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第1行： − 此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。+ − − {{sociology}}<onlyinclude><!-- − − <onlyinclude><!-- − − 只包括! -- − − While editing this lead/intro, please keep your text BELOW this line - this will make it easier to automatically insert the lede into other articles --> − − While editing this lead/intro, please keep your text BELOW this line - this will make it easier to automatically insert the lede into other articles --> − − 当编辑这个导语 / 介绍，请保持你的文本下面这行-这将使它更容易自动插入到其他文章的莱德- − − '''Computational sociology''' is a branch of [[sociology]] that uses computationally intensive methods to analyze and model social phenomena. Using [[computer simulation]]s, [[artificial intelligence]], complex statistical methods, and analytic approaches like [[social network analysis]], computational sociology develops and tests theories of complex social processes through bottom-up modeling of social interactions.<ref name="MW">{{cite journal|doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141117|title=From Factors to Actors: Computational Sociology and Agent-Based Modeling |first1=Michael W. |last1=Macy |first2=Robert |last2=Willer |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=28 |pages=143–166 |jstor=3069238|year=2002}}</ref> − − Computational sociology is a branch of sociology that uses computationally intensive methods to analyze and model social phenomena. Using computer simulations, artificial intelligence, complex statistical methods, and analytic approaches like social network analysis, computational sociology develops and tests theories of complex social processes through bottom-up modeling of social interactions. − − 计算社会学是社会学的一个分支，它使用计算密集型方法来分析和模拟社会现象。通过使用计算机模拟、人工智能、复杂的统计方法，以及社会网络分析等分析方法，计算社会学通过自下而上的社会互动建模，发展和检验复杂社会过程的理论。 − − − − It involves the understanding of social agents, the interaction among these agents, and the effect of these interactions on the social aggregate.<ref name="SfSS1">{{cite book|last1=Gilbert |first1=Nigel |last2=Troitzsch |first2=Klaus |year=2005 |title=Simulation for Social Scientists |edition=2 |chapter=Simulation and social science |publisher=Open University Press |chapter-url=http://cress.soc.surrey.ac.uk/s4ss/}}</ref> Although the subject matter and methodologies in [[social science]] differ from those in [[natural science]] or [[computer science]], several of the approaches used in contemporary [[social simulation]] originated from fields such as [[physics]] and [[artificial intelligence]].<ref name="Artificial Societies">{{cite book|last1=Epstein |first1=Joshua M. |last2=Axtell |first2=Robert |year=1996 |title=Growing Artificial Societies: Social Science from the Bottom Up |location=Washington DC |publisher=Brookings Institution Press|url=https://archive.org/details/growingartificia00epst|url-access=registration |isbn=978-0262050531 }}</ref><ref name="Cooperation">{{cite book|last1=Axelrod |first1=Robert |year=1997 |title=The Complexity of Cooperation: Agent-Based Models of Competition and Collaboration |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref> Some of the approaches that originated in this field have been imported into the natural sciences, such as measures of [[centrality|network centrality]] from the fields of [[social network analysis]] and [[network science]]. − − It involves the understanding of social agents, the interaction among these agents, and the effect of these interactions on the social aggregate. Although the subject matter and methodologies in social science differ from those in natural science or computer science, several of the approaches used in contemporary social simulation originated from fields such as physics and artificial intelligence. Some of the approaches that originated in this field have been imported into the natural sciences, such as measures of network centrality from the fields of social network analysis and network science. − − 它涉及对社会行为主体的理解，这些行为主体之间的相互作用，以及这些相互作用对社会总量的影响。虽然社会科学的主题和方法不同于自然科学或计算机科学，但当代社会模拟中使用的一些方法起源于物理学和人工智能等领域。一些起源于这一领域的方法已经被引入到自然科学中，如来自社会网络分析和网络科学领域的网络中心性度量。 − − − − In relevant literature, computational sociology is often related to the study of [[social complexity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Casti |first=J |year=1999 |title=The Computer as Laboratory: Toward a Theory of Complex Adaptive Systems |journal=Complexity |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=12–14 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1099-0526(199905/06)4:5<12::AID-CPLX3>3.0.CO;2-4}}</ref> Social complexity concepts such as [[complex systems]], [[non-linear]] interconnection among macro and micro process, and [[emergence]], have entered the vocabulary of computational sociology.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Goldspink |first=C |year=2002 |title=Methodological Implications of Complex Systems Approaches to Sociality: Simulation as a Foundation for Knowledge |url=http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/5/1/3.html |publisher=Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation |volume=5 |issue=1}}</ref> A practical and well-known example is the construction of a computational model in the form of an "[[artificial society]]", by which researchers can analyze the structure of a [[Social structure|social system]].<ref name="SfSS1"/><ref name="Generative">{{cite book|last=Epstein |first=Joshua |year=2007 |title=Generative Social Science: Studies in Agent-Based Computational Modeling |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283615593}}</ref><!-- − − In relevant literature, computational sociology is often related to the study of social complexity. Social complexity concepts such as complex systems, non-linear interconnection among macro and micro process, and emergence, have entered the vocabulary of computational sociology. A practical and well-known example is the construction of a computational model in the form of an "artificial society", by which researchers can analyze the structure of a social system.<!-- − − 在相关文献中，计算社会学经常与社会复杂性的研究有关。复杂系统、宏观和微观过程之间的非线性相互联系、涌现等社会复杂性概念已经进入计算社会学的词汇。一个实际而著名的例子是以“人工社会”的形式建造一个计算模型，通过它研究人员可以分析一个社会系统的结构。 <！ -- − − While editing this lead/intro, please keep your text ABOVE this line - this will make it easier to automatically insert the lede into other articles - thanks! − − While editing this lead/intro, please keep your text ABOVE this line - this will make it easier to automatically insert the lede into other articles - thanks! − − 当编辑这个引导 / 介绍，请保持你的文本以上这一行-这将使它更容易自动插入到其他文章的莱德-谢谢！ − − --></onlyinclude> − − --></onlyinclude> − − -- / 只包括 − − − − ==History== − − {{see also|Sociology and complexity science}} − − [[File:Complexity-map-with-sociolo.png|thumb|right|300px|Historical map of research paradigms and associated scientists in [[sociology and complexity science]].]] − − Historical map of research paradigms and associated scientists in [[sociology and complexity science.]] − − 研究范式和相关科学家的历史地图[社会学和复杂性科学] − − − − === Background === − − − − In the past four decades, computational sociology has been introduced and gaining popularity {{According to whom|date=June 2017}}. This has been used primarily for modeling or building explanations of social processes and are depending on the emergence of complex behavior from simple activities.<ref name="EACICS">Salgado, Mauricio, and Nigel Gilbert. "[http://epubs.surrey.ac.uk/749319/1/Emergence%20and%20Communication%20-%20V3%201.pdf Emergence and communication in computational sociology]." Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 43.1 (2013): 87-110.</ref> The idea behind emergence is that properties of any bigger system do not always have to be properties of the components that the system is made of.<ref>Macy, Michael W., and Robert Willer. "[http://sct.uab.cat/lsds/sites/sct.uab.cat.lsds/files/FROM%20FACTORS%20TO%20ACTORS%20(Macy%20and%20Willer%202002).pdf From factors to actors: computational sociology and agent-based modeling]." Annual review of sociology 28.1 (2002): 143-166.</ref> The people responsible for the introduction of the idea of emergence are Alexander, Morgan, and Broad, who were classical emergentists. The time at which these emergentists came up with this concept and method was during the time of the early twentieth century. The aim of this method was to find a good enough accommodation between two different and extreme ontologies, which were reductionist materialism and dualism.