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[[File:Cybernetics.jpg|thumb|Principle diagram of a cybernetic system with a feedback loop]]
'''Cybernetics''' is a [[transdisciplinary]]<ref name="transdisciplinary">{{cite journal |last = Müller |first = Albert |title = A Brief History of the BCL |journal = Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften |year = 2000 |volume = 11 |issue = 1 |pages = 9–30 |url = http://bcl.ece.illinois.edu/mueller/index.htm }}</ref> approach for exploring regulatory [[systems]]—their [[structure]]s, constraints, and possibilities. [[Norbert Wiener]] defined cybernetics in 1948 as "the scientific study of control and communication in the animal and the machine".<ref name="W1948">{{cite book |last = Wiener |first = Norbert |author-link = Norbert Wiener |title = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine |year = 1948 |publisher = [[MIT Press]] |location = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |title-link = Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine }}</ref>
Cybernetics is applicable when a system being analyzed incorporates a closed signaling loop—originally referred to as a "circular causal" relationship—that is, where action by the system generates some change in its environment and that change is reflected in the system in some manner ([[feedback]]) that triggers a system change. Cybernetics is relevant to, for example, mechanical, physical, biological, cognitive, and [[social systems]]. The essential goal of the broad field of cybernetics is to understand and define the functions and processes of systems that have goals and that participate in circular, [[causality|causal chains]] that move from action to sensing to comparison with desired goal, and again to action. Its focus is how anything (digital, mechanical or biological) processes information, reacts to information, and changes or can be changed to better accomplish the first two tasks.<ref name="Kelly">{{cite book |last = Kelly |first = Kevin |title = Out of control: The new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world |publisher = Addison-Wesley |location = Boston |year = 1994 |pages = |isbn = 978-0-201-48340-6 |oclc = 221860672 |url = https://archive.org/details/outofcontrolnewb00kell }}</ref> Cybernetics includes the study of [[feedback]], [[black box]]es and derived concepts such as [[communication]] and [[control theory|control]] in [[life|living organisms]], [[machine]]s and [[organization]]s including [[self-organization]].
Concepts studied by [[cyberneticist]]s include, but are not limited to: [[learning]], [[cognition]], [[adaptation]], [[social control]], [[emergence]], [[Technological convergence|convergence]], [[communication]], [[Efficient energy use|efficiency]], [[efficacy]], and [[Interconnectivity|connectivity]]. In cybernetics these concepts (otherwise already objects of study in other disciplines such as [[biology]] and [[engineering]]) are abstracted from the context of the specific [[organism]] or [[machine|device]].
The word ''cybernetics'' comes from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] κυβερνητική (''kybernētikḗ''), meaning "governance", i.e., all that are pertinent to κυβερνάω (''kybernáō''), the latter meaning "to steer, navigate or govern", hence κυβέρνησις (''kybérnēsis''), meaning "government", is the government while κυβερνήτης (''kybernḗtēs'') is the governor or "helmperson" of the "ship". Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of [[control systems]], [[circuit theory|electrical network theory]], [[mechanical engineering]], [[logic modeling]], [[evolutionary biology]], [[neuroscience]], [[anthropology]], and [[psychology]] in the 1940s, often attributed to the [[Macy Conferences]]. During the second half of the 20th century cybernetics evolved in ways that distinguish first-order cybernetics (about observed systems) from [[second-order cybernetics]] (about observing systems).<ref name="HvF1981">Heinz von Foerster (1981), 'Observing Systems", Intersystems Publications, Seaside, CA. {{OCLC|263576422}}</ref> More recently there is talk about a third-order cybernetics (doing in ways that embraces first and second-order).<ref name="3rd--order cybernetics">{{cite journal |last=Kenny|first=Vincent |title=There's Nothing Like the Real Thing". Revisiting the Need for a Third-Order Cybernetics |journal=Constructivist Foundations|date=15 March 2009|volume=4|issue=2|pages=100–111 |url = http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/4/2/100.kenny |accessdate=6 June 2012}}</ref>
Studies in cybernetics provide a means for examining the design and function of any system, including social systems such as business management and organizational learning, including for the purpose of making them more [[efficiency|efficient]] and [[effective]]. Fields of study which have influenced or been influenced by cybernetics include [[game theory]], [[system theory]] (a mathematical counterpart to cybernetics), [[perceptual control theory]], [[sociology]], psychology (especially [[neuropsychology]], [[behavioral psychology]], [[cognitive psychology]]), [[philosophy]], [[architecture]], and [[organizational theory]].<ref>Tange, Kenzo (1966) "Function, Structure and Symbol".</ref> [[System dynamics]], originated with applications of [[electrical engineering]] [[control theory]] to other kinds of [[Simulation modeling|simulation model]]s (especially business systems) by [[Jay Forrester]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in the 1950s, is a related field.
== Definitions ==
Cybernetics has been defined in a variety of ways, by a variety of people, from a variety of disciplines.
