In 1974, [[Alan Baddeley|Baddeley]] and [[Graham Hitch|Hitch]]<ref name="Baddeley Hitch 1974">{{cite book | last1 = Baddeley | first1 = Alan D. | last2 = Hitch | first2 = Graham | title = Working Memory | volume = 2 | editor = Gordon H. Bower | work = The psychology of learning and motivation | publisher = Academic Press | year = 1974 | pages = 47–89 | isbn = 978-0-12-543308-2 |oclc = 777285348 |doi= 10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60452-1}}</ref> introduced the [[Baddeley's model of working memory|multicomponent model of working memory]]. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.<ref name="Levin 2011">{{Cite book|title = Working Memory : Capacity, Developments and Improvement Techniques|last = Levin|first = E.S.|publisher = [[Nova Science Publishers, Inc.]]|year = 2011|location = New York}}</ref> The [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Central executive|central executive]] is responsible for, among other things, directing [[attention]] to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the [[phonological loop]] (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a [[memory rehearsal|rehearsal]] loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = New York|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The other subordinate system, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Visuospatial sketchpad|visuospatial sketchpad]], stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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In 1974, Baddeley and Hitch introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components. The central executive is responsible for, among other things, directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating subordinate systems responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One subordinate system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again. The other subordinate system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location).<br />
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1974年,巴德利 Baddeley和希池 Hitch提出了'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆多组件模型 Multicomponent Model of Working Memory</font>''',是一个包含三个组件的模型:中央执行器组件、语音回路组件、视觉绘板组件,其中'''<font color="#ff8000">中央执行器 Central Executive</font>'''作为某种控制中心,负责疏导语音回路和视觉绘板之间的信息传递。中央处理器还负责对有关信息的注意力引导,对无关信息及不当行为的抑制,对多任务同时执行时认知程序的协调等。中央执行器还负责监督信息的整合、以及对负责短期信息维护的子系统间的协调。'''<font color="#ff8000">语音回路(PL) Phonological Loop (PL)</font>'''存储语音信息并不断刷新以防止其衰退,例如一个7位数的电话号码只要持续刷新就可一直保持。而'''<font color="#ff8000">视觉绘板 Visuospatial Sketchpad</font>'''存储视觉和空间信息,例如构建、操控视觉图像及展现精神世界。视觉绘板还可进一步分为视觉子系统(处理形状、颜色和纹理等现象)和空间子系统(处理位置)。<br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Episodic buffer|episodic buffer]], which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.<ref name="Weiten 2013 281–282">{{Cite book|title = Variations in psychology|last = Weiten|first = W.|publisher = Wadsworth|year = 2013|location = Belmont, CA|pages = 281–282|edition = 9}}</ref> The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of [[episodic memory]], but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://nbu.bg/cogs/events/2002/materials/Markus/ep_bufer.pdf | title=The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? | author=Baddeley, A. D. | journal=Trends Cogn. Sci. | year=2000 | volume=4 | issue=11 | pages=417–423 | doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 | pmid=11058819}}</ref><br />
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In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the subordinate systems (e.g.,&nbsp;semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory. The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.<br />
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2000年,巴德利 Baddeley 增加了第四个组件——'''<font color="#ff8000">情景缓冲区 Episodic Buffer</font>'''扩展了该模型。情景缓冲区包含并一体化地描述语音、视觉、空间信息,及可能未被子系统涵盖的信息(例如语义、音乐)。情景缓冲区也是工作记忆和长期记忆之间的枢纽。该组件的基本假设是把信息绑定到单一情节表示,因此是情节性的。情景缓冲区与图尔文 Tulving'''<font color="#ff8000">情景记忆 Episodic Memory</font>'''的概念类似,不同之处在于情景缓冲区是临时存储。<br />
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=== 作为长期记忆一部分的工作记忆 Working memory as part of long-term memory ===<br />
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{{Annotated image|caption=The central executive of working memory is retrieving memory from long-term memory.|image=WorkingMemory Label Free.jpg|width=320|height=179|image-width=320|image-left=0|image-top=0|annotations={{Annotation|130|15|Central Executive|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}<br />
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{{Annotation|10|160|Long-term Memory|font-weight=bold|font-size=10}}}}[[Anders Ericsson]] and [[Walter Kintsch]]<ref>{{cite journal|year=1995|title=Long-term working memory.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=102|issue=2|pages=211–245|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.211|pmid=7740089|author=Ericsson, K. A.|author2=Kintsch, W.|lastauthoramp=y}}</ref> have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, [[Nelson Cowan|Cowan]] does not regard working memory as a separate system from [[long-term memory]]. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<ref name="Cowan 1995">{{cite book |author=Cowan, Nelson |title=Attention and memory: an integrated framework |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-506760-6 |oclc=30475237 }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref><br />
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}}Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch have introduced the notion of "long-term working memory", which they define as a set of "retrieval structures" in long-term memory that enable seamless access to the information relevant for everyday tasks. In this way, parts of long-term memory effectively function as working memory. In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.<br />
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安德斯 · 埃里克森 Anders Ericsson 和沃尔特 · 金奇 Walter Kintsch 引入了“'''<font color="#ff8000">长期工作记忆 Long-term Working Memory</font>'''”的概念,其定义为'''<font color="#ff8000">长期记忆 Long-term Memory</font>'''中能为让人无缝获取日常所需信息的一组“检索结构” 。即一部分长期记忆有效地发挥了工作记忆的功能。同样,考恩 Cowan 并不认为工作记忆是独立于长期记忆的系统。工作记忆中的表征是长期记忆中表征的一个子集。工作记忆被组织成两个嵌入层次。第一层包括被激活的长期记忆表征(可能很多,鉴于理论上在长时记忆中表征的激活是没有上限的)。第二层叫做注意力焦点,焦点是一个最多可容纳四个激活表征的有限能力。<br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Attention, working memory, and long-term memory in multimedia learning: A integrated perspective based on process models of working memory|last = Schweppe|first = J.|date = 2014|journal = Educational Psychology Review|doi = 10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2|issue = 2|volume = 26|page = 289}}</ref> Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Oberauer K |title=Access to information in working memory: exploring the focus of attention |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=411–21 |date=May 2002 |pmid=12018494 |doi=10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411|citeseerx=10.1.1.163.4979 }}</ref><br />
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Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit since most individuals cannot perform several mathematical processes in parallel. Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.<br />
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奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 通过添加第三个组件扩展了考恩 Cowan 的模型,第三个组件是一个更窄的注意焦点,一次只能容纳一个'''<font color="#ff8000">组块 Chunk</font>'''。一元素焦点系统嵌入在四元素焦点系统中,用于选择要处理的单个块。例如,在考恩 Cowan 的“注意力焦点”中,四个数字可以同时出现在脑海中。当个体要对每个数字进行处理时(例如,将数字2加到每个数字)就要对每个数字进行独立处理(因大多数个人不能同时进行多个数学处理)。奥伯奥尔 Oberauer 的注意力组件将选择其中一个数字进行处理,然后将注意力的焦点转到下一个数字,直到所有数字都处理完毕。<br />
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== 容量 Capacity ==<br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "[[The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two|magical number seven]]" suggested by Miller in 1956.<ref name="miller">{{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information |journal=Psychological Review |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=81–97 |date=March 1956 |pmid=13310704 |doi=10.1037/h0043158|citeseerx=10.1.1.308.8071 }} Republished: {{Cite journal|author=Miller GA |title=The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. 1956 |journal=Psychological Review |volume=101 |issue=2 |pages=343–52 |date=April 1994 |pmid=8022966 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.343}}</ref> He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the [[chunking (psychology)|chunks]] within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Service|first=Elisabet|date=1998-05-01|title=The Effect of Word Length on Immediate Serial Recall Depends on Phonological Complexity, Not Articulatory Duration|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A|volume=51|issue=2|pages=283–304|doi=10.1080/713755759|issn=0272-4987}}</ref> and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Charles |last1=Hulme |first2=Steven |last2=Roodenrys |first3=Gordon |last3=Brown |first4=Robin |last4=Mercer |date=November 1995 |title=The role of long-term memory mechanisms in memory span |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=527–36 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02570.x}}</ref> Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Nelson |last1=Cowan |year=2001 |title=The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=87–185 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X01003922 |pmid=11515286|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Working memory is widely acknowledged as having limited capacity. An early quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956. He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven elements, which he called "chunks", regardless of whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) depends on the phonological complexity of the content (i.e., the number of phonemes, the number of syllables), and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not). Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).<br />
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通说认为工作记忆容量有限,一个对短期记忆的早期量化是1956年米勒 Miller提出的“'''<font color="#ff8000">神奇数字7 The Magical Number Seven</font>'''”。他主张年轻人的信息处理能力大约是7个元素,称之为组块(chunk),组块内容可以是数字、字母、单词或其他单元。后续的研究发现,这个数字的大小取决于所用组块的类别(例如规模可能在约7个数字、6个字母、5个单词)甚至取决于该类别中组块的特征。例如,长词的组块数会低于短词的组块数。一般而言口头内容(数字、字母、单词)记忆规模取决于内容的音系复杂度(即音素、音节的量)以及所用词汇状态(内容所用单词是否为主体所知)。还有其他若干因素会影响可测量的记忆规模,因此难以确定短期记忆或工作记忆的组块数。尽管如此,考恩 Cowan主张年轻成人的工作记忆容量大约是4个组块(儿童和老年人则更少)。<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000<ref name="Gobet F 2000 551–70">{{Cite journal|date=November 2000|title=Some shortcomings of long-term working memory|journal=British Journal of Psychology|volume=91|issue=Pt 4|pages=551–70|doi=10.1348/000712600161989|pmid=11104178|author=Gobet F|url=http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/807|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref>).<br />
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Whereas most adults can repeat about seven digits in correct order, some individuals have shown impressive enlargements of their digit span—up to 80 digits. This feat is possible by extensive training on an encoding strategy by which the digits in a list are grouped (usually in groups of three to five) and these groups are encoded as a single unit (a chunk). For this to succeed, participants must be able to recognize the groups as some known string of digits. One person studied by Ericsson and his colleagues, for example, used an extensive knowledge of racing times from the history of sports in the process of coding chunks: several such chunks could then be combined into a higher-order chunk, forming a hierarchy of chunks. In this way, only some chunks at the highest level of the hierarchy must be retained in working memory, and for retrieval the chunks are unpacked. That is, the chunks in working memory act as retrieval cues that point to the digits they contain. Practicing memory skills such as these does not expand working memory capacity proper: it is the capacity to transfer (and retrieve) information from long-term memory that is improved, according to Ericsson and Kintsch (1995; see also Gobet & Simon, 2000).<br />
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大多数成年人能够正确地重复大约7个数字,但有些个体显示出显著扩大的数字记忆规模——高达80个数字。这种技术可以通过对编码策略的广泛训练来实现。按编码策略将列表中的数字分组(通常分3到5组)并将这些组编码为一个独立单元(一个组块)。要实现这一点,参与者必须能够将组块识别为某些已知的数字字符串。例如,埃里克森 Ericsson 和他的同事的研究对象利用了体育历史中比赛时间的广泛知识来编写代码组块: 几个这样的组块可组合成一个更高级的组块,形成组块层次结构。如此,只有层次结构最高级别的一些组块必须保持在工作记忆中,且这些组块是开放于检索的。也就是说,工作记忆中的组块作为提取线索发挥作用,提取它们所指向的数字内容。埃里克森 Ericsson 和 金茨 Kintsch (1995; 参见 Gobet & Simon,2000)认为,练习这种记忆技术并不能真正提高工作记忆容量,所提高的是从长期记忆中传递(和检索)信息的容量。<br />