<ref name="EACICS"/> − − In the past four decades, computational sociology has been introduced and gaining popularity . This has been used primarily for modeling or building explanations of social processes and are depending on the emergence of complex behavior from simple activities. The idea behind emergence is that properties of any bigger system do not always have to be properties of the components that the system is made of. The people responsible for the introduction of the idea of emergence are Alexander, Morgan, and Broad, who were classical emergentists. The time at which these emergentists came up with this concept and method was during the time of the early twentieth century. The aim of this method was to find a good enough accommodation between two different and extreme ontologies, which were reductionist materialism and dualism. − − 在过去的四十年里，计算社会学已经被引入并且越来越受欢迎。这主要用于建模或构建社会过程的解释，并且依赖于从简单活动中出现的复杂行为。涌现背后的思想是，任何较大系统的性质，并不总是必须是组成系统的组件的性质。引入涌现思想的人是亚历山大、摩根和布罗德，他们都是古典出现主义者。这些再生派提出这个概念和方法的时间是在二十世纪初期。这种方法的目的是在两种不同的极端本体论之间找到一个足够好的调和，即还原论的唯物主义和二元论。 − − − − While emergence has had a valuable and important role with the foundation of Computational Sociology, there are those who do not necessarily agree. One major leader in the field, Epstein, doubted the use because there were aspects that are unexplainable. Epstein put up a claim against emergentism, in which he says it "is precisely the generative sufficiency of the parts that constitutes the whole's explanation".<ref name="EACICS"/> − − While emergence has had a valuable and important role with the foundation of Computational Sociology, there are those who do not necessarily agree. One major leader in the field, Epstein, doubted the use because there were aspects that are unexplainable. Epstein put up a claim against emergentism, in which he says it "is precisely the generative sufficiency of the parts that constitutes the whole's explanation". − − 虽然崛起在计算社会学的基础上发挥了宝贵而重要的作用，但也有人不一定同意。该领域的一个主要领导者，爱泼斯坦，怀疑这种用法，因为有些方面是无法解释的。爱泼斯坦提出了反对“突现主义”的观点，他在其中表示，“正是构成整体解释的各个部分的生成性充分性”。 − − − − Agent-based models have had a historical influence on Computational Sociology. These models first came around in the 1960s, and were used to simulate control and feedback processes in organizations, cities, etc. During the 1970s, the application introduced the use of individuals as the main units for the analyses and used bottom-up strategies for modeling behaviors. The last wave occurred in the 1980s. At this time, the models were still bottom-up; the only difference is that the agents interact interdependently.<ref name="EACICS"/> − − Agent-based models have had a historical influence on Computational Sociology. These models first came around in the 1960s, and were used to simulate control and feedback processes in organizations, cities, etc. During the 1970s, the application introduced the use of individuals as the main units for the analyses and used bottom-up strategies for modeling behaviors. The last wave occurred in the 1980s. At this time, the models were still bottom-up; the only difference is that the agents interact interdependently. − − 基于代理的模型对计算社会学有着历史性的影响。这些模型最早出现在20世纪60年代，用于模拟组织、城市等的控制和反馈过程。在20世纪70年代，应用程序引入了个体作为分析的主要单元，并使用自下而上的策略来建模行为。最后一波浪潮发生在20世纪80年代。在这个时候，模型仍然是自下而上的; 唯一的区别是代理互相依赖地相互作用。 − − − − ===Systems theory and structural functionalism=== − − {{main|Systems theory|Structural functionalism}} − − In the post-war era, [[Vannevar Bush]]'s [[differential analyser]], [[John von Neumann]]'s [[Von Neumann cellular automata|cellular automata]], [[Norbert Wiener]]'s [[cybernetics]], and [[Claude Shannon]]'s [[information theory]] became influential paradigms for modeling and understanding complexity in technical systems. In response, scientists in disciplines such as physics, biology, electronics, and economics began to articulate a [[systems theory|general theory of systems]] in which all natural and physical phenomena are manifestations of interrelated elements in a system that has common patterns and properties. Following [[Émile Durkheim]]'s call to analyze complex modern society ''[[sui generis]]'',<ref>{{cite book|first=Émile |last=Durkheim |title=The Division of Labor in Society |location=New York, NY |publisher=Macmillan}}</ref> post-war structural functionalist sociologists such as [[Talcott Parsons]] seized upon these theories of systematic and hierarchical interaction among constituent components to attempt to generate grand unified sociological theories, such as the [[AGIL paradigm]].