Cybernetician [[Stuart Umpleby]] reports some notable definitions:<ref name="LRReader">{{cite book |first = Stuart |last = Umpleby |authorlink=Stuart Umpleby |title = The Larry Richards Reader 1997–2007 |year=2008 |pages=9–11 |chapter-url = http://polyproject.wikispaces.com/file/view/Larry+Richards+Reader+6+08.pdf |chapter=Definitions of Cybernetics |quote = I developed this list of definitions/descriptions in 1987-88 and have been distributing it at ASC (American Society for Cybernetics) conferences since 1988. I added a few items to the list over the next two years, and it has remained essentially unchanged since then. My intent was twofold: (1) to demonstrate that one of the distinguishing features of cybernetics might be that it could legitimately have multiple definitions without contradicting itself, and (2) to stimulate dialogue on what the motivations (intentions, desires, etc.) of those who have proposed different definitions might be.}}</ref>
* "Science concerned with the study of systems of any nature which are capable of receiving, storing and processing information so as to use it for control."—[[A. N. Kolmogorov]]
* "'The art of steersmanship': deals with all forms of behavior in so far as they are regular, or determinate, or reproducible: stands to the real machine -- electronic, mechanical, neural, or economic -- much as geometry stands to real object in our terrestrial space; offers a method for the scientific treatment of the system in which complexity is outstanding and too important to be ignored."—[[W. Ross Ashby]]
* "A branch of mathematics dealing with problems of control, recursiveness, and information, focuses on forms and the patterns that connect."—[[Gregory Bateson]]
* "The art of securing efficient operation [lit.: the art of effective action]."—[[Louis Couffignal]]<ref>''"La cybernétique est l’art de l’efficacité de l’action"'' originally a French definition formulated in 1953, lit. "Cybernetics is the art of effective action"</ref><ref name="Couffignal">Couffignal, Louis, "Essai d’une définition générale de la cybernétique", ''The First International Congress on Cybernetics'', Namur, Belgium, June 26–29, 1956, Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1958, pp. 46-54.</ref>
* "The art of effective organization."—[[Stafford Beer]]
* "The art and science of manipulating defensible metaphors" (with relevance to constructivist epistemology. The author later extended the definition to include information flows "in all media", from stars to brains.)—[[Gordon Pask]]
* "The art of creating equilibrium in a world of constraints and possibilities."—[[Ernst von Glasersfeld]]
* "The science and art of understanding." – [[Humberto Maturana]]
* "The ability to cure all temporary truth of eternal triteness."—[[Herbert Brun]]
Other notable definitions include:
* "The science and art of the understanding of understanding."—Rodney E. Donaldson, the first president of the [[American Society for Cybernetics]]
* "A way of thinking about ways of thinking of which it is one."—[[Larry Richards]]
* "The art of interaction in dynamic networks."—[[Roy Ascott]]
* "The study of systems and processes that interact with themselves and produce themselves from themselves."—[[Louis Kauffman]], President of the [[American Society for Cybernetics]]<ref>CYBCON discusstion group 20 September 2007 18:15</ref>
== Etymology ==
[[File:Ideal feedback model.svg|thumb|Simple feedback model. AB < 0 for [[negative feedback]].]]
The term ''cybernetics'' stems from [[w:el:Κυβερνήτης|κυβερνήτης]] (''kybernḗtēs'') "steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder". As with the ancient Greek pilot, independence of thought is important in cybernetics.<ref>Leary, Timothy. "The Cyberpunk: the individual as reality pilot" in Storming the Reality Studio. Duke University Press: 1991.</ref> French physicist and mathematician [[André-Marie Ampère]] first coined the word "cybernetique" in his 1834 essay ''Essai sur la philosophie des sciences'' to describe the science of civil government.<ref>[[H.S. Tsien]]. ''[[Engineering Cybernetics]]'', Preface vii. McGraw Hill, 1954.</ref> The term was used by [[Norbert Wiener]], in his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine|Cybernetics]]'', to define the study of control and communication in the animal and the machine. In the book, he states: "Although the term ''cybernetics'' does not date further back than the summer of 1947, we shall find it convenient to use in referring to earlier epochs of the development of the field."<ref name="W1948" />
== History ==
=== Roots of cybernetic theory ===
The word ''cybernetics'' was first used in the context of "the study of self-governance" by [[Plato]] in [[First Alcibiades|''Alcibiades'']] to signify the [[governance]] of people.<ref name="Johnson">{{cite web |url = http://www.jurlandia.org/cybsoc.htm |last = Johnson |first = Barnabas |title = The Cybernetics of Society |accessdate = 8 January 2012 }}</ref> The word 'cybernétique' was also used in 1834 by the physicist [[André-Marie Ampère]] (1775–1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge.
[[File:James Watt.jpg|thumb|upright|James Watt]]
The first artificial automatic regulatory system was a [[water clock]], invented by the mechanician [[Ktesibios]]; based on a tank which poured water into a reservoir before using it to run the mechanism, it used a cone-shaped float to monitor the level of the water in its reservoir and adjust the rate of flow of the water accordingly to maintain a constant level of water in the reservoir. This was the first artificial truly automatic self-regulatory device that required no outside intervention between the feedback and the controls of the mechanism. Although they considered this part of engineering (the use of the term ''cybernetics'' is much posterior), [[Ktesibios]] and others such as [[Hero of Alexandria|Heron]] and [[Su Song]] are considered to be some of the first to study cybernetic principles.
The study of ''[[Teleology|teleological]] mechanisms'' (from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] τέλος or ''télos'' for ''end'', ''goal'', or ''purpose'') in machines with ''corrective feedback'' dates from as far back as the late 18th century when [[James Watt (inventor)|James Watt]]'s steam engine was equipped with a [[governor (device)|governor]] (1775–1800), a centrifugal feedback valve for controlling the speed of the engine. [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] identified this as the principle of [[evolution]] in his famous 1858 paper.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/S043.htm | title=On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type, by Alfred Russel Wallace}}</ref> In 1868 [[James Clerk Maxwell]] published a theoretical article on governors, one of the first to discuss and refine the principles of self-regulating devices. [[Jakob von Uexküll]] applied the feedback mechanism via his model of functional cycle (''Funktionskreis'') in order to explain animal behaviour and the origins of meaning in general.
===Early 20th century===
Contemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of [[control systems]], [[Circuit theory|electrical network theory]], [[mechanical engineering]], [[logic modeling]], [[evolutionary biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in the 1940s; the ideas are also related to the biological work of [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] in General Systems Theory. Electronic control systems originated with the 1927 work of [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]] engineer [[Harold Stephen Black|Harold S. Black]] on using [[negative feedback]] to control amplifiers.
Early applications of negative feedback in electronic circuits included the control of gun mounts and radar antenna during [[World War II]]. The founder of [[System Dynamics]], [[Jay Wright Forrester|Jay Forrester]], worked with [[Gordon S. Brown]] during WWII as a graduate student at the Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT to develop electronic control systems for the U.S. Navy. Forrester later applied these ideas to social organizations, such as corporations and cities and became an original organizer of the MIT School of Industrial Management at the [[MIT Sloan School of Management]].