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=== 测量和关联 Measures and correlates ===<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a [[memory span]] measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "[[reading span]]", in 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Meredyth |last1=Daneman |first2=Patricia A. |last2=Carpenter |date=August 1980 |title=Individual differences in working memory and reading |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=450–66 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6}}</ref> Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Süss|first2=H.-M.|last3=Schulze|first3=R.|last4=Wilhelm|first4=O.|last5=Wittmann|first5=W.&nbsp;W.|date=December 2000|title=Working memory capacity—facets of a cognitive ability construct|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1017–45|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00251-2|first1=K.|last1=Oberauer}}</ref> Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Unsworth|first1=Nash|last2=Engle|first2=Randall W.|title=On the division of short-term and working memory: An examination of simple and complex span and their relation to higher order abilities.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=133|issue=6|pages=1038–1066|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.1038|pmid=17967093|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Colom, R. Abad, F. J. Quiroga, M. A. Shih, P. C. Flores-Mendoza, C.|year=2008|title=Working memory and intelligence are highly related constructs, but why?|journal=Intelligence|volume=36|issue=6|pages=584–606|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2008.01.002}}</ref> Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oberauer, K. Süß, H.-M. Wilhelm, O. Wittmann, W. W.|year=2003|title=The multiple faces of working memory - storage, processing, supervision, and coordination|doi=10.1016/s0160-2896(02)00115-0|journal=Intelligence|volume=31|issue=2|pages=167–193|url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/97155/1/intelligence.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuderski|first=Adam|date=2013-09-25|title=The relational integration task explains fluid reasoning above and beyond other working memory tasks|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=42|issue=3|pages=448–463|doi=10.3758/s13421-013-0366-x|issn=0090-502X|pmc=3969517|pmid=24222318}}</ref> The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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Working memory capacity can be tested by a variety of tasks. A commonly used measure is a dual-task paradigm, combining a memory span measure with a concurrent processing task, sometimes referred to as "complex span". Daneman and Carpenter invented the first version of this kind of task, the "reading span", in 1980. Subjects read a number of sentences (usually between two and six) and tried to remember the last word of each sentence. At the end of the list of sentences, they repeated back the words in their correct order. Other tasks that do not have this dual-task nature have also been shown to be good measures of working memory capacity. Whereas Daneman and Carpenter believed that the combination of "storage" (maintenance) and processing is needed to measure working memory capacity, we know now that the capacity of working memory can be measured with short-term memory tasks that have no additional processing component. Conversely, working memory capacity can also be measured with certain processing tasks that don't involve maintenance of information. The question of what features a task must have to qualify as a good measure of working memory capacity is a topic of ongoing research.<br />
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工作记忆容量可以通过一系列任务来测试。一个常用的度量方法是双任务范例,它将'''<font color="#ff8000">记忆广度测度 Memory Span Measure</font>'''与并发处理任务(有时称为“复杂规模”)结合起来。1980年,丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 发明了这类任务的第一个版本——“阅读广度”。受试者阅读大量的句子(通常2至6个) ,并努力记住每个句子的最后一个单词。句子阅读完后他们按照自己认为正确的顺序复述单词。还有一些其他非双重任务性质的任务也是测量工作记忆容量的好办法。丹曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 相信“存储”(维护)和加工的结合是测量工作记忆容量所必须的,现在我们知道工作记忆的容量既可以用没有额外处理组件的短时记忆任务来测量,也可以用不涉及信息维护的某些处理任务来衡量。至于用于测量工作记忆容量的好的任务方案应当具备哪些特征,是一个尚在研究中的课题。<br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of [[intelligence quotient]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Conway AR, Kane MJ, Engle RW |title=Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=547–52 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14643371 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005|citeseerx=10.1.1.538.4967 }}</ref><br />
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Measures of working-memory capacity are strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks, such as reading comprehension, problem solving, and with measures of intelligence quotient.<br />
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工作记忆容量的测度与其他复杂认知任务中的表现有强相关关系,例如阅读理解、问题解决和智商。<br />
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Some researchers have argued<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Engle, R. W.|author2=Tuholski, S. W.|author3=Laughlin, J. E.|author4=Conway, A. R. |title=Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: a latent-variable approach |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=309–31 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10513398 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.128.3.309|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/cf15817ee5f9c1536ee4da2c4c018555600ca91b}}</ref> that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196323|author=Kane, M. J.|author2=Engle, R. W.|title=The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=637–71 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12613671 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12613671|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />
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Some researchers have argued that working-memory capacity reflects the efficiency of executive functions, most notably the ability to maintain multiple task-relevant representations in the face of distracting irrelevant information; and that such tasks seem to reflect individual differences in the ability to focus and maintain attention, particularly when other events are serving to capture attention. Both working memory and executive functions rely strongly, though not exclusively, on frontal brain areas.<br />
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一些研究人员主张,工作记忆容量反映出执行功能的效率,其中最具代表性的是在面对分散注意力的不相关信息时维持多个任务相关表征的能力; 且这样的任务似乎也反映出在集中注意力和保持注意力方面的个体能力差异(特别是当其他事件能吸引注意力时)。工作记忆和执行功能都非常依赖(但不限于)额叶大脑区域。<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Halford, G. S.|author2=Baker, R.|author3=McCredden, J. E.|author4=Bain, J. D. |title=How many variables can humans process? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=70–76 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15660854 |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00782.x}}</ref> These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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Other researchers have argued that the capacity of working memory is better characterized as the ability to mentally form relations between elements, or to grasp relations in given information. This idea has been advanced, among others, by Graeme Halford, who illustrated it by our limited ability to understand statistical interactions between variables. These authors asked people to compare written statements about the relations between several variables to graphs illustrating the same or a different relation, as in the following sentence: "If the cake is from France, then it has more sugar if it is made with chocolate than if it is made with cream, but if the cake is from Italy, then it has more sugar if it is made with cream than if it is made of chocolate". This statement describes a relation between three variables (country, ingredient, and amount of sugar), which is the maximum most individuals can understand. The capacity limit apparent here is obviously not a memory limit (all relevant information can be seen continuously) but a limit to how many relationships are discerned simultaneously.<br />
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另一些研究人员主张,用心理上形成或抓取元素间关系的能力来描述工作记忆容量更佳。Graeme Halford 格雷姆 · 哈尔福德在用我们理解变量之间统计交互作用的有限能力时形成并提出了这个想法。这些发起人要求人们把关于几个变量之间关系的书面陈述与相应的图示(说明相同或不同关系)进行比较,例如: ”如果蛋糕来自法国,那么用巧克力做的比用奶油做的含糖量高,但如果蛋糕来自意大利,那么用奶油做的比用巧克力做的含糖量高”。这个陈述描述了三个变量之间的关系(国家、成分和糖量) ,这是大多数人能够理解的最大值。这里的容量限制显然不是记忆量限制(所有相关信息都可完整看到) ,而是同时识别关系量的限制。<br />
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=== 工作记忆容量的试验研究 Experimental studies of working-memory capacity ===<br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Just, M. A.|author2=Carpenter, P. A. |title=A capacity theory of comprehension: individual differences in working memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=122–49 |date=January 1992 |pmid=1546114 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122|url=http://repository.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1730&context=psychology }}</ref> Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03198549|author=Towse, J. N.|author2=Hitch, G. J.|author3=Hutton, U.|title=On the interpretation of working memory span in adults |journal=Memory & Cognition |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=341–8 |date=April 2000 |pmid=10881551|doi-access=free }}</ref> Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Waugh NC, Norman DA |title=Primary Memory |journal=Psychological Review |volume=72 |issue= 2|pages=89–104 |date=March 1965 |pmid=14282677 |doi=10.1037/h0021797}}</ref><br />
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There are several hypotheses about the nature of the capacity limit. One is that a limited pool of cognitive resources is needed to keep representations active and thereby available for processing, and for carrying out processes. Another hypothesis is that memory traces in working memory decay within a few seconds, unless refreshed through rehearsal, and because the speed of rehearsal is limited, we can maintain only a limited amount of information. Yet another idea is that representations held in working memory interfere with each other.<br />
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关于容量极限的性质有几种假设。一种观点认为其性质是一种前提性有限认知资源池,作为保持记忆表征激活进而处理的前提,另一种观点认为工作记忆若不反复刷新将会在几秒内衰退,而刷新速率是有限的,所以我们只能维持一定的信息量。还有观点认为容量极限是处于工作记忆中表征之间互相干涉的结果。<br />
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==== 衰变理论 Decay theories====<br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory [[decay theory|decay]] over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown, J.|year=1958|title=Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=10|pages=12–21|doi=10.1080/17470215808416249}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Peterson, L. R. |author2=Peterson, M. J.|year=1959|title=Short-term retention of individual verbal items|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=58|issue=3|pages=193–198|doi=10.1037/h0049234|pmid=14432252|citeseerx=10.1.1.227.1807}}</ref> It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Working memory|author1=Baddeley, A. D.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1986|location=Oxford}}</ref> The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model".<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2004|title=Time constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=133|issue=1|pages=83–100|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83|pmid=14979753|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Camos V|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.9208}}</ref> This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<ref>{{citation|title=Time and cognitive load in working memory|date=May 2007|journal=J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn|vauthors=Barrouillet P, Bernardin S, Portrat S, Vergauwe E, Camos V|volume=33|issue=3|pages=570–585|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570|pmid=17470006|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:88299}}</ref><br />
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The assumption that the contents of short-term or working memory decay over time, unless decay is prevented by rehearsal, goes back to the early days of experimental research on short-term memory. It is also an important assumption in the multi-component theory of working memory. The most elaborate decay-based theory of working memory to date is the "time-based resource sharing model". This theory assumes that representations in working memory decay unless they are refreshed. Refreshing them requires an attentional mechanism that is also needed for any concurrent processing task. When there are small time intervals in which the processing task does not require attention, this time can be used to refresh memory traces. The theory therefore predicts that the amount of forgetting depends on the temporal density of attentional demands of the processing task—this density is called "cognitive load". The cognitive load depends on two variables, the rate at which the processing task requires individual steps to be carried out, and the duration of each step. For example, if the processing task consists of adding digits, then having to add another digit every half second places a higher cognitive load on the system than having to add another digit every two seconds. In a series of experiments, Barrouillet and colleagues have shown that memory for lists of letters depends neither on the number of processing steps nor the total time of processing but on cognitive load.<br />
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该理论假设短期记忆或工作记忆的内容会随着时间的推移而'''<font color="#ff8000">衰退 Decay</font>''',除非通过刷新来防止衰退,这种理论可追溯到短期记忆早期的实验研究。这也是工作记忆多元理论中的一个重要假设。迄今为止,最详尽的基于衰减假设的工作记忆理论是“基于时间的资源共享模型”。该理论假设工作记忆中不断衰退的表征需要刷新维持,而刷新需要注意力机制,而注意力又对于任何并发进程任务都是必需的。当进程任务存在不需要注意力的微小时间间隔时,该时间可刷新记忆痕迹。因此,该理论预测遗忘量取决于进程任务临时所需注意力的密度,这种密度叫做“认知负荷”。认知负荷取决于两个变量,一是进程任务需要单个步骤执行的速率,二是每个步骤的持续时间。例如,如果处理任务包括添加数字,那么每半秒添加一个数字会比每两秒添加一个数字给系统带来更大的认知负荷。在一系列的实验中,巴鲁耶 Barrouillet 及其同事已证明字母列表的记忆并不取决于处理步骤数量或者处理总时间,而是取决于认知负荷。<br />
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==== 资源理论 Resource theories====<br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ma|first1=W. J.|author2=Husain, M.|author3=Bays, P. M.|year=2014|title=Changing concepts of working memory|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|volume=17|issue=3|pages=347–356|doi=10.1038/nn.3655|pmid=24569831|pmc=4159388}}</ref> Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<ref name=":0" /> this can explain why maintenance is typically impaired by a concurrent processing demand. Resource theories have been very successful in explaining data from tests of working memory for simple visual features, such as colors or orientations of bars. An ongoing debate is whether the resource is a continuous quantity that can be subdivided among any number of items in working memory, or whether it consists of a small number of discrete "slots", each of which can be assigned to one memory item, so that only a limited number of about 3 items can be maintained in working memory at all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van den Berg|first1=Ronald|last2=Awh|first2=Edward|last3=Ma|first3=Wei Ji|title=Factorial comparison of working memory models.|journal=Psychological Review|volume=121|issue=1|pages=124–149|doi=10.1037/a0035234|pmc=4159389|pmid=24490791|year=2014}}</ref><br />