<ref name="Bailey">{{cite book|first1=Kenneth D. |last1=Bailey |editor=Jonathan H. Turner |chapter=Systems Theory |title=Handbook of Sociological Theory |publisher=Springer Science |year=2006 |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0-387-32458-6 |pages=379–404}}</ref> Sociologists such as [[George Homans]] argued that sociological theories should be formalized into hierarchical structures of propositions and precise terminology from which other propositions and hypotheses could be derived and operationalized into empirical studies.<ref name="Blackwell">{{cite encyclopedia|year=2007 |title=Computational Sociology |last=Bainbridge |first=William Sims |encyclopedia=Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology |publisher=Blackwell Reference Online |url=http://www.sociologyencyclopedia.com/subscriber/tocnode?id=g9781405124331_chunk_g97814051243319_ss1-85 |doi=10.1111/b.9781405124331.2007.x |hdl=10138/224218 |editor=Ritzer, George|isbn=978-1-4051-2433-1|hdl-access=free }}</ref> Because computer algorithms and programs had been used as early as 1956 to test and validate mathematical theorems, such as the [[four color theorem]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Crevier |first=D. |year=1993 |title=AI: The Tumultuous History of the Search for Artificial Intelligence |url=https://archive.org/details/aitumultuoushist00crev |url-access=registration |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York, NY}}</ref> some scholars anticipated that similar computational approaches could "solve" and "prove" analogously formalized problems and theorems of social structures and dynamics. − − In the post-war era, Vannevar Bush's differential analyser, John von Neumann's cellular automata, Norbert Wiener's cybernetics, and Claude Shannon's information theory became influential paradigms for modeling and understanding complexity in technical systems. In response, scientists in disciplines such as physics, biology, electronics, and economics began to articulate a general theory of systems in which all natural and physical phenomena are manifestations of interrelated elements in a system that has common patterns and properties. Following Émile Durkheim's call to analyze complex modern society sui generis, post-war structural functionalist sociologists such as Talcott Parsons seized upon these theories of systematic and hierarchical interaction among constituent components to attempt to generate grand unified sociological theories, such as the AGIL paradigm. Sociologists such as George Homans argued that sociological theories should be formalized into hierarchical structures of propositions and precise terminology from which other propositions and hypotheses could be derived and operationalized into empirical studies. Because computer algorithms and programs had been used as early as 1956 to test and validate mathematical theorems, such as the four color theorem, some scholars anticipated that similar computational approaches could "solve" and "prove" analogously formalized problems and theorems of social structures and dynamics. − − 战后时期，Vannevar Bush 的微分分析仪、约翰·冯·诺伊曼的细胞自动机、 Norbert Wiener 的控制论和 Claude Shannon 的信息论成为技术系统中建模和理解复杂性的有影响力的范式。作为回应，物理学、生物学、电子学和经济学等学科的科学家开始阐述系统的一般理论，其中所有自然和物理现象都是具有共同模式和属性的系统中相互关联的元素的表现。战后结构功能主义社会学家，如塔尔科特 · 帕森斯(Talcott Parsons) ，继涂尔干(Durkheim)呼吁分析自成一格的复杂现代社会之后，抓住这些组成部分之间系统和层级相互作用的理论，试图产生大统一的社会学理论，如 AGIL 范式。乔治 · 霍曼斯等社会学家认为，社会学理论应该形式化为命题的等级结构和精确的术语，从中可以衍生出其他命题和假设，并将其运用到实证研究中。由于早在1956年计算机算法和程序就已经被用来测试和验证数学定理，如四色定理，一些学者预计类似的计算方法可以“解决”和“证明”类比的社会结构和动态的形式化问题和定理。 − − − − ===Macrosimulation and microsimulation=== − − {{main|System dynamics|Microsimulation}} − − By the late 1960s and early 1970s, social scientists used increasingly available computing technology to perform macro-simulations of control and feedback processes in organizations, industries, cities, and global populations. These models used differential equations to predict population distributions as holistic functions of other systematic factors such as inventory control, urban traffic, migration, and disease transmission.