[[W. Edwards Deming]], the [[Total Quality Management]] guru for whom Japan named its top post-WWII industrial [[Deming Prize|prize]], was an intern at [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Labs]] in 1927 and may have been influenced by [[network theory]]; Deming made "Understanding Systems" one of the four pillars of what he described as "Profound Knowledge" in his book ''The New Economics''.
Numerous papers spearheaded the coalescing of the field. In 1935 Russian physiologist [[Pyotr Anokhin|P. K. Anokhin]] published a book in which the concept of feedback ("back afferentation") was studied. The study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in 1943: "Behavior, Purpose and Teleology" by [[Arturo Rosenblueth]], [[Norbert Wiener]], and [[Julian Bigelow]]; and the paper "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" by [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]].
In 1936, [[Ștefan Odobleja]] published "Phonoscopy and the clinical semiotics". In 1937, he participated in the IX International Congress of Military Medicine with "Demonstration de phonoscopie"; in the paper he disseminated a prospectus announcing his future work, "Psychologie consonantiste", the most important of his writings, where he lays the theoretical foundations of generalized cybernetics. The book, published in Paris by ''Librairie Maloine'' (vol. I in 1938 and vol. II in 1939), contains almost 900 pages and includes 300 figures in the text. The author wrote at the time that "this book is ... a table of contents, an index or a dictionary of psychology, [for] a ... great Treatise of Psychology that should contain 20–30 volumes". Due to the beginning of World War II, the publication went unnoticed (the first Romanian edition of this work did not appear until 1982).
[[File:Norbert wiener.jpg|thumb|upright|Norbert Wiener]]
Cybernetics as a discipline was firmly established by [[Norbert Wiener]], [[Warren Sturgis McCulloch|McCulloch]], [[Arturo Rosenblueth]] and others, such as [[W. Ross Ashby]], mathematician [[Alan Turing]], and [[William Grey Walter|W. Grey Walter]] (one of the first to build autonomous robots as an aid to the study of animal behaviour). In the spring of 1947, Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]] ([[France]] was an important geographical locus of early cybernetics together with the [[United States|US]] and [[United Kingdom|UK]]); the event was organized by the [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]], a French scientific society, and mathematician [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]] (1899–1983), uncle of the world-famous mathematician [[Benoît Mandelbrot]]. During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied mathematics, which is found in the study of [[Brownian motion]] and in telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism ''cybernetics'', coined to denote the study of "teleological mechanisms", into his scientific theory: it was popularized through his book ''[[Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine]]'' (MIT Press/John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1948).<ref name="W1948" /> In the UK this became the focus for the [[Ratio Club]].
[[File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif|thumb|upright|John von Neumann]]
In the early 1940s [[John von Neumann]] contributed a unique and unusual addition to the world of cybernetics: [[von Neumann cellular automata]], and their logical follow up, the [[von Neumann Universal Constructor]]. The result of these deceptively simple thought-experiments was the concept of [[self replication]], which cybernetics adopted as a core concept. The concept that the same properties of genetic reproduction applied to social [[memes]], living cells, and even computer viruses is further proof of the somewhat surprising universality of cybernetic study.
In 1950, Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems (such as a regulated steam engine) and human institutions in his best-selling ''[[The Human Use of Human Beings]]: Cybernetics and Society'' (Houghton-Mifflin).
[[Cybernetics in the Soviet Union]] was initially considered a "pseudoscience" and "ideological weapon" of "imperialist reactionaries" (Soviet Philosophical Dictionary, 1954) and later criticised as a narrow form of cybernetics.<ref>''Философский словарь'' (Philosophical dictionary), 1954; "Cybernetics", ''The Great Soviet Encyclopedia'' (1979)</ref> In the mid to late 1950s [[Viktor Glushkov]] and others salvaged the reputation of the field. Soviet cybernetics incorporated much of what became known as computer science in the West.<ref>{{cite book |last=Glushkov |first=Viktor |date=1966 |title=Introduction to Cybernetics |location=New York |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0122868504}}</ref>
While not the only instance of a research organization focused on cybernetics, the Biological Computer Lab at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign]], under the direction of [[Heinz von Foerster]], was a major center of cybernetic research for almost 20 years, beginning in 1958.
===Split from artificial intelligence===
[[Artificial intelligence]] (AI) was founded as a distinct discipline at the [[Dartmouth workshop]]. After some uneasy coexistence, AI gained funding and prominence. Consequently, cybernetic sciences such as the study of [[artificial neural network]]s were downplayed; the discipline shifted into the world of social sciences and therapy.<ref name="Cariani2010">{{cite journal |last=Cariani |first=Peter |title=On the importance of being emergent |journal=Constructivist Foundations |date=15 March 2010 |volume=5 |issue=2 |url = http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/5/2/086.cariani |accessdate=13 August 2012 |page=89 |quote = artificial intelligence was born at a conference at Dartmouth in 1956 that was organized by McCarthy, Minsky, rochester, and shannon, three years after the Macy conferences on cybernetics had ended (Boden 2006; McCorduck 1972). The two movements coexisted for roughly a de- cade, but by the mid-1960s, the proponents of symbolic ai gained control of national funding conduits and ruthlessly defunded cybernetics research. This effectively liquidated the subfields of self-organizing systems, neural networks and adaptive machines, evolutionary programming, biological computation, and bionics for several decades, leaving the workers in management, therapy and the social sciences to carry the torch. i think some of the polemical pushing-and-shoving between first-order control theorists and second-order crowds that i witnessed in subsequent decades was the cumulative result of a shift of funding, membership, and research from the "hard" natural sciences to "soft" socio-psychological interventions.}}</ref>
Prominent cyberneticians during this period include [[Gregory Bateson]] and [[Axel Berg (cybernetician)|Aksel Berg]].