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Resource theories assume that the capacity of working memory is a limited resource that must be shared between all representations that need to be maintained in working memory simultaneously. Some resource theorists also assume that maintenance and concurrent processing share the same resource;<br />
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资源理论认为工作记忆容量是一种有限的资源,这种资源被所有需要同时保存在工作记忆中的表征共享。一些资源理论学者假设维护和并行处理也占用同样的资源;<br />
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==== 干涉理论 Interference theories====<br />
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Several forms of [[Interference theory|interference]] have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oberauer|first1=Klaus|last2=Lewandowsky|first2=Stephan|last3=Farrell|first3=Simon|last4=Jarrold|first4=Christopher|last5=Greaves|first5=Martin|date=2012-06-20|title=Modeling working memory: An interference model of complex span|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=19|issue=5|pages=779–819|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0272-4|pmid=22715024|issn=1069-9384|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/320568/files/13423_2012_Article_272.pdf}}</ref> A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009 |title=A formal model of capacity limits in working memory |date=November 2006 |first1=Klaus |last1=Oberauer |first2=Reinhold |last2=Kliegl |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=601–26|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00221-010-2501-2 |pmid=21132280 |title=Distractor frequency influences performance in vibrotactile working memory |year=2011 |first1=T. |last1=Bancroft |first2=P. |last2=Servos |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=208 |issue=4 |pages=529–32}}</ref> The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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Several forms of interference have been discussed by theorists. One of the oldest ideas is that new items simply replace older ones in working memory. Another form of interference is retrieval competition. For example, when the task is to remember a list of 7 words in their order, we need to start recall with the first word. While trying to retrieve the first word, the second word, which is represented in proximity, is accidentally retrieved as well, and the two compete for being recalled. Errors in serial recall tasks are often confusions of neighboring items on a memory list (so-called transpositions), showing that retrieval competition plays a role in limiting our ability to recall lists in order, and probably also in other working memory tasks. A third form of interference is the distortion of representations by superposition: When multiple representations are added on top of each other, each of them is blurred by the presence of all the others. A fourth form of interference assumed by some authors is feature overwriting. The idea is that each word, digit, or other item in working memory is represented as a bundle of features, and when two items share some features, one of them steals the features from the other. The more items are held in working memory, and the more their features overlap, the more each of them will be degraded by the loss of some features.<br />
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理论家们讨论过几种形式的干涉。最初的观点之一是,新事物只是单纯地取代了工作记忆中的旧事物。另一种干涉形式是检索竞争。例如当任务是顺序记住7个单词时,需要从第一个单词开始回忆,而在试图检索第一个单词时,第二个单词也会意外地被检索到,而这两个单词会竞争忆起。连续回忆任务中的错误通常是记忆列表中相邻项目的混淆(即所谓的换位) ,这表明检索竞争限制了我们顺序回忆列表的能力,在其他工作记忆任务中也可能有这种限制。第三种形式的干涉是叠表征的变形: 当多重表征叠加在一起时,每一表征都因所有其他表征而模糊不清。一些发起人认为的第四种干涉形式是特征覆盖。该观点认为工作记忆中的每个单词、数字或其他项目都被表示为一系列特征,当两个项目共享某些特征时,其中一个就会窃取另一个的特征。工作记忆中保存的条目越多则重叠的特征越多,每个条目由于其某些特征丢失而减损越多。<br />
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==== 极限 Limitations ====<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.07.009 |title=The relationship between processing and storage in working memory span: Not two sides of the same coin |date=February 2007 |first1=Yukio |last1=Maehara |first2=Satoru |last2=Saito |journal=Journal of Memory and Language |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=212–228}}</ref> Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1076/anec.6.2.99.784 |title=Selection from Working Memory: on the Relationship between Processing and Storage Components |date=June 1999 |last1=Li |first1=Karen Z.H. |journal=Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=99–116}}</ref> These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03196705|vauthors=Lewandowsky S, Duncan M, Brown GD |title=Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=11 |issue=5 |pages=771–90 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15732687 |url=http://pbr.psychonomic-journals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15732687|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Oberauer K, Lewandowsky S |title=Forgetting in immediate serial recall: decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? |journal=Psychological Review |volume=115 |issue=3 |pages=544–76 |date=July 2008 |pmid=18729591 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544|url=https://api.research-repository.uwa.edu.au/files/1546099/11204_PID11204.pdf }}</ref> The [[interference theory]] seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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None of these hypotheses can explain the experimental data entirely. The resource hypothesis, for example, was meant to explain the trade-off between maintenance and processing: The more information must be maintained in working memory, the slower and more error prone concurrent processes become, and with a higher demand on concurrent processing memory suffers. This trade-off has been investigated by tasks like the reading-span task described above. It has been found that the amount of trade-off depends on the similarity of the information to be remembered and the information to be processed. For example, remembering numbers while processing spatial information, or remembering spatial information while processing numbers, impair each other much less than when material of the same kind must be remembered and processed. Also, remembering words and processing digits, or remembering digits and processing words, is easier than remembering and processing materials of the same category. These findings are also difficult to explain for the decay hypothesis, because decay of memory representations should depend only on how long the processing task delays rehearsal or recall, not on the content of the processing task. A further problem for the decay hypothesis comes from experiments in which the recall of a list of letters was delayed, either by instructing participants to recall at a slower pace, or by instructing them to say an irrelevant word once or three times in between recall of each letter. Delaying recall had virtually no effect on recall accuracy. The interference theory seems to fare best with explaining why the similarity between memory contents and the contents of concurrent processing tasks affects how much they impair each other. More similar materials are more likely to be confused, leading to retrieval competition.<br />
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这些假说都不能完全解释实验数据。例如,资源假说旨在解释维护和加工之间的平衡: 工作记忆中所必须保存的信息越多,则并发过程就变得越慢、越容易出错,且对并发加工记忆的要求也越高。这种平衡已通过前述的阅读广度任务等进行了研究。研究发现,平衡量取决于所要记忆或处理的信息的相似性。例如,在处理空间信息时记忆数字,或者在处理数字时记忆空间信息的相互干渉都比在记忆或处理同类材料时要小得多。此外,记忆单词时处理数字,或记忆数字时处理单词,也比记忆和处理同一类别材料时更容易。对于衰退假来说这些发现也很难解释,因为记忆表征的衰退应该只取决于处理任务延迟刷新的时间,而不取决于处理任务的内容。衰退假说的另一个问题来自于延迟回忆字母列表的实验,要么要求参与者以较慢的速度回忆,要么要求他们在回忆每个字母的间隔说一个不相关单词一至三次。但延迟回忆对回忆准确率几乎没有影响。干扰理论似乎最好地解释了记忆内容和同时处理任务内容之间的相似性影响它们彼此之间减损程度的原因在于:材料越相似就越容易混淆,导致检索竞争。<br />
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== 发展 Development ==<br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177 | last1 = Gathercole | first1 = S. E. | last2 = Pickering | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Ambridge | first3 = B. | last4 = Wearing | first4 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 40 | issue = 2| pages = 177–190 | pmid = 14979759 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.529.2727 }}</ref> and declines gradually in old age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0894-4105.8.4.535 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1994 | title = The aging of working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 535–543 }}</ref><br />
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The capacity of working memory increases gradually over childhood and declines gradually in old age.<br />
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工作记忆的容量在儿童期逐渐增加,在老年期逐渐下降。<br />
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=== 儿童期 Childhood ===<br />
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{{Main|Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development}}<br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> Starting with work in the Neo-Piagetian tradition,<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0001-6918(70)90108-3 | last1 = Pascual-Leone | first1 = J. | year = 1970 | title = A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget's developmental stages | journal = Acta Psychologica | volume = 32 | pages = 301–345 }}</ref><ref>Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development. Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.</ref> theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood.<ref>Jarrold, C., & Bayliss, D. M. (2007). Variation in working memory due to typical and atypical development. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 137–161). New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01895.x | last1 = Kail | first1 = R. | year = 2007 | title = Longitudinal evidence that increases in processing speed and working memory enhance children's reasoning | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 312–313 | pmid = 17470254 }}</ref> Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0010-0285(02)00002-6 | last1 = Andrews | first1 = G. | last2 = Halford | first2 = G. S. | year = 2002 | title = A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 153–219 | pmid = 12528901 }}</ref> Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an [[fMRI]] meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the [[insular cortex]] and [[cerebellum]] remain intact.<ref name= "cf">Yaple, Z., Arsalidou, M (2018). N-back working memory task: Meta-analysis of normative fMRI studies with children, Child Development, 89(6), 2010-2022.</ref><br />
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Measures of performance on tests of working memory increase continuously between early childhood and adolescence, while the structure of correlations between different tests remains largely constant. theorists have argued that the growth of working-memory capacity is a major driving force of cognitive development. This hypothesis has received substantial empirical support from studies showing that the capacity of working memory is a strong predictor of cognitive abilities in childhood. Particularly strong evidence for a role of working memory for development comes from a longitudinal study showing that working-memory capacity at one age predicts reasoning ability at a later age. Studies in the Neo-Piagetian tradition have added to this picture by analyzing the complexity of cognitive tasks in terms of the number of items or relations that have to be considered simultaneously for a solution. Across a broad range of tasks, children manage task versions of the same level of complexity at about the same age, consistent with the view that working memory capacity limits the complexity they can handle at a given age. Although neuroscience studies support the notion that children rely on prefrontal cortex for performing various working memory tasks, an fMRI meta-analysis on children compared to adults performing the n back task revealed lack of consistent prefrontal cortex activation in children, while posterior regions including the insular cortex and cerebellum remain intact.<br />
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工作记忆的测试成绩在儿童早期和青少年期间不断增加,而不同测试之间的相关性结构基本保持不变。理论学者主张工作记忆容量的增长是认知发展的主要驱动力之一。这一假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,研究表明工作记忆能力是童年认知能力的一个强预测因子。工作记忆对发展所起作用的有力证明来自一项追踪研究,该研究表明某年龄工作记忆能力可预测后续年龄的推理能力。 对新皮亚杰传统的的研究也增加到这一图景,该研究分析了认知任务复杂性(情境下需要同时考虑的项目及关系的数量)。在一系列广泛的任务中,相同年龄段的儿童可处理大约同等难度的任务,这与特定年龄的工作记忆容量限制他们能够处理的复杂度的观点一致。虽然神经科学研究支持儿童依靠脑前额叶皮层来完成各种各种工作记忆任务,但一项功能性磁共振成象元分析对比了儿童和成人在n back任务的表现,发现相较而言儿童缺乏持续的脑前额叶皮层激活,而后部区域包括到叶皮质和小脑都没问题。<br />
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=== 老化 Aging ===<br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in [[old age]].<ref name="Hertzog 2003">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Hultsch DF, MacDonald SW |title=Latent change models of adult cognition: are changes in processing speed and working memory associated with changes in episodic memory? |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=755–69 |date=December 2003 |pmid=14692862 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.18.4.755 }}</ref><ref name="Park, D. C. 2002">{{cite journal |vauthors=Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK |title=Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span |journal=Psychol Aging |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=299–320 |date=June 2002 |pmid=12061414 |doi= 10.1037/0882-7974.17.2.299 }}</ref> Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403 | last1 = Salthouse | first1 = T. A. | year = 1996 | title = The processing speed theory of adult age differences in cognition | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 103 | issue = 3| pages = 403–428 | pmid = 8759042 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.464.585 }}</ref> Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed.<ref name="Park, D. C. 2002" /><ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/0010-0277(95)00689-3 | last1 = Mayr | first1 = U. | last2 = Kliegl | first2 = R. | last3 = Krampe | first3 = R. T. | year = 1996 | title = Sequential and coordinative processing dynamics in figural transformation across the life span | journal = Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 61–90 | pmid = 8857471 }}</ref> Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by [[Lynn Hasher]] and Rose Zacks.<ref>Hasher, L., & Zacks, R.&nbsp;T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), ''The psychology of learning and motivation'', ''Vol. 22'', (pp. 193–225). New York: Academic Press.</ref> This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support<ref>Hasher, L., Zacks, R.&nbsp;T., & May, C.&nbsp;P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D.&nbsp;Gopher & A.&nbsp;Koriat (Eds.), ''Attention and Performance'' (pp. 653–675). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</ref> but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 | last1 = West | first1 = R.&nbsp;L. | year = 1996 | title = An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 120 | issue = 2| pages = 272–292 | pmid = 8831298 }}</ref> She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the [[pre-frontal cortex]], which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/08/scientists-use-electrical-pulses-reverse-memory-decline-ageing|title=Scientists reverse memory decline using electrical pulses|last=Devlin, H.|date=2019-04-08|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-04-09|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><br />
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Working memory is among the cognitive functions most sensitive to decline in old age. Several explanations have been offered for this decline in psychology. One is the processing speed theory of cognitive aging by Tim Salthouse. Drawing on the finding of general slowing of cognitive processes as people grow older, Salthouse argues that slower processing leaves more time for working-memory contents to decay, thus reducing effective capacity. However, the decline of working-memory capacity cannot be entirely attributed to slowing because capacity declines more in old age than speed. Another proposal is the inhibition hypothesis advanced by Lynn Hasher and Rose Zacks. This theory assumes a general deficit in old age in the ability to inhibit irrelevant, or no-longer relevant, information. Therefore, working memory tends to be cluttered with irrelevant contents that reduce the effective capacity for relevant content. The assumption of an inhibition deficit in old age has received much empirical support but, so far, it is not clear whether the decline in inhibitory ability fully explains the decline of working-memory capacity. An explanation on the neural level of the decline of working memory and other cognitive functions in old age has been proposed by West. She argued that working memory depends to a large degree on the pre-frontal cortex, which deteriorates more than other brain regions as we grow old. Age related decline in working memory can be briefly reversed using low intensity transcranial stimulation, synchronizing rhythms in bilateral frontal and left temporal lobe areas.<br />
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在老年期一系列认知功能的衰退中,工作记忆最为敏感。心理学上对这种衰退有几种解释。一个是提姆 · 萨尔特豪斯 Tim Salthouse 的认知老化之加工速度理论。普遍而言,人的认知过程随着年龄增长而变慢,萨尔豪斯 Salthouse 基于这一发现,提出变慢的处理过程导致工作记忆内容有更多的时间衰减,从而降低其有效容量的主张。然而,工作记忆容量的下降不能完全归因于慢,因为老年期的容量下降比处理速度下降更快。另一个是 琳恩·哈什尔 Lynn Hasher 和 罗丝·扎克 Rose Zacks 提出的抑制假说。该理论假设老年人在抑制不相关或不再相关的信息方面普遍能力不足。因此,工作记忆往往被不相关内容所干扰,从而降低了相关内容的有效容量。老年抑制能力缺失的假设得到了大量实证研究的支持,但抑制能力的下降是否完全解释了工作记忆能力的下降,目前为止还尚不清楚。韦斯特 West对老年期工作记忆及其他认知功能的衰退提出了一种神经层面的解释,她认为工作记忆在很大程度上取决于前额叶皮层,而随着年龄的增长,前额叶皮层比其他大脑区域更容易衰退。年龄导致的工作记忆衰退可通过低强度经颅刺激的低强度、双侧额叶或左侧颞叶的同步节律得到短暂逆转。<br />
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== 训练 Training ==<br />
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{{further|Working memory training|Neurobiological effects of physical exercise#Cognitive control and memory}}<br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Klingberg, T.|author2=Forssberg, H.|author3=Westerberg, H. |title=Training of working memory in children with ADHD |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=781–91 |date=September 2002 |pmid=12424652 |doi=10.1076/jcen.24.6.781.8395|citeseerx=10.1.1.326.5165}}</ref> This study has found that a period of [[working memory training]] increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 2004|title=Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory|journal=Nature Neuroscience|volume=7|issue=1|pages=75–9|doi=10.1038/nn1165|pmid=14699419|vauthors=Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T}}</ref> has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of [[prefrontal cortex|prefrontal]] and [[parietal cortex|parietal]] [[dopamine receptor]]s (specifically, [[DRD1]]) in test persons.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=February 2009|title=Changes in cortical dopamine D1 receptor binding associated with cognitive training|journal=Science|volume=323|issue=5915|pages=800–2|bibcode=2009Sci...323..800M|doi=10.1126/science.1166102|pmid=19197069|author=McNab, F.|author2=Varrone, A.|author3=Farde, L.|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M.|year=2012|title=Current evidence does not support the claims made for CogMed working memory training|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=197–200|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2012.06.006}}</ref><br />
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Torkel Klingberg was the first to investigate whether intensive training of working memory has beneficial effects on other cognitive functions. His pioneering study suggested that working memory can be improved by training in ADHD patients through computerized programs. This study has found that a period of working memory training increases a range of cognitive abilities and increases IQ test scores. Another study of the same group has shown that, after training, measured brain activity related to working memory increased in the prefrontal cortex, an area that many researchers have associated with working memory functions. It has been shown in one study that working memory training increases the density of prefrontal and parietal dopamine receptors (specifically, DRD1) in test persons. However, subsequent work with the same training program has failed to replicate the beneficial effects of training on cognitive performance. A meta-analytic summary of research with Klingberg's training program up to 2011 shows that this training has at best a negligible effect on tests of intelligence and of attention<br />
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托克尔 · 克林伯格 Torkel Klingberg 是第一个研究工作记忆强化训练是否对其他认知功能有益的人。他开创性的研究表明ADHD患者的工作记忆经电脑程序训练得到改善。该研究发现进行一定的'''<font color="#ff8000">工作记忆训练 Working Memory Training</font>'''可提高一系列的认知能力及 IQ 测试成绩。对同一群体的另一项研究表明,训练之后大脑活动测度与脑前额叶外皮层的增加呈正相关,被许多研究人员认为该区域关乎工作记忆功能。还有一项研究表明,工作记忆训练能增加受试者前额叶和顶叶多巴胺受体(特别是 DRD1)的密度。然而,同样训练方案的后续工作未能再现这些有益影响。一份关于截至2011年的克林伯格 Klingberg 训练方案研究的元分析总结表明,对于智力和注意力测试这种训练充其量只有微不足道的效果。<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual [[n-back]] task) has improved performance on a fluid [[intelligence test]] in healthy young adults.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jaeggi, S.M.|author2=Buschkuehl, M.|author3= Jonides, J.|author4=Perrig, W. J.|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=19 |pages=6829–33 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18443283 |pmc=2383929 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0801268105|bibcode=2008PNAS..105.6829J }}</ref> The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010,<ref name="JaeggiStuder-Luethi2010">{{cite journal| last1=Jaeggi| first1=Susanne M.| last2=Studer-Luethi| first2=Barbara| last3=Buschkuehl|first3=Martin| last4=Su|first4=Yi-Fen|last5=Jonides|first5=John|last6=Perrig|first6=Walter J.|title=The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning – implications for training and transfer|journal=Intelligence|volume=38|issue=6|year=2010|pages=625–635|issn=0160-2896|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.09.001}}</ref> but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect.<ref name="RedickShipstead2013">{{cite journal|last1=Redick|first1=Thomas S.| last2=Shipstead| first2=Zach|last3=Harrison|first3=Tyler L.|last4=Hicks|first4=Kenny L.|last5=Fried|first5=David E.|last6=Hambrick|first6=David Z.|last7=Kane|first7=Michael J.|last8=Engle|first8=Randall W.|title=No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=142| issue=2|year=2013| pages=359–379| pmid=22708717|issn=1939-2222| doi=10.1037/a0029082}}</ref><ref name="ChooiThompson2012">{{cite journal| last1=Chooi| first1=Weng-Tink| last2=Thompson| first2=Lee A.| title=Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults| journal=Intelligence| volume=40|issue=6| year=2012| pages=531–542| issn=0160-2896| doi=10.1016/j.intell.2012.07.004}}</ref> The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Au|first1=Jacky|last2=Sheehan|first2=Ellen|last3=Tsai|first3=Nancy|last4=Duncan|first4=Greg J.|last5=Buschkuehl|first5=Martin|last6=Jaeggi|first6=Susanne M.|date=2014-08-08|title=Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: a meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=366–377|doi=10.3758/s13423-014-0699-x|pmid=25102926|issn=1069-9384|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/1mj701dj|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Melby-Lervåg|first1=Monica|last2=Redick|first2=Thomas S.|last3=Hulme|first3=Charles|date=2016-07-29|title=Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of "Far Transfer"|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=512–534|doi=10.1177/1745691616635612|pmc=4968033|pmid=27474138}}</ref> The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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In another influential study, training with a working memory task (the dual n-back task) has improved performance on a fluid intelligence test in healthy young adults. The improvement of fluid intelligence by training with the n-back task was replicated in 2010, but two studies published in 2012 failed to reproduce the effect. The combined evidence from about 30 experimental studies on the effectiveness of working-memory training has been evaluated by several meta-analyses. The authors of these meta-analyses disagree in their conclusions as to whether or not working-memory training improves intelligence. Yet, these meta-analyses agree in their estimate of the size of the effect of working-memory training: If there is such an effect, it is likely to be small.<br />
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在另一项有影响力的研究中,工作记忆任务('''<font color="#ff8000">双 n-back 任务 The Dual n-back Task)</font>'''训练提高了健康青年在流体智力测试中的表现。2010年再现了通过 n-back 任务训练提高流体智力的实验,但2012年发表的两项研究未能重现这一效果。一些元分析对约30个关于工作记忆训练有效性实验研究的综合证据进行了评估,对工作记忆训练是否能提高智力,分析者呈否定意见。然而,这些元分析对工作记忆训练效果的达成一致的是: 若确有提高效果,那可能也非常小。<br />
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== 脑内 In the brain ==<br />
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=== 信息维持的神经机制 Neural mechanisms of maintaining information ===<br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jacobsen CF|title= Studies of cerebral function in primates |journal=Comparative Psychology Monographs |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=1–68 |year=1938 |oclc=250695441 }}</ref> and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of [[Joaquin Fuster]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Fuster JM |title=Unit activity in prefrontal cortex during delayed-response performance: neuronal correlates of transient memory |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |date=January 1973 |pmid=4196203 |doi=10.1152/jn.1973.36.1.61 }}</ref> recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior [[parietal cortex]], the [[thalamus]], the [[Caudate nucleus|caudate]], and the [[globus pallidus]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ashby FG, Ell SW, Valentin VV, Casale MB |title=FROST: a distributed neurocomputational model of working memory maintenance |journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience |volume=17 |issue=11 |pages=1728–43 |date=November 2005 |pmid=16269109 |doi=10.1162/089892905774589271|citeseerx=10.1.1.456.7179 }}</ref> The work of [[Patricia Goldman-Rakic|Goldman-Rakic]] and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Goldman-Rakic PS|title= Cellular basis of working memory |journal=Neuron |volume=14 |issue= 3 |pages=447–485 |year=1995 | pmid = 7695894 | doi = 10.1016/0896-6273(95)90304-6 }}</ref> These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rao SG, Williams GV, Goldman-Rakic PS |title= Destruction and creation of spatial tuning by disinhibition: GABA(A) blockade of prefrontal cortical neurons engaged by working memory |journal=Journal of Neuroscience |volume=20 |pages=485–494 |year=2000|pmid=10627624 |pmc= 6774140 |issue=1|doi= 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-01-00485.2000 }}</ref> The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.05.003|author1=Arnsten AFT |author2=Paspalas CD |author3=Gamo NJ |author4=Y. Y |author5=Wang M |title= Dynamic Network Connectivity: A new form of neuroplasticity|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=14 |pages=365–375 |year=2010|issue=8|pmid=20554470|pmc=2914830}}</ref> and working memory performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135535|vauthors=Robbins TW, Arnsten AF |title= The neuropsychopharmacology of fronto-executive function: monoaminergic modulation |journal=Annu Rev Neurosci|volume=32 |pages=267–287 |year=2009|pmid=19555290|pmc=2863127}}</ref><br />