=== New cybernetics ===
In the 1970s, [[new cybernetics|new cyberneticians]] emerged in multiple fields, but especially in [[biology]]. The ideas of [[Humberto Maturana|Maturana]], [[Francisco Varela|Varela]] and [[Henri Atlan|Atlan]], according to Jean-Pierre Dupuy (1986) "realized that the cybernetic metaphors of the program upon which molecular biology had been based rendered a conception of the autonomy of the living being impossible. Consequently, these thinkers were led to invent a new cybernetics, one more suited to the organizations which mankind discovers in nature - organizations he has not himself invented".<ref name="JPD86">Jean-Pierre Dupuy, "The autonomy of social reality: on the contribution of systems theory to the theory of society" in: Elias L. Khalil & [[Kenneth E. Boulding]] eds., ''Evolution, Order and Complexity'', 1986.</ref> However, during the 1980s the question of whether the features of this new cybernetics could be applied to social forms of organization remained open to debate.<ref name="JPD86" />
In [[political science]], [[Project Cybersyn]] attempted to introduce a cybernetically controlled economy during the early 1970s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Loeber|first=Katharina|last2=Loeber|first2=Katharina|date=2018-04-13|title=Big Data, Algorithmic Regulation, and the History of the Cybersyn Project in Chile, 1971–1973|journal=Social Sciences|language=en|volume=7|issue=4|pages=65|doi=10.3390/socsci7040065|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the 1980s, according to Harries-Jones (1988) "unlike its predecessor, the new cybernetics concerns itself with the interaction of autonomous political [[actor]]s and subgroups, and the practical and reflexive consciousness of the subjects who produce and reproduce the structure of a political community. A dominant consideration is that of recursiveness, or self-reference of political action both with regards to the expression of political consciousness and with the ways in which systems build upon themselves".<ref name="PHJ 88">Peter Harries-Jones (1988), "The Self-Organizing Polity: An Epistemological Analysis of Political Life by Laurent Dobuzinskis" in: ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' (Revue canadienne de science politique), Vol. 21, No. 2 (Jun., 1988), pp. 431-433.</ref>
One characteristic of the emerging new cybernetics considered in that time by [[Felix Geyer]] and [[Hans van der Zouwen]], according to Bailey (1994),<ref name="KB 94">[[Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)|Kenneth D. Bailey]] (1994), ''Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis'', p.163.</ref> was "that it views information as constructed and reconstructed by an individual interacting with the environment. This provides an [[epistemology|epistemological]] foundation of science, by viewing it as observer-dependent. Another characteristic of the new cybernetics is its contribution towards bridging the ''micro-macro gap''. That is, it links the individual with the society".<ref name="KB 94" /> Another characteristic noted was the "transition from classical cybernetics to the new cybernetics [that] involves a transition from classical problems to new problems. These shifts in thinking involve, among others, (a) a change from emphasis on the system being steered to the system doing the steering, and the factor which guides the steering decisions; and (b) new emphasis on communication between several systems which are trying to steer each other".<ref name="KB 94" />
Recent endeavors into the true focus of cybernetics, systems of control and emergent behavior, by such related fields as [[game theory]] (the analysis of group interaction), [[evolutionarily stable strategy|systems of feedback in evolution]], and [[metamaterials]] (the study of materials with properties beyond the Newtonian properties of their constituent atoms), have led to a revived interest in this increasingly relevant field.<ref name="Kelly" />
===Cybernetics and economic systems===
{{Economic systems sidebar | Coordination }}
The design of self-regulating control systems for a real-time planned economy was explored by economist [[Oskar Lange]], cyberneticist [[Viktor Glushkov]], and others [[Soviet cyberneticists]] during the 1960s. By the time information technology was developed enough to enable feasible [[economic planning]] based on computers, the Soviet Union and eastern bloc countries began moving away from planning<ref>{{cite book |last = Feinstein |first = C.H. |title = Socialism, Capitalism and Economic Growth: Essays Presented to Maurice Dobb |url = https://archive.org/details/socialismcapital0000fein |url-access = registration |publisher = Cambridge University Press |date = September 1969 |isbn = 978-0521049870 |page = [https://archive.org/details/socialismcapital0000fein/page/175 175] |quote = At some future date it may appear as a joke of history that socialist countries learned at long last to overcome their prejudices and to dismantle clumsy planning mechanisms in favour of more effective market elements just at a time when the rise of computers and of cybernetics laid the foundation for greater opportunities in comprehensive planning.}}</ref> and eventually collapsed.
More recent proposals for socialism involve "New Socialism", outlined by the computer scientists [[Paul Cockshott]] and [[Allin Cottrell]], where computers determine and manage the flows and allocation of resources among socially owned enterprises.<ref>Allin Cottrell & W.Paul Cockshott, [http://ricardo.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/socialism_book/index.html ''Towards a new socialism''] (Nottingham, England: Spokesman, 1993). Retrieved: 17 March 2012.</ref>
On the other hand, [[Friedrich Hayek]] also mentions cybernetics as a discipline that could help economists understand the "self-organizing or self-generating systems" called [[Market (economics)|markets]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Law, Legislation and Liberty: Volume 1: Rules and Order|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=|location=London|pages=37}}</ref> Being "complex phenomena",<ref>{{Cite book|title=Studies in Philosophy, Politics and Economics|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|publisher=Routledge|year=1967|isbn=|location=London|pages=26}}</ref> the best way to examine market functions is by using the feedback mechanism, explained by cybernetic theorists. That way, economists could make "pattern predictions".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|date=Fall 2002|title=Competition as a discovery procedure|url=|journal=The Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics|volume=5|pages=12|via=}}</ref>
Therefore, the market for Hayek is a "communication system", an "efficient mechanism for digesting dispersed information".<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=New studies in philosophy, politics, economics and the history of ideas|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|publisher=Routledge|year=1990|isbn=|location=London|pages=34}}</ref> The economist and a cyberneticist are like garderners who are "providing the appropriate environment".<ref name=":0" /> Hayek's definition of information is idiosyncratic and precedes the information theory used in cybernetics and the natural sciences.
Finally, Hayek also considers [[Adam Smith]]'s idea of the [[invisible hand]] as an anticipation of the operation of the feedback mechanism in cybernetics.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Law, Legislation and Liberty: Volume 3: Political Order of a Free People|last=Hayek|first=Friedrich|publisher=Routledge|year=1998|isbn=|location=London|pages=158}}</ref> In the same book, ''[[Law, Legislation and Liberty]]'', Hayek mentions, along with cybernetics, that economists should rely on the scientific findings of [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]] [[Systems theory|general systems theory]], along with information and [[communication theory]] and [[semiotics]].<ref name=":1" />
==Subdivisions of the field==
Cybernetics is sometimes used as a generic term, which serves as an umbrella for many systems-related scientific fields.
=== Basic cybernetics ===
[[File:Honda ASIMO Walking Stairs.JPG|thumb|[[ASIMO]] uses sensors and sophisticated algorithms to avoid obstacles and navigate stairs.]]
Cybernetics studies systems of control as a concept, attempting to discover the basic principles underlying such things as
* [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Computer vision]]
* [[Control system]]s
* [[Conversation theory]]
* [[Emergence]]
* [[Interactions of actors theory]]
* [[Learning organization]]
* [[Robotics]]
* [[Second-order cybernetics]]
* [[Self-organization#Self-organization in cybernetics|Self-organization in cybernetics]]
=== In biology ===
Cybernetics in biology is the study of cybernetic systems present in biological organisms, primarily focusing on how animals adapt to their environment, and how information in the form of [[genes]] is passed from generation to generation. There is also a secondary focus on [[cyborg|combining artificial systems with biological systems]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mehrali|first=Mehdi|last2=Bagherifard|first2=Sara|last3=Akbari|first3=Mohsen|last4=Thakur|first4=Ashish|last5=Mirani|first5=Bahram|last6=Mehrali|first6=Mohammad|last7=Hasany|first7=Masoud|last8=Orive|first8=Gorka|last9=Dolatshahi‐Pirouz|first9=Alireza|date=October 2018|title=Flexible Bioelectronics: Blending Electronics with the Human Body: A Pathway toward a Cybernetic Future (Adv. Sci. 10/2018)|journal=Advanced Science|language=en|volume=5|issue=10|pages=1870059|doi=10.1002/advs.201870059|issn=2198-3844|pmc=6193153}}</ref> A notable application to the biology world would be that, in 1955, the physicist [[George Gamow]] published a prescient article in ''[[Scientific American]]'' called "Information transfer in the living cell", and cybernetics gave biologists [[Jacques Monod]] and [[François Jacob]] a language for formulating their early theory of [[gene regulatory network]]s in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://nautil.us/issue/35/boundaries/why-physics-is-not-a-discipline.|title=Why Physics Is Not a Discipline - Issue 35: Boundaries - Nautilus |website=Nautilus |access-date=2016-04-24}}</ref>
* [[Autopoiesis]]
* [[Biocybernetics]]
* [[Bioengineering]]
* [[Bionics]]
* [[Ecology]]
* [[Heterostasis(Computational)|Heterostasis]]
* [[Homeostasis]]
* [[Medical cybernetics]]
* [[Neuroscience]]
* [[Synthetic biology]]
* [[Systems biology]]
* [[Practopoiesis]]
=== In computer science ===
Computer science directly applies the concepts of cybernetics to the control of devices and the analysis of information.
* [[Cellular automaton]]
* [[Decision support system]]s
* [[Design pattern]]s
* [[Robotics]]
* [[Simulation]]
* [[Formal language]]s
* [[Modal logic]]
=== In engineering ===
Cybernetics in engineering is used to analyze [[cascading failure]]s and [[system accident]]s, in which the small errors and imperfections in a system can generate disasters. Other topics studied include:[[File:JARVIK 7 artificial heart.jpg|thumb|An [[artificial heart]], a product of biomedical engineering.]]
* [[Adaptive system]]s
* [[Biomedical engineering]]
* [[Engineering cybernetics]]
* [[Ergonomics]]
* [[Systems engineering]]
=== In management ===
* [[Autonomous agency theory]]
* [[Entrepreneurial cybernetics]]
* [[Management cybernetics]]
* [[Operations research]]
* [[Management cybernetics#Organizational cybernetics|Organizational cybernetics]]
* [[Systems engineering]]
* [[Viable system theory]]
=== In mathematics ===
Mathematical Cybernetics focuses on the factors of information, interaction of parts in systems, and the structure of systems.