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The first insights into the neuronal and neurotransmitter basis of working memory came from animal research. The work of Jacobsen and Fulton in the 1930s first showed that lesions to the PFC impaired spatial working memory performance in monkeys. The later work of Joaquin Fuster recorded the electrical activity of neurons in the PFC of monkeys while they were doing a delayed matching task. In that task, the monkey sees how the experimenter places a bit of food under one of two identical-looking cups. A shutter is then lowered for a variable delay period, screening off the cups from the monkey's view. After the delay, the shutter opens and the monkey is allowed to retrieve the food from under the cups. Successful retrieval in the first attempt – something the animal can achieve after some training on the task – requires holding the location of the food in memory over the delay period. Fuster found neurons in the PFC that fired mostly during the delay period, suggesting that they were involved in representing the food location while it was invisible. Later research has shown similar delay-active neurons also in the posterior parietal cortex, the thalamus, the caudate, and the globus pallidus. The work of Goldman-Rakic and others showed that principal sulcal, dorsolateral PFC interconnects with all of these brain regions, and that neuronal microcircuits within PFC are able to maintain information in working memory through recurrent excitatory glutamate networks of pyramidal cells that continue to fire throughout the delay period. These circuits are tuned by lateral inhibition from GABAergic interneurons. The neuromodulatory arousal systems markedly alter PFC working memory function; for example, either too little or too much dopamine or norepinephrine impairs PFC network firing and working memory performance.<br />
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关于工作记忆的神经元和神经递质基础的初次见解来自动物研究。雅各布森 Jacobsen 和富尔顿 Fulton在20世纪30年代的研究首次表明猴子的空间工作记忆能力因PFC的损害而减损。华金 · 福斯特 Joaquin Fuster 的后续工作记录了猴子在完成延迟匹配任务时 PFC 中神经元的电活动。在该任务中,猴子看到实验人员在两个同样杯子中的一个下面放了一点食物。然后一个挡板降下挡住猴子对杯子的视线一段时间(延迟变量)。之后挡板打开,允许猴子从杯子下面取出食物。在第一次尝试中它成功地提取食物——系动物经过一些训练后能够完成的任务——要求动物在延迟期维持食物位置的记忆。福斯特发现延迟期间PFC中的大部分神经元激活了,表明这些神经元参与了在看不到食物期间对其位置的记忆维持。后来的研究发现后顶叶皮层、丘脑、尾状核和苍白球也有类似的延迟活动神经元。高德马・拉齐克 Goldman-Rakic 等人的研究表明,脊髓背外侧的PFC与所有这些大脑区域相互连接,PFC内的神经元微回路能够通过反复兴奋的锥体细胞谷氨酸网络来维持工作记忆中的信息,这些神经元网络在整个延迟期间是持续激活的。这些回路是由GABA能中间神经元的侧抑制调节的。神经调节性唤起系统显著改变了PFC工作记忆功能; 例如,过多或过少的多巴胺或去甲肾上腺素会减损PFC神经网络放电和工作记忆表现。<br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=August 2001|title=A cortical mechanism for binding in visual working memory|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=13|issue=6|pages=766–85|doi=10.1162/08989290152541430|pmid=11564321|vauthors=Raffone A, Wolters G}}</ref> In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The unity of consciousness: Binding, integration, and dissociation|last2=Busby|first2=Richard S.|last3=Soto|first3=Rodolfo|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-850857-1|location=Oxford|pages=168–90|chapter=Three forms of binding and their neural substrates: Alternatives to temporal synchrony|oclc=50747505|first1=Randall C.|last1=O'Reilly|editor1-first=Axel|editor1-last=Cleeremans|chapterurl=http://psycnet.apa.org/psycinfo/2003-88180-008}}</ref> It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the [[theta rhythm|theta]] band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of binding and memory|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|location=Oxford|pages=115–144|chapter=Binding principles in the theta frequency range|last1=Klimesch|first1=W.|editor1-first=H. D.|editor1-last=Zimmer|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Mecklinger|editor3-first=U.|editor3-last=Lindenberger}}</ref> and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=May 2007|title=Binding of verbal and spatial information in human working memory involves large-scale neural synchronization at theta frequency|journal=NeuroImage|volume=35|issue=4|pages=1654–62|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.02.011|pmid=17379539|vauthors=Wu X, Chen X, Li Z, Han S, Zhang D}}</ref><br />
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The research described above on persistent firing of certain neurons in the delay period of working memory tasks shows that the brain has a mechanism of keeping representations active without external input. Keeping representations active, however, is not enough if the task demands maintaining more than one chunk of information. In addition, the components and features of each chunk must be bound together to prevent them from being mixed up. For example, if a red triangle and a green square must be remembered at the same time, one must make sure that "red" is bound to "triangle" and "green" is bound to "square". One way of establishing such bindings is by having the neurons that represent features of the same chunk fire in synchrony, and those that represent features belonging to different chunks fire out of sync. In the example, neurons representing redness would fire in synchrony with neurons representing the triangular shape, but out of sync with those representing the square shape. So far, there is no direct evidence that working memory uses this binding mechanism, and other mechanisms have been proposed as well. It has been speculated that synchronous firing of neurons involved in working memory oscillate with frequencies in the theta band (4 to 8&nbsp;Hz). Indeed, the power of theta frequency in the EEG increases with working memory load, and oscillations in the theta band measured over different parts of the skull become more coordinated when the person tries to remember the binding between two components of information.<br />
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上述关于工作记忆任务延迟期间某些神经元持续放电的研究表明,大脑有一种机制能在没有外部输入的情况下保持表征活跃。但不足以应对需要维护多个信息块的任务。此外每个组块的组件和特性必须绑定在一起,以防止和其它混淆。例如,如果必须同时记住一个红色三角形和一个绿色正方形,就必须确保“红色”与“三角形”绑定,而“绿色”与“正方形”绑定。建立这种结合的一种方法是让表现同一组块特征的神经元以同步激活,而那些表现不同组块特征的神经元则不同步激活。在这个例子中,代表红色的神经元会与代表三角形的神经元同步激活,但与代表正方形的神经元不同步。目前还没有直接的证据表明工作记忆使用这种结合机制,学界也提出了一些其他机制。工作记忆相关神经元的同步激活据推测是在θ波段(4ー8赫兹)振荡。脑电图θ频率的能量确实随工作记忆负荷的增加而增加,当被试试图记住信息的两个组成部分之间的联系时,在头骨不同部位测量到 θ 波段的振荡变得更加协调。<br />
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=== 脑内定位 Localization in the brain ===<br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of [[brain imaging]] methods ([[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[fMRI]]). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the [[Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex|dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC]]. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the [[dorsolateral prefrontal cortex]] in working memory.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Koenigs|first2=Michael|last3=Grafman|first3=Jordan|year=2013|title=Dorsolateral prefrontal contributions to human working memory|journal=Cortex|volume=49|issue=5|pages=1195–1205|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.05.022|pmid=22789779|last1=Barbey|first1=Aron K.|pmc=3495093}}</ref> One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Owen, A. M.|title=The functional organization of working memory processes within human lateral frontal cortex: the contribution of functional neuroimaging |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=9 |issue=7 |pages=1329–39 |date=July 1997 |pmid=9240390 |doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.1997.tb01487.x}}</ref><br />
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Localization of brain functions in humans has become much easier with the advent of brain imaging methods (PET and fMRI). This research has confirmed that areas in the PFC are involved in working memory functions. During the 1990s much debate has centered on the different functions of the ventrolateral (i.e.,&nbsp;lower areas) and the dorsolateral (higher) areas of the PFC. A human lesion study provides additional evidence for the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in working memory. One view was that the dorsolateral areas are responsible for spatial working memory and the ventrolateral areas for non-spatial working memory. Another view proposed a functional distinction, arguing that ventrolateral areas are mostly involved in pure maintenance of information, whereas dorsolateral areas are more involved in tasks requiring some processing of the memorized material. The debate is not entirely resolved but most of the evidence supports the functional distinction.<br />
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脑成像方法(PET和fMRI)的出现让人脑功能定位更加容易。一项研究已经证实PFC一些区域参与工作记忆功能。在20世纪90年代,很多讨论集中在腹外侧区(即较低区域)和背外侧区(较高区域)的不同功能上。一项人体损伤研究为背外侧脑前额叶外皮在工作记忆中的作用提供了额外的证据。一种观点认为,背外侧区负责空间工作记忆,腹外侧区负责非空间工作记忆。另一种观点提出了功能区分,认为腹外侧区域主要涉及纯粹的信息维护,而背外侧区域则更多涉及需要对记忆材料进行某些处理的任务。分歧并没有完全解决,但大多数证据支持功能区分说。<br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Smith EE, Jonides J |title=Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes |journal=Science |volume=283 |issue=5408 |pages=1657–61 |date=March 1999 |pmid=10073923 |doi=10.1126/science.283.5408.1657|citeseerx=10.1.1.207.8961 }}</ref> shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Smith, E. E.|author2=Jonides, J.|author3=Marshuetz, C.|author4=Koeppe, R. A.|title=Components of verbal working memory: evidence from neuroimaging |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |issue=3 |pages=876–82 |date=February 1998 |pmid=9448254 |pmc=33811 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.876|bibcode=1998PNAS...95..876S }}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging has revealed that working memory functions are not limited to the PFC. A review of numerous studies shows areas of activation during working memory tasks scattered over a large part of the cortex. There is a tendency for spatial tasks to recruit more right-hemisphere areas, and for verbal and object working memory to recruit more left-hemisphere areas. The activation during verbal working memory tasks can be broken down into one component reflecting maintenance, in the left posterior parietal cortex, and a component reflecting subvocal rehearsal, in the left frontal cortex (Broca's area, known to be involved in speech production).<br />
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脑成像显示工作记忆功能并不局限于PFC。大量研究的综述表明,工作记忆任务中的激活区域分布在大脑皮层的很大片。空间任务倾向于使用更多的右半球区域,言语和物体工作记忆倾向于使用更多的左半球区域。非文字工作记忆任务中的激活可以分解为在左后顶叶皮层的反映维持的组件,以及在左额叶皮层的反映次声练习的组件(已知与语言产生有关的Broca区域)。<br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Honey, G. D.|author2=Fu, C. H.|author3=Kim, J.|title=Effects of verbal working memory load on corticocortical connectivity modeled by path analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging data |journal=NeuroImage |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=573–82 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12377135 |doi=10.1016/S1053-8119(02)91193-6|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mottaghy, F. M.|title=Interfering with working memory in humans |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16337091 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.037}}</ref><br />
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There is an emerging consensus that most working memory tasks recruit a network of PFC and parietal areas. A study has shown that during a working memory task the connectivity between these areas increases. Another study has demonstrated that these areas are necessary for working memory, and not simply activated accidentally during working memory tasks, by temporarily blocking them through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), thereby producing an impairment in task performance.<br />
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这一观点正在形成共识:大多数工作记忆任务使用PFC顶叶区域组成的网络。一项研究表明工作记忆任务中这些区域之间的连通性增加了。另一项研究表明这些区域是工作记忆的必要组成部分,而非单纯在工作任务中因经颅磁刺激(TMS)被意外激活而导致人物表现受损。<br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions.<ref name="Kane MJ, Engle RW 2002 637–71" /> This has led some researchers to argue that the role of PFC in working memory is in controlling attention, selecting strategies, and manipulating information in working memory, but not in maintenance of information. The maintenance function is attributed to more posterior areas of the brain, including the parietal cortex.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Curtis, C. E.|author2=D'Esposito, M.|title=Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=415–423 |date=September 2003 |pmid=12963473 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9|citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8928}}</ref><ref name="Postle">{{Cite journal|author=Postle BR |title=Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324795 |pmc=1428794 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.06.005}}</ref> Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting [[executive functions]], because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Collette, F.|author2= Hogge, M.|author3= Salmon, E.|author4=Van der Linden, M.|title=Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging |journal=Neuroscience |volume=139 |issue=1 |pages=209–21 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16324796 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035|hdl= 2268/5937|hdl-access=free }}</ref><br />
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A current debate concerns the function of these brain areas. The PFC has been found to be active in a variety of tasks that require executive functions. Other authors interpret the activity in parietal cortex as reflecting executive functions, because the same area is also activated in other tasks requiring attention but not memory.<br />