* [[Control theory]]
* [[Dynamical system]]
* [[Information theory]]
* [[Systems theory]]
* [[Category theory]]
* [[Chaos theory]]
=== In psychology ===
* [[Agent-based model]]
* [[Attachment theory]]
* [[Karl U. Smith|Behavioral cybernetics]]
* [[Cognitive psychology]]
* [[Cognitive sciences]]
* [[Connectionism]]
* [[Consciousness]]
* [[Embodied cognition]]
* [[Human-robot interaction]]
* [[Mind-body problem]]
* [[Perceptual control theory]]
* [[Hunter B. Shirley|Psychovector analysis]]
* [[Systems psychology]]
=== In sociology ===
By examining group behavior through the lens of cybernetics, sociologists can seek the reasons for such spontaneous events as [[smart mob]]s and [[riots]], as well as how communities develop rules such as etiquette by consensus without formal discussion.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} [[Affect Control Theory]] explains [[role]] behavior, [[emotion]]s, and [[labeling theory]] in terms of homeostatic maintenance of sentiments associated with cultural categories. The most comprehensive attempt ever made in the social sciences to increase cybernetics in a generalized theory of society was made by [[Talcott Parsons]]. In this way, cybernetics establishes the basic hierarchy in Parsons' [[AGIL paradigm]], which is the ordering system-dimension of his [[action theory (sociology)|action theory]]. These and other cybernetic models in sociology are reviewed in a book edited by McClelland and Fararo.<ref name="McClelland">McClelland, Kent A., and Thomas J. Fararo (Eds.). 2006. Purpose, Meaning, and Action: Control Systems Theories in Sociology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref>
* [[Affect control theory]]
* [[Memetics]] {{Citation needed|date=July 2015}}
* [[Sociocybernetics]]
* [[Niklas Luhmann]]
===In art===
[[Nicolas Schöffer]]'s ''CYSP I'' (1956) was perhaps the first artwork to explicitly employ cybernetic principles (CYSP is an acronym that joins the first two letters of the words "CYbernetic" and "SPatiodynamic").<ref>{{cite web|title=CYSP I, the first cybernetic sculpture of art's history|url=http://www.olats.org/schoffer/cyspe.htm|publisher=Leonardo/OLATS - Observatoire Leonardo des arts et des technosciences}}</ref>
The prominent and influential [[Cybernetic Serendipity]] exhibition was held at the [[Institute of Contemporary Arts]] in 1968 curated by [[Jasia Reichardt]], including Schöffer's ''CYSP I'' and Gordon Pask's ''Colloquy of Mobiles'' installation. Pask's reflections on ''Colloquy'' connected it to his earlier ''Musicolour'' installation and to what he termed "aesthetically potent environments", a concept that connected this artistic work to his concerns with teaching and learning.<ref>Pask, G. (1971). A comment, a case history and a plan. In J. Reichardt (Ed.), Cybernetics, art and ideas (pp. 76-99). London: Studio Vista. Fernandez, M. (2009). “Aesthetically-Potent Environments” or How Pask Detourned Instrumental Cybernetics. In P. Brown, C. Gere, N. Lambert & C. Mason (Eds.), White Heat Cold Logic: British Computer Art 1960-1980 Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.</ref>
The artist [[Roy Ascott]] elaborated an extensive theory of cybernetic art in "Behaviourist Art and the Cybernetic Vision" (''Cybernetica'', Journal of the International Association for Cybernetics (Namur), Volume IX, No.4, 1966; Volume X No.1, 1967) and in "The Cybernetic Stance: My Process and Purpose" (''Leonardo'' Vol 1, No 2, 1968). Art historian [[Edward A. Shanken]] has written about the history of art and cybernetics in essays including "Cybernetics and Art: Cultural Convergence in the 1960s"<ref>[http://www.artexetra.com//CyberneticsArtCultConv.pdf Cybernetics and Art: Cultural Convergence in the 1960s]</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=From Energy to Information: Representation in Science, Technology, Art, and Literature |year=2002 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, CA |pages=255–277 |editor=Bruce Clarke |editor2=[[Linda Dalrymple Henderson]] }}</ref> and ''From Cybernetics to Telematics: The Art, Pedagogy, and Theory of Roy Ascott'' (2003),<ref>{{cite book|last=Ascott|first=Roy|title=Telematic Embrace: Visionary Theories of Art, Technology, and Consciousness|year=2003|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|editor=Edward A. Shanken}}</ref> which traces the trajectory of Ascott's work from cybernetic art to [[telematic art]] (art using computer networking as its medium, a precursor to [[net.art]].)
* Telematic art
* [[Interactive art]]
* [[Systems art]]
===In architecture and design===
Cybernetics was an influence on thinking in architecture and design in the decades after the Second World War. Ashby and Pask were drawn on by design theorists such as [[Horst Rittel]],<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Thomas|last1=Fischer|first2=Laurence D.|last2=Richards|title=From Goal-Oriented to Constraint-Oriented Design: The Cybernetic Intersection of Design Theory and Systems Theory|journal=Leonardo|date=2014-06-09|issn=0024-094X|pages=36–41|volume=50|issue=1|doi=10.1162/leon_a_00862|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1001054}}</ref> [[Christopher Alexander]]<ref>Upitis, A. (2013). Alexander's Choice: How Architecture avoided Computer Aided Design c. 1962. In A. Dutta (Ed.), A Second Modernism: MIT, Architecture, and the 'Techno-Social' Moment (pp. 474-505). Cambridge, Massachusetts: SA+P Press.</ref> and [[Bruce Archer]].