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目前的辩论是关于不同大脑区域的功能。研究发现在许多需要执行功能的任务PFC都呈活性。其他研究者把顶叶皮层的活动理解为对执行功能的反映,因为在其他需要注意力而不是记忆的任务中该区域也呈活性。<br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right [[Frontal lobe|frontal]] cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) [[Brodmann area 6|6]], [[Brodmann area 8|8]], and [[Brodmann area 9|9]], in the [[Superior frontal gyrus|superior frontal cortex]] was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann [[Brodmann area 10|10]] and [[Brodmann area 47|47]] in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the [[posterior parietal cortex]] was also involved in all types of executive function.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Neuroimaging studies of working memory: a meta-analysis|journal = Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience|date = 2003-12-01|issn = 1530-7026|pmid = 15040547|pages = 255–274|volume = 3|issue = 4|first1 = Tor D.|last1 = Wager|first2 = Edward E.|last2 = Smith|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.4.255|doi-access = free}}</ref><br />
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A 2003 meta-analysis of 60 neuroimaging studies found left frontal cortex was involved in low-task demand verbal working memory and right frontal cortex for spatial working memory. Brodmann's areas (BAs) 6, 8, and 9, in the superior frontal cortex was involved when working memory must be continuously updated and when memory for temporal order had to be maintained. Right Brodmann 10 and 47 in the ventral frontal cortex were involved more frequently with demand for manipulation such as dual-task requirements or mental operations, and Brodmann 7 in the posterior parietal cortex was also involved in all types of executive function.<br />
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2003年对60项神经成像研究的综合分析发现左额叶皮层参与低任务需求的语言工作记忆,而右额叶皮层参与空间工作记忆。Brodmann 大脑上额叶皮层区域(BAs)6、8、9号区域参与需要不断更新的工作以及和需要维持时间顺序的工作记忆。腹侧额叶皮层的右布罗德曼 Brodmann 10和47号区域较高频参与需要双重任务或心理操作的工作记忆,其中后顶叶皮层的布罗德曼Brodmann 7号区域还参与到所有类型的执行功能。<br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes.<ref name="Bledowski">{{Cite journal|author=Bledowski, C.|author2=Rahm, B.|author3=Rowe, J. B. |title=What 'works' in working memory? Separate systems for selection and updating of critical information |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=43 |pages=13735–41 |date=October 2009 |pmid=19864586 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2547-09.2009 |pmc=2785708}}</ref> First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal [[superior frontal sulcus]] and [[posterior parietal cortex]], while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/[[precuneus]].<ref name="Bledowski" /><br />
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Working memory has been suggested to involve two processes with different neuroanatomical locations in the frontal and parietal lobes. First, a selection operation that retrieves the most relevant item, and second an updating operation that changes the focus of attention made upon it. Updating the attentional focus has been found to involve the transient activation in the caudal superior frontal sulcus and posterior parietal cortex, while increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus and posterior cingulate/precuneus.<br />
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通说认为工作记忆参与位于额叶和顶叶两个神经解剖学上位置不同的两种过程。首先是检索最相关项的选择操作,其次是更改关注焦点的更新操作。更新操作包括额上沟尾部和后顶叶皮质的短暂激活,选择操作随选择的需求增加而选择性地发生额上沟和后扣带回/楔前叶激活。<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions.<ref name="Coltheart-2006">{{Cite journal | last1 = Coltheart | first1 = M. | title = What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? | journal = Cortex | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 323–31 |date=Apr 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70358-7 | pmid = 16771037 }}</ref> Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the [[reading span task]], see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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Articulating the differential function of brain regions involved in working memory is dependent on tasks able to distinguish these functions. Most brain imaging studies of working memory have used recognition tasks such as delayed recognition of one or several stimuli, or the n-back task, in which each new stimulus in a long series must be compared to the one presented n steps back in the series. The advantage of recognition tasks is that they require minimal movement (just pressing one of two keys), making fixation of the head in the scanner easier. Experimental research and research on individual differences in working memory, however, has used largely recall tasks (e.g.,&nbsp;the reading span task, see below). It is not clear to what degree recognition and recall tasks reflect the same processes and the same capacity limitations.<br />
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阐明与工作记忆相关大脑区域的不同功能,取决于能够区分这些功能的任务。大多数关于工作记忆的脑成像研究都使用了识别任务,比如延迟识别一个或多个刺激,或 n-back 任务,即一个长系列中的每个新刺激都需与该系列中的一个n步后的刺激进行比较。识别任务的优势在于只需要最低限度的运动(只需二选一按键),使头部扫描的定位更加容易。然而,关于工作记忆个体差异的实验研究大量使用了回忆任务(例如,阅读广度任务,见下文)。至于识别和回忆任务能在多大程度上反映相同过程和相同能力的极限,目前尚不清楚。<br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Kondo, H.|author2=Osaka, N.|author3=Osaka, M.|title=Cooperation of the anterior cingulate cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for attention shifting |journal=NeuroImage |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=670–9 |date=October 2004 |pmid=15488417 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Osaka N, Osaka M, Kondo H, Morishita M, Fukuyama H, Shibasaki H |title=The neural basis of executive function in working memory: an fMRI study based on individual differences |journal=NeuroImage |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=623–31 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14980565 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.069}}</ref><br />
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Brain imaging studies have been conducted with the reading span task or related tasks. Increased activation during these tasks was found in the PFC and, in several studies, also in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). People performing better on the task showed larger increase of activation in these areas, and their activation was correlated more over time, suggesting that their neural activity in these two areas was better coordinated, possibly due to stronger connectivity.<br />
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脑成像研究已用于进行阅读广度任务或相关任务,发现在这些任务中PFC的激活增加,在几项研究中还发现前扣带皮层(ACC)的激活增强。任务表现更好的人在这些区域也发生大幅的激活增加,随时间推移其相关性更强,表明表明他们这两个区域的神经活动协调度更高,可能是由于更强连接性。<br />
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=== 神经模型 Neural models ===<br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is [[PBWM|prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]. In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Baier|first1=B.|last2=Karnath|first2=H.-O.|last3=Dieterich|first3=M.|last4=Birklein|first4=F.|last5=Heinze|first5=C.|last6=Muller|first6=N. G.|date=2010-07-21|title=Keeping Memory Clear and Stable--The Contribution of Human Basal Ganglia and Prefrontal Cortex to Working Memory|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=29|pages=9788–9792|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.1513-10.2010|pmid=20660261|pmc=6632833|issn=0270-6474|doi-access=free}}</ref> One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.<ref name=":2" /> Researchers found that such damage resulted in decreased capacity to carry out the executive function of working memory.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Voytek|first1=B.|last2=Knight|first2=R. T.|date=2010-10-04|title=Prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia contributions to visual working memory|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=107|issue=42|pages=18167–18172|doi=10.1073/pnas.1007277107|pmid=20921401|issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brooks|first1=S. J.|last2=Burch|first2=K. H.|last3=Maiorana|first3=S. A.|last4=Cocolas|first4=E.|last5=Schioth|first5=H. B.|last6=Nilsson|first6=E. K.|last7=Kamaloodien|first7=K.|last8=Stein|first8=D. J.|date=2016-02-01|title=Psychological intervention with working memory training increases basal ganglia volume: A VBM study of inpatient treatment for methamphetamine use|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213158216301541|journal=NeuroImage: Clinical|language=en|volume=12|pages=478–491|doi=10.1016/j.nicl.2016.08.019|pmid=27625988|issn=2213-1582|doi-access=free}}</ref><br />
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One approach to modeling the neurophysiology and the functioning of working memory is prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM). In this model, the prefrontal cortex works hand-in-hand with the basal ganglia to accomplish the tasks of working memory. Many studies have shown this to be the case. One used ablation techniques in patients who had suffered from seizures and had damage to the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. Additional research conducted on patients with brain alterations due to methamphetamine use found that training working memory increases volume in the basal ganglia.<br />
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'''<font color="#ff8000">前额叶皮质基底节工作记忆记忆模型 Prefrontal Cortex Basal Ganglia Working Memory (PBWM)</font>'''是神经生理学和工作记忆功能模型的一种。<br />
在该模型中脑前额叶外皮与基底神经节协力共同完成工作记忆的任务,已有许多研究证明相符,例如使用消融技术治疗脑前额叶外皮和基底神经节受损、癫痫发作患者的案例。<br />
此外还有对因服用甲基苯丙胺而导致大脑改变的病人进行工作记忆训练而增加了基底神经节的容量的案例。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的压力效果 Effects of stress on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues,<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.280.5370.1711|author=Arnsten, A. F.|title=The biology of being frazzled |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5370 |pages=1711–2 |date=June 1998 |pmid=9660710}}</ref> who have shown that stress-induced [[catecholamine]] release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Arnsten, AF |title=Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=410–22 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19455173|pmc=2907136 |doi=10.1038/nrn2648}}</ref> Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Radley, J. J.|author2= Rocher, A. B.|author3=Miller, M.|author4= Janssen, W. G.|author5=Liston, C.|author6=Hof, P. R.|author7=McEwen, B. S.|author8=Morrison, J. H.|title=Repeated stress induces dendritic spine loss in the rat medial prefrontal cortex |journal=Cereb Cortex |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=313–20 |date=Mar 2006 |pmid=15901656 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhi104|doi-access=free}}</ref> which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Hains, A. B.|author2=Vu, M. A.|author3=Maciejewski, P. K.|author4= van Dyck, C. H. |authorlink4=Christopher H. van Dyck |author5=Gottron, M.|author6= Arnsten, A. F. |title=Inhibition of protein kinase C signaling protects prefrontal cortex dendritic spines and cognition from the effects of chronic stress |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=42 |pages=17957–62 |date=Oct 2009 |pmid=19805148|pmc=2742406 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0908563106|bibcode=2009PNAS..10617957H }}</ref> [[fMRI]] research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of [[catecholamine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Qin S, Hermans EJ, van Marle HJ, Luo J, Fernández G |title=Acute psychological stress reduces working memory-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=25–32 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19403118 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.006}}</ref> Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ |title=Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=912–7 |date=Jan 2009 |pmid=19139412|pmc=2621252 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0807041106|bibcode=2009PNAS..106..912L }}</ref> The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.<br />
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急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的,他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电,并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化,包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失,这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类,并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活,压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱,与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。<br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref><br />
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The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<br />
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生活中压力越大,工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺,从而影响问题解决。<br />