<ref>Boyd Davis, S., & Gristwood, S. (2016). The Structure of Design Processes: Ideal and Reality in Bruce Archer’s 1968 Doctoral Thesis. In Proceedings of DRS 2016, Design Research Society 50th Anniversary Conference, Brighton, UK. 27–30 June 2016. Retrieved from http://www.drs2016.org/240/</ref> Pask was a consultant to [[Nicholas Negroponte|Nicholas Negroponte's]] [[Architecture Machine Group]], forerunner of the [[MIT Media Lab]], and collaborated with architect [[Cedric Price]] and theatre director [[Joan Littlewood]] on the influential [[Fun Palace]] project during the 1960s.<ref>Mathews, S. (2007). From Agit-Prop to Free Space: The Architecture of Cedric Price. London: Black Dog. Isabelle Doucet (University of Manchester, UK), Samantha Hardingham (Architectural Association, London, UK), Tanja Herdt (TU Munich, Germany), Jim Njoo (École Nationale Supérieure d’Architecture de Paris-La Villette, France), Ben Sweeting (University of Brighton, UK). [https://www.cca.qc.ca/en/events/40500/an-afternoon-with-cedric-price-no-1 An Afternoon with Cedric Price no. 1, CCA c/o Lisboa]. Panel discussion moderated by Kim Förster, CCA Associate Director, Research. Organised by the Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal and Artéria, Lisbon. Held at Barbas Lopes Arquitectos. Part of the Lisbon Architecture Triennale 2016. 22 October 2016.</ref> Pask's 1950s Musicolour installation was the inspiration for John and Julia Frazer's work on Price's Generator project.<ref>Furtado Cardoso Lopes, G. M. (2008). Cedric Price's Generator and the Frazers' systems research. Technoetic Arts, 6(1), 55-72. {{doi|10.1386/tear.6.1.55_1}}</ref> There has been a resurgence of interest in cybernetics and [[Systemic design|systems thinking]] amongst designers in recent decades, in relation to developments in technology and increasingly complex design challenges.<ref>Glanville, R. (Ed.). (2007). Cybernetics and design. Special double issue of Kybernetes, 36(9/10); Jones, P. H. (2014). Systemic Design Principles for Complex Social Systems. In G. Metcalf (Ed.), Social Systems and Design (pp. 91-128). Tokyo: Springer.</ref> Figures such as [[Klaus Krippendorff]], [[Paul Pangaro]] and [[Ranulph Glanville]] have made significant contributions to both cybernetics and design research. The connections between the two fields have come to be understood less in terms of application and more as reflections of each other.<ref>Glanville, R. (2007). Try again. Fail again. Fail better: The cybernetics in design and the design in cybernetics. Kybernetes, 36(9/10), 1173-1206. {{doi|10.1108/03684920710827238}}; Glanville, R. (2014). How Design and Cybernetics Reflect Each Other. In B. Sevaldson & P. H. Jones (Eds.), Proceedings of Third Symposium of Relating Systems Thinking to Design, Oslo, Norway. October 15–17, 2014. Sweeting, B. (2016). [http://www.univie.ac.at/constructivism/journal/11/3/572.sweeting Design Research as a Variety of Second-Order Cybernetic Practice]. Constructivist Foundations, 11(3), 572-579.</ref>
===In Earth system science===
Geocybernetics aims to study and control the complex co-evolution of [[Earth's spheres|ecosphere]] and [[anthroposphere]],<ref name="Schellnhuber (1998)">Schellnhuber, H.-J., Discourse: Earth system analysis - The scope of the challenge, pp. 3-195. In: Schellnhuber, H.-J. and Wenzel, V. (Eds.). 1998. Earth system analysis: Integrating science for sustainability. Berlin: Springer.</ref> for example, for dealing with planetary problems such as anthropogenic [[global warming]].<ref name="Schellnhuber (1999)">Schellnhuber, H.-J., Earth system analysis and the second Copernican revolution. ''Nature'', 402, C19-C23. 1999.</ref> Geocybernetics applies a [[dynamical systems]] perspective to [[Earth system analysis]]. It provides a theoretical framework for studying the implications of following different [[sustainability]] paradigms on co-evolutionary trajectories of the planetary [[socio-ecological system]] to reveal [[attractor]]s in this system, their stability, resilience and reachability. Concepts such as [[wikt:tipping point|tipping point]]s in the [[climate system]], [[planetary boundaries]], the [[safe operating space]] for humanity and proposals for manipulating Earth system dynamics on a global scale such as [[climate engineering|geoengineering]] have been framed in the language of geocybernetic Earth system analysis.
=== In sport ===
A model of cybernetics in Sport was introduced by Yuri Verkhoshansky and Mel C. Siff in 1999 in their book ''Supertraining''.
=== In law ===
As a form of regulation, cybernetics has been always close to [[law]], specially in [[regulation]] and [[legal science]]s, through the next topics:
* [[Organization]]s and [[superorganism]]s
* [[Ontology]], [[logic]] and [[artificial intelligence]]
* [[Complex adaptive systems]]
* [[Smart contract]]s
* [[Control system (disambiguation)|Control systems]]
* [[Self-organization in cybernetics]]
* [[Cyberethics]]
* [[Regulation]]
* [[Consensus]] systems
* [[Metagovernment]]
==Related fields==
=== Complexity science ===
Complexity science attempts to understand the nature of complex systems.
Aspects of complexity science include:
* [[Complex adaptive system]]
* [[Complex systems]]
* [[Computational complexity theory|Complexity theory]]
* [[Decision intelligence]]
=== Biomechatronics ===
[[Biomechatronics]] relates to linking [[mechatronics]] to biological organisms, leading to systems that conform to A. N. Kolmogorov's definition of Cybernetics: "Science concerned with the study of systems of any nature which are capable of receiving, storing and processing information so as to use it for control".{{Citation needed|date=September 2013}} From this perspective mechatronics are considered [[technical cybernetics]] or [[engineering cybernetics]].