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=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===<br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory.<ref name="pmid21466500">{{cite journal |vauthors=van Holst RJ, Schilt T |title=Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users |journal=Curr Drug Abuse Rev |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=42–56 | date=March 2011 |pmid=21466500 |doi= 10.2174/1874473711104010042}}</ref> Alcohol has an effect on the [[Blood-oxygen-level dependent|blood-oxygen-level-dependent]] (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Jacobus J.|author2=Tapert S. F. | year = 2013 | title = Neurotoxic Effects of Alcohol in Adolescence | journal = [[Annual Review of Clinical Psychology]] | volume = 9 | issue = 1| pages = 703–721 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610 | pmc = 3873326 | pmid=23245341}}</ref> The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weiland BJ, Nigg JT, Welsh RC, Yau WY, Zubieta JK | displayauthors=etal | year = 2012 | title = Resiliency in adolescents at high risk for substance abuse: flexible adaptation via subthalamic nucleus and linkage to drinking and drug use in early adulthood | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 36 | issue = 8| pages = 1355–64 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01741.x| pmc = 3412943 | pmid=22587751}}</ref> Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tapert SF, Brown GG, Kindermann SS, Cheung EH, Frank LR, Brown SA | year = 2001 | title = fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 236–45 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02204.x | pmid=11236838}}</ref> Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ferrett HL, Carey PD, Thomas KG, Tapert SF, Fein G | year = 2010 | title = Neuropsychological performance of South African treatment-naive adolescents with alcohol dependence | journal = Drug Alcohol Depend | volume = 110 | issue = 1–2| pages = 8–14 | doi=10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.01.019| pmc = 4456395 | pmid=20227839}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crego A, Holguin SR, Parada M, Mota N, Corral M, Cadaveira F | year = 2009 | title = Binge drinking affects attentional and visual working memory processing in young university students | journal = Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. | volume = 33 | issue = 11| pages = 1870–79 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01025.x| pmid = 19673739 | hdl = 10347/16832 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenstein JE, Kassel JD, Wardle MC, Veilleux JC, Evatt DP, Heinz AJ, Yates MC | year = 2010 | title = The separate and combined effects of nicotine and alcohol on working memory capacity in nonabstinent smokers | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 120–128 | doi = 10.1037/a0018782 | pmid = 20384423 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Squeglia LM, Schweinsburg AD, Pulido C, Tapert SF | year = 2011 | title = Adolescent binge drinking linked to abnormal spatial working memory brain activation: Differential gender effects | journal = Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research | volume = 35 | issue = 10| pages = 1831–1841 | doi = 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01527.x | pmc = 3183294 | pmid=21762178}}</ref> Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Boissoneault J, Sklar A, Prather R, Nixon SJ | year = 2014 | title = Acute effects of moderate alcohol on psychomotor, set shifting, and working memory function in older and younger social drinkers | journal = Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs | volume = 75 | issue = 5| pages = 870–879 | doi = 10.15288/jsad.2014.75.870 | pmc = 4161706 | pmid=25208205}}</ref><br />
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Alcohol abuse can result in brain damage which impairs working memory. Alcohol has an effect on the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) response. The BOLD response correlates increased blood oxygenation with brain activity, which makes this response a useful tool for measuring neuronal activity. The BOLD response affects regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia and thalamus when performing a working memory task. Adolescents who start drinking at a young age show a decreased BOLD response in these brain regions. Alcohol dependent young women in particular exhibit less of a BOLD response in parietal and frontal cortices when performing a spatial working memory task. Binge drinking, specifically, can also affect one's performance on working memory tasks, particularly visual working memory. Additionally, there seems to be a gender difference in regards to how alcohol affects working memory. While women perform better on verbal working memory tasks after consuming alcohol compared to men, they appear to perform worse on spatial working memory tasks as indicated by less brain activity. Finally, age seems to be an additional factor. Older adults are more susceptible than others to the effects of alcohol on working memory.<br />
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酗酒会导致大脑损伤,从而损害工作记忆。酒精影响'''<font color="#ff8000">血氧水平依赖性 Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent(BOLD)</font>'''反应。BOLD反应把血氧含量增加与大脑活动联系起来,故这种反应是测量神经元活动的有用指标。在执行工作记忆任务时,BOLD反应影响大脑的基底神经节和丘脑等区域。从小就喝酒的青少年其大脑区域的BOLD反应降低。特别是酒精依赖的年轻女性在执行空间工作记忆任务时,顶叶和额叶皮层的BOLD反应较少。酗酒可以且特别影响工作记忆任务的表现,特别是视觉工作记忆。此外,在酒精影响工作记忆方面似乎也存在性别差异。与男性相比,女性在饮酒后的非文字工作记忆任务中表现得更好,但在空间工作记忆任务中的表现似乎更差(表现为更少的大脑活动)。最后,年龄似乎是一个额外的因素。老年人比其他人更容易受到酒精对工作记忆的影响。<br />
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== 基因 Genetics ==<br />
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=== 行为基因 Behavioral genetics ===<br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent [[heritable]]; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Engelhardt|first1=Laura E.|last2=Mann|first2=Frank D.|last3=Briley|first3=Daniel A.|last4=Church|first4=Jessica A.|last5=Harden|first5=K. Paige|last6=Tucker-Drob|first6=Elliot M.|title=Strong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|volume=145|issue=9|pages=1141–1159|doi=10.1037/xge0000195|pmc=5001920|pmid=27359131|year=2016}}</ref><ref name="Ando 615–624">{{Cite journal|last1=Ando|first1=Juko|last2=Ono|first2=Yutaka|last3=Wright|first3=Margaret J.|title=Genetic Structure of Spatial and Verbal Working Memory|journal=Behavior Genetics|language=en|volume=31|issue=6|pages=615–624|doi=10.1023/A:1013353613591|pmid=11838538|issn=0001-8244|year=2001}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blokland|first1=Gabriëlla A. M.|last2=McMahon|first2=Katie L.|last3=Thompson|first3=Paul M.|last4=Martin|first4=Nicholas G.|last5=de Zubicaray|first5=Greig I.|last6=Wright|first6=Margaret J.|date=2011-07-27|title=Heritability of Working Memory Brain Activation|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=31|issue=30|pages=10882–10890|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.5334-10.2011|pmid=21795540|pmc=3163233}}</ref> The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<ref name="Ando 615–624"/><ref name=":1" /><br />
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Individual differences in working-memory capacity are to some extent heritable; that is, about half of the variation between individuals is related to differences in their genes. The genetic component of variability of working-memory capacity is largely shared with that of fluid intelligence.<br />
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工作记忆能力的个体差异在某种程度上是遗传的,即个体间的约一半的差异与其基因差异有关。工作记忆容量变异性的遗传成分与流体智力的遗传成分大致相同。<br />
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=== 识别个别基因的尝试 Attempts to identify individual genes ===<br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely [[ROBO1]] for the hypothetical [[phonological loop]] component of working memory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bates|first=Timothy|date=2011|title=Genetic Variance in a Component of the Language Acquisition Device: ROBO1 Polymorphisms Associated with Phonological Buffer Deficits|journal=Behavior Genetics|volume=41|issue=1|pages=50–7|doi=10.1007/s10519-010-9402-9|pmid=20949370}}</ref><br />
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Little is known about which genes are related to the functioning of working memory. Within the theoretical framework of the multi-component model, one candidate gene has been proposed, namely ROBO1 for the hypothetical phonological loop component of working memory.<br />
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至于哪些基因与工作记忆的功能有关,我们知之甚少。多成分模型的理论框架提出了一个候选基因,即工作记忆的假设语音环成分ROBO1。<br />
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== 在学术成就方面的角色 Role in academic achievement ==<br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980)<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Individual differences in working memory and reading|journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|date = 1980-08-01|pages = 450–466|volume = 19|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/S0022-5371(80)90312-6|first1 = Meredyth|last1 = Daneman|first2 = Patricia A.|last2 = Carpenter}}</ref> and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Daneman|first1=Meredyth|last2=Merikle|first2=Philip M.|title=Working memory and language comprehension: A meta-analysis|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=422–433|doi=10.3758/BF03214546|pmid=24213976|issn=1069-9384|year=1996|doi-access=free}}</ref> Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Swanson|first1=H. Lee|last2=Beebe-Frankenberger|first2=Margaret|year=2004|title=The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=96|issue=3|pages=471–491|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.96.3.471}}</ref> One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Alloway RG |title=Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment |journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology |volume=106|issue=1|pages= 20–9|year=2010|pmid=20018296 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003|url=https://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/files/11958608/Investigating_the_predictive_roles_of_working_memory_and_IQ_in_academic_attainment.pdf }}</ref><br />
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Working memory capacity is correlated with learning outcomes in literacy and numeracy. Initial evidence for this relation comes from the correlation between working-memory capacity and reading comprehension, as first observed by Daneman and Carpenter (1980) and confirmed in a later meta-analytic review of several studies. Subsequent work found that working memory performance in primary school children accurately predicted performance in mathematical problem solving. One longitudinal study showed that a child's working memory at 5 years old is a better predictor of academic success than IQ.<br />
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工作记忆容量与识字和算术能力的学习成果相关。这种关系的初步证据来自于工作记忆容量和阅读理解之间的相关性,丹尼曼 Daneman 和 卡朋特 Carpenter 在1980年首次观察到这一现象,在后来的几项研究的综合分析中也得到证实。随后的研究发现小学生的工作记忆表现能准确地预测数学问题解决的表现。一项追踪研究表明,孩子5岁时的工作记忆比智商更能预测他的学术成就。<br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Alloway TP, Gathercole SE, Kirkwood H, Elliott J |title=The cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with low working memory |journal=Child Development |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=606–21 |year=2009 |pmid=19467014 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01282.x|hdl=1893/978 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Working memory deficits in children with low achievements in the national curriculum at 7 years of age|journal = British Journal of Educational Psychology|date = 2000-06-01|issn = 2044-8279|pages = 177–194|volume = 70|issue = 2|doi = 10.1348/000709900158047|language = en|first1 = Susan E.|last1 = Gathercole|first2 = Susan J.|last2 = Pickering|pmid=10900777}}</ref> Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Tracy Packiam |last1=Alloway |year=2009 |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=92–8 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759.25.2.92 |title=Working Memory, but Not IQ, Predicts Subsequent Learning in Children with Learning Difficulties|hdl=1893/1005 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as [[dyslexia]], [[ADHD]], and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Pickering | first1 = Susan J. | title = Working memory in dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway |editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wagner | first1 = Richard K. | last2 = Muse | first2 = Andrea | title = Short-term memory deficits in developmental dyslexia | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = Working memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Roodenrys | first1 = Steve | title = Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1 = Alloway | first1 = Tracy Packiam | title = Working memory skills in children with developmental coordination disorder | editor1 = Tracy Packiam Alloway|editor2=Susan E Gathercole | work = orking memory and neurodevelopmental disorders | publisher = Psychology Press | year = 2006 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-1-84169-560-0 |oclc = 63692704}}</ref><br />
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In a large-scale screening study, one in ten children in mainstream classrooms were identified with working memory deficits. The majority of them performed very poorly in academic achievements, independent of their IQ. Similarly, working memory deficits have been identified in national curriculum low-achievers as young as seven years of age. Without appropriate intervention, these children lag behind their peers. A recent study of 37 school-age children with significant learning disabilities has shown that working memory capacity at baseline measurement, but not IQ, predicts learning outcomes two years later. This suggests that working memory impairments are associated with low learning outcomes and constitute a high risk factor for educational underachievement for children. In children with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, ADHD, and developmental coordination disorder, a similar pattern is evident.<br />
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在一项大规模的筛查研究中,主流教室中十分之一的儿童被确定为工作记忆缺陷。他们中的大多数在学术成就上表现非常贫乏,这与他们的智商无关。同样,国家课程标准把早至7岁的工作记忆缺陷儿童定性为低成就学生。如果没有适当的干预,这些孩子就会落后于同龄人。最近一项针对37名显著学习障碍的学龄儿童的研究表明,基线测量的工作记忆能力而非智商,可预测其两年后的学习结果。表明工作记忆障碍与低学习成绩有关,并成为儿童教育成绩不佳的高风险因素。在有学习障碍的儿童中,如诵读困难、多动症和失用症,类似模式是显著的。<br />