== See also ==
{{Col-list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Artificial life]]
* [[Automation]]
* [[Autonomous agency theory]]
* [[Bionics]]
* [[Brain–computer interface]]
* [[Connectionism]]
* [[Cybernetics Society]]
* [[Cyborgs]]
* [[Decision theory]]
* [[Gaia hypothesis]]
* [[Industrial ecology]]
* [[Intelligence amplification]]
* [[Management science]]
* [[Principia Cybernetica]]
* [[Ratio Club]]
* [[Semiotics]]
** [[Cybersemiotics]]
* [[Superorganism]]s
* [[Synergetics (Haken)]]
* [[Tektology]]
* [[Transhumanism]]
* [[Variety (cybernetics)]]
* [[Viable system theory]]
** [[Viable system model]]
** [[Viable systems approach]]
}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
<!--If anyone knows what these references cite, please add them using the <ref></ref> tag to the appropriate information.-->
* {{cite book|last=Arbib|first=Michael A.|title=Brains, machines, and mathematics|year=1987|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=New York|isbn=978-0387965390|edition=2nd}}
* {{cite book|last=Arbib|first=Michael A.|title=The Metaphorical Brain|year=1972|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-03249-6|url=https://archive.org/details/metaphoricalbrai00mich}}
* [[Roy Ascott|Ascott, Roy]] (1967). Behaviourist Art and the Cybernetic Vision. ''Cybernetica'', Journal of the International Association for Cybernetics (Namur), 10, pp. 25–56
* {{cite book|last=Ashby|first=William Ross|title=An introduction to cybernetics|url=http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/books/IntroCyb.pdf|accessdate=3 June 2012|year=1956|publisher=Chapman & Hall}}
* {{cite book|last=Beer|first=Stafford|title=Designing freedom|url=https://archive.org/details/designingfreedom00beer|url-access=registration|year=1974|publisher=Wiley|location=Chichester, West Sussex, England|isbn=978-0471951650}}
* [[Charles François (systems scientist)|François, Charles]] (1999). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20060616081808/http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/~gossimit/ifsr/francois/papers/systemics_and_cybernetics_in_a_historical_perspective.pdf Systemics and cybernetics in a historical perspective]". In: ''Systems Research and Behavioral Science''. Vol 16, pp. 203–219 (1999)
* {{cite book|last=George|first=F. H.|title=Cybernetics|year=1971|publisher=Teach Yourself Books|isbn=978-0-340-05941-8|url=https://archive.org/details/cybernetics0000geor}}
* {{cite book|last=Gerovitch|first=Slava|title=From newspeak to cyberspeak : a history of Soviet cybernetics|year=2002|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts [u.a.]|isbn=978-0262-07232-8|url=http://web.mit.edu/slava/homepage/newspeak.htm}}
* {{cite book|last=Heims|first=Steve Joshua|title=Constructing a social science for postwar America : the cybernetics group, 1946-1953|year=1993|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts u.a.|isbn=9780262581233|edition=1st}}
* {{cite book|last=Helvey|first=T.C.|title=The age of information; an interdisciplinary survey of cybernetics|year=1971|publisher=Educational Technology Publications|location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J.|isbn=9780877780083}}
* [[Francis Heylighen|Heylighen, Francis]], and [[Cliff Joslyn]] (2002). "[http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/Papers/Cybernetics-EPST.pdf Cybernetics and Second Order Cybernetics]", in: R.A. Meyers (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Physical Science & Technology'' (3rd ed.), Vol. 4, (Academic Press, San Diego), p. 155-169.
* Hyötyniemi, Heikki (2006). [http://neocybernetics.com/report151/ ''Neocybernetics in Biological Systems'']. Espoo: Helsinki University of Technology, Control Engineering Laboratory.
* Ilgauds, Hans Joachim (1980), ''Norbert Wiener'', Leipzig.
* {{cite book|last=Johnston|first=John|title=The allure of machinic life : cybernetics, artificial life, and the new AI|year=2008|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0-262-10126-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Medina|first=Eden|title=Cybernetic revolutionaries : technology and politics in Allende's Chile|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=2011|isbn=978-0-262-01649-0}}
* {{cite web|last=Pangaro|first=Paul|title=Cybernetics — A Definition|url=http://pangaro.com/published/cyber-macmillan.html}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Pask |first=Gordon |authorlink= Gordon Pask |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Cybernetics |url=http://www.cybsoc.org/gcyb.htm |year=1972 }}
* {{cite journal|last=Patten|first=Bernard C.|author2=Odum, Eugene P.|title=The Cybernetic Nature of Ecosystems|journal=The American Naturalist|date=December 1981|volume=118|issue=6|pages=886–895|jstor=2460822?|doi=10.1086/283881}}
* {{cite book|last=Pekelis|first=V.|title=Cybernetics A to Z|year=1974|publisher=Mir Publishers|location=Moscow}}
* {{cite book|last=Pickering|first=Andrew|authorlink=Andrew Pickering|title=The cybernetic brain : sketches of another future|year=2010|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0226667898|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}}
* [[Stuart Umpleby|Umpleby, Stuart]] (1989). [ftp://ftp.vub.ac.be/pub/projects/Principia_Cybernetica/Papers_Umpleby/Science-Cybernetics.txt "The science of cybernetics and the cybernetics of science"], in: ''Cybernetics and Systems", Vol. 21, No. 1, (1990), pp. 109–121.
* [[Heinz von Foerster|von Foerster, Heinz]], (1995), [http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/4-2/text/foerster.html Ethics and Second-Order Cybernetics].
* {{cite book|last=Wiener|first=Norbert|authorlink=Norbert Wiener|title=Cybernetics; or, Control and communication in the animal and the machine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2AKaAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=3 June 2012|year=1948|publisher=Technology Press|location=Paris|editor=Hermann & Cie}}
* {{cite book|last=Wiener|first=Norbert|authorlink=Norbert Wiener|title=Cybernetics and Society: The Human Use of Human Beings|year=1950|publisher=Houghton Mifflin}}
== External links ==
<!-- This section should only contain links to most notable websites about cybernetics in general. Website about specific fields of cybernetics should be listed in the related specific Wikipedia article. -->
{{Sister project links
|wikt = cybernetics
|commons= Category:Cybernetics
|b = Systems Theory/Cybernetics
}}
; General
* [http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Comp/CompJurc.htm Norbert Wiener and Stefan Odobleja - A Comparative Analysis]
* [http://bactra.org/notebooks/cybernetics.html Reading List for Cybernetics ]
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/DEFAULT.html ''Principia Cybernetica Web'']
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/indexASC.html Web Dictionary of Cybernetics and Systems]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~asc/slide/s1.html Glossary Slideshow (136 slides)]
* {{cite web
|title=Basics of Cybernetics
|url=http://www.smithsrisca.demon.co.uk/cybernetics.html
|accessdate=2016-01-23
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100811013353/http://www.smithsrisca.demon.co.uk/cybernetics.html
|archivedate=2010-08-11 }}
* {{YouTube|_hjAXkNbPfk|What is Cybernetics? Livas short introductory videos}}
; Societies
* [http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/ American Society for Cybernetics]
* [http://www.ieeesmc.org/ IEEE Systems, Man, & Cybernetics Society]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150226115753/http://3rd-street.net/Group/index.php/index.php?topic=68.msg216#msg216 International Society for Cybernetics and Systems Research]
* [http://www.cybsoc.org The Cybernetics Society]
{{-}}
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