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== 与注意力的关系 Relation to attention ==<br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 2009|title=Neural suppression of irrelevant information underlies optimal working memory performance|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|volume=29|issue=10|pages=3059–66|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4621-08.2009|pmc=2704557|pmid=19279242|author=Zanto, T. P.|author2=Gazzaley, A.}}</ref> and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Zanto|first2=T.&nbsp;P.|last3=Rutman|first3=A.&nbsp;M.|last4=Clapp|first4=W.&nbsp;C.|last5=Gazzaley|first5=A.|year=2009|title=Practice-related improvement in working memory is modulated by changes in processing external interference|journal=Journal of Neurophysiology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=1779–89|doi=10.1152/jn.00179.2009|pmc=2746773|pmid=19587320|last1=Berry|first1=A.&nbsp;S.}}</ref> One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment.<ref name="attention09">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fukuda K, Vogel EK |title=Human variation in overriding attentional capture |journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |volume=29 |issue=27 |pages=8726–33 |date=July 2009 |pmid=19587279 |pmc=6664881 |doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2145-09.2009}}</ref> Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory [[salience (neuroscience)|saliency]] (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in [[posterior cortex|posterior cortical areas]].<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Desimone R, Duncan J |title=Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention |journal=Annual Review of Neuroscience |volume=18 |pages=193–222 |year=1995 |pmid=7605061 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205}}</ref> Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Yantis S, Jonides J |title=Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: voluntary versus automatic allocation |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=121–34 |date=February 1990 |pmid=2137514 |url=http://content.apa.org/journals/xhp/16/1/121 |doi=10.1037/0096-1523.16.1.121|citeseerx=10.1.1.211.5016 }}</ref> The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<ref name="attention09" /> Another study, however, found no correlation between the ability to override attentional capture and measures of more general working-memory capacity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mall|first1=Jonathan T.|last2=Morey|first2=Candice C.|last3=Wolff|first3=Michael J.|last4=Lehnert|first4=Franziska|date=2014-01-09|title=Visual selective attention is equally functional for individuals with low and high working memory capacity: Evidence from accuracy and eye movements|journal=Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics|language=en|volume=76|issue=7|pages=1998–2014|doi=10.3758/s13414-013-0610-2|pmid=24402698|issn=1943-3921|url=http://orca.cf.ac.uk/105362/1/Morey.%20Visual%20selective.pdf}}</ref><br />
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There is some evidence that optimal working memory performance links to the neural ability to focus attention on task-relevant information and to ignore distractions, and that practice-related improvement in working memory is due to increasing these abilities. One line of research suggests a link between the working memory capacities of a person and their ability to control the orientation of attention to stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this difference has been found to correlate with their performance in a working-memory test for visual information.<br />
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有证据表明,较佳的工作记忆表现与集中注意力于任务相关信息并忽略干扰的神经能力有关,也就是说因练习而来的工作记忆改善实际上是上述能力改善的结果。一项研究表明,工作记忆能力和人对环境刺激的注意力方向的控制能力之间存在联系。这种控制让人得以关注对其当前目标重要的信息,忽略与目标无关的刺激,这些刺激由于其感官显著性(如救护车警报器)而倾向于吸引注意力。基于个体目标的注意力方向依赖于前额叶皮质(PFC)“自上而下”的信号,这种信号偏向于后皮质区的处理过程。显著刺激而获取的注意力受由皮层下结构和初级感觉皮层的“自下而上”的信号所驱动。<br />
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== 与神经系统疾病的关系 Relationship with neural disorders ==<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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An impairment of working memory functioning is normally seen in several neural disorders:<br />
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工作记忆功能障碍通常见于以下神经系统疾病:<br />
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'''ADHD:''' Several authors<ref>Barkley; Castellanos and Tannock; Pennington and Ozonoff; Schachar (according to the source)</ref> have proposed that symptoms of [[ADHD]] arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005">{{cite journal|date=June 2005|title=Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=57|issue=11|pages=1336–46|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006|pmid=15950006|vauthors=Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF}}</ref> A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<ref name="WillcuttDoyle2005" /><br />
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ADHD: Several authors have proposed that symptoms of ADHD arise from a primary deficit in a specific executive function (EF) domain such as working memory, response inhibition or a more general weakness in executive control. A meta-analytical review cites several studies that found significant lower group results for ADHD in spatial and verbal working memory tasks, and in several other EF tasks. However, the authors concluded that EF weaknesses neither are necessary nor sufficient to cause all cases of ADHD.<br />
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注意力缺陷多动障碍(ADHD) : 一些研究者提出ADHD 的症状源于一个特定执行功能(EF)领域的原发性缺陷,如工作记忆、反应抑制或执行控制方面更普遍的缺陷。一项综合分析综述引用了几项研究,这些研究发现在空间和语言工作记忆任务及其他几项EF任务中,ADHD有较低的群体成绩。然而,研究者的结论是EF缺陷既非必要也不足以引起所有的ADHD病例。<br />
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Several [[neurotransmitters]], such as [[dopamine]] and [[glutamate]] may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but [[Causality|cause–effect]] have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<ref>[http://guilfordjournals.com/doi/abs/10.1521/adhd.2008.16.6.8 Working Memory as a Core Deficit in ADHD: Preliminary Findings and Implications] – 2008</ref><ref name="Clark Blackwell 2007">{{cite journal|date=June 2007|title=Association between response inhibition and working memory in adult ADHD: a link to right frontal cortex pathology?|journal=Biol. Psychiatry|volume=61|issue=12|pages=1395–401|doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.020|pmid=17046725|vauthors=Clark L, Blackwell AD, Aron AR, etal}}</ref><ref name="Roodenrys Koloski 2001">{{cite journal|last2=Koloski|first2=Natasha|last3=Grainger|first3=Jessica|year=2001|title=Working memory function in attention deficit hyperactivity disordered and reading disabled children|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|volume=19|issue=3|pages=325–337|doi=10.1348/026151001166128|issn=0261-510X|last1=Roodenrys|first1=Steven}}</ref><br />
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Several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and glutamate may be both involved in ADHD and working memory. Both are associated with the frontal brain, self-direction and self-regulation, but cause–effect have not been confirmed, so it is unclear whether working memory dysfunction leads to ADHD, or ADHD distractibility leads to poor functionality of working memory, or if there is some other connection.<br />
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多巴胺和谷氨酸盐等多种神经递质可能都与ADHD和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但其因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前尚不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是注意力分散导致ADHD工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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多种神经递质,如多巴胺和谷氨酸盐,可能都与 ADHD 和工作记忆有关。两者都与额叶大脑、自我定向和自我调节有关,但是因果关系尚未得到证实,所以目前还不清楚是工作记忆功能障碍导致 ADHD,还是ADHD注意力分散导致工作记忆功能低下,或者是否存在其他联系。<br />
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'''Parkinson's disease''':&nbsp;Patients with [[Parkinson's]] show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=2929336|title=Visual working memory deficits in patients with Parkinson's disease are due to both reduced storage capacity and impaired ability to filter out irrelevant information|last=Lee|first=Eun-Young|date=5 August 2010|journal=Brain|volume=133|issue=9|pages=2677–2689|doi=10.1093/brain/awq197|pmid=20688815}}</ref><br />
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Parkinson's disease:&nbsp;Patients with Parkinson's show signs of a reduced verbal function of working memory. They wanted to find if the reduction is due to a lack of ability to focus on relevant tasks, or a low amount of memory capacity. Twenty-one patients with Parkinson's were tested in comparison to the control group of 28 participants of the same age. The researchers found that both hypotheses were the reason working memory function is reduced which did not fully agree with their hypothesis that it is either one or the other.<br />
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帕金森病: 帕金森病患者表现出工作记忆语言功能的减退。研究者想知道这种减少是因为缺乏专注于相关任务的能力,还是因为记忆容量太小。他们对21名帕金森病患者与28名同龄对照组进行了测试。研究人员发现二者都是工作记忆功能减退的原因,而非他们先前假设的原因在二者之一。<br />
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'''Alzheimer's disease''': As [[Alzheimer's disease]] becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tiaotiao|first=Liu|date=December 2014|title=Functional connectivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease during a working memory task|journal=Current Alzheimer Research|volume=11|issue=10|pages=981–991|doi=10.2174/1567205011666141107125912 |pmid=25387338}}</ref><br />
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Alzheimer's disease: As Alzheimer's disease becomes more serious, less working memory functions. There is one study that focuses on the neural connections and fluidity of working memory in mice brains. Half of the mice were given an injection that is similar to Alzheimer's effects, and the other half were not. Then they were expected to go through a maze that is a task to test working memory. The study help answer questions about how Alzheimer's can deteriorate the working memory and ultimately obliterate memory functions.<br />
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阿尔茨海默病: 工作记忆功能随着阿尔茨海默病病情加重而降低。在一项针对老鼠大脑中的神经连接和工作记忆的流动性的研究中,一半的老鼠注射了类似于阿尔茨海默氏症的药物,另一半则没有。然后让它们穿越一个迷宫,即一个工作记忆测试任务。这项研究有助于回答老年痴呆症是如何损害工作记忆并最终消除记忆功能的。<br />
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'''Huntington's disease''':&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-[[Huntington disease]]d patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poudel|first=Govinda R.|date=January 2015|title=Functional changes during working memory in Huntington's disease: 30-month longitudinal data from the IMAGE-HD study|journal=Brain Structure and Function|volume=220|issue=1|pages=501–512|pmid=24240602|doi=10.1007/s00429-013-0670-z}}</ref><br />
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Huntington's disease:&nbsp;A group of researchers hosted a study that researched the function and connectivity of working memory over a 30-month longitudinal experiment. It found that there were certain places in the brain where most connectivity was decreased in pre-Huntington diseased patients, in comparison to the control group that remained consistently functional.<br />
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亨廷顿氏病: 一组研究人员进行了一项研究工作记忆的功能和连接性的为期30个月的纵向实验。研究发现亨廷顿症患者大脑中特定部位的连接性降低,而对照组功能持续正常。<br />
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== 参见 See also ==<br />
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* [[Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model]]<br />
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* {{Section link|Prefrontal cortex|Attention and memory}}<br />
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* [[Autism and working memory]]<br />
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* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]<br />
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* [[Intermediate-term memory]]<br />
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* [[Memory and aging]]<br />
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* [[PBWM|Prefrontal cortex basal ganglia working memory (PBWM)]]<br />
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* [[Cognitive architecture]]<br />
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* [[Tim Shallice]]<br />
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== 参考文献 References ==<br />
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{{Reflist|33em}}<br />
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== 外部链接 External links ==<br />
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* [http://psych.colorado.edu/~miyake/MWM%20Chapter%201.pdf Models of Working Memory (Mechanisms of Active Maintenance and Executive Control)]<br />
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{{Memory}}<br />
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[[Category:Memory processes]]<br />
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Category:Memory processes<br />
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分类: 记忆过程<br />
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[[Category:Problem solving]]<br />
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Category:Problem solving<br />
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分类: 解决问题<br />
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[[Category:Human behavior]]<br />
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Category:Human behavior<br />
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分类: 人类行为<br />
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<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Working memory]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[工作记忆/edithistory]]</small></noinclude><br />
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[[Category:待整理页面]]</div>Xebec