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jay |last=Forrester |year=1971 |title=World Dynamics |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=MIT Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1287/opre.26.2.237|title=Using Simulation to Develop and Validate Analytic Models: Some Case Studies |first1=Edward J. |last1=Ignall |first2=Peter |last2=Kolesar |first3=Warren E. |last3=Walker |journal=Operations Research |volume=26 |issue=2 |year=1978 |pages=237–253}}</ref> Although simulations of social systems received substantial attention in the mid-1970s after the [[Club of Rome]] published reports predicting that policies promoting exponential economic growth would eventually bring global environmental catastrophe,<ref>{{cite book|title=The Dynamics of Growth in a Finite World |last1=Meadows |first1=DL |last2=Behrens |first2=WW |last3=Meadows |first3=DH |last4=Naill |first4=RF |last5= Randers |first5=J |last6=Zahn |first6=EK |year=1974 |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=MIT Press}}</ref> the inconvenient conclusions led many authors to seek to discredit the models, attempting to make the researchers themselves appear unscientific.<ref name="SfSS1"/><ref>{{cite news|title=Computer View of Disaster Is Rebutted |newspaper=The New York Times |date=October 18, 1974|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/10/18/archives/computer-view-of-disaster-is-rebutted.html?_r=0}}</ref> Hoping to avoid the same fate, many social scientists turned their attention toward micro-simulation models to make forecasts and study policy effects by modeling aggregate changes in state of individual-level entities rather than the changes in distribution at the population level.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0167-2681(90)90038-F|title=From engineering to microsimulation : An autobiographical reflection |journal=Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization |year=1990 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=5–27 |first=Guy H. |last=Orcutt}}</ref> However, these micro-simulation models did not permit individuals to interact or adapt and were not intended for basic theoretical research.<ref name="MW"/> − − By the late 1960s and early 1970s, social scientists used increasingly available computing technology to perform macro-simulations of control and feedback processes in organizations, industries, cities, and global populations. These models used differential equations to predict population distributions as holistic functions of other systematic factors such as inventory control, urban traffic, migration, and disease transmission. Although simulations of social systems received substantial attention in the mid-1970s after the Club of Rome published reports predicting that policies promoting exponential economic growth would eventually bring global environmental catastrophe, the inconvenient conclusions led many authors to seek to discredit the models, attempting to make the researchers themselves appear unscientific. Hoping to avoid the same fate, many social scientists turned their attention toward micro-simulation models to make forecasts and study policy effects by modeling aggregate changes in state of individual-level entities rather than the changes in distribution at the population level. However, these micro-simulation models did not permit individuals to interact or adapt and were not intended for basic theoretical research. − − 到20世纪60年代末和70年代初，社会科学家使用越来越多可用的计算技术，在组织、行业、城市和全球人口中执行控制和反馈过程的宏观模拟。这些模型使用微分方程作为其他系统因素如库存控制、城市交通、人口迁移和疾病传播的整体函数来预测人口分布。20世纪70年代中期，罗马俱乐部(Club of Rome)发表报告预测，促进指数式经济增长的政策最终将导致全球环境灾难，尽管在这之后，对社会系统的模拟受到了大量关注，但这些麻烦的结论导致许多作者试图怀疑这些模型，试图让研究人员自。为了避免同样的命运，许多社会科学家将注意力转向微观模拟模型，通过模拟个体一级实体状态的总体变化，而不是人口一级分布的变化，来预测和研究政策效果。然而，这些微观模拟模型并不允许个体相互作用或适应，也不打算用于基础理论研究。 − − − − ===Cellular automata and agent-based modeling=== − − {{main|Cellular automata|agent-based modeling}} − − The 1970s and 1980s were also a time when physicists and mathematicians were attempting to model and analyze how simple component units, such as atoms, give rise to global properties, such as complex material properties at low temperatures, in magnetic materials, and within turbulent flows.<ref>{{cite book|title=Cellular automata machines: a new environment for modeling |url=https://archive.org/details/cellularautomata00toff |url-access=registration |first1=Tommaso |last1=Toffoli |first2=Norman |last2=Margolus | author2-link = Norman Margolus |year=1987 |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> Using cellular automata, scientists were able to specify systems consisting of a grid of cells in which each cell only occupied some finite states and changes between states were solely governed by the states of immediate neighbors. Along with advances in [[artificial intelligence]] and [[microcomputer]] power, these methods contributed to the development of "[[chaos theory]]" and "[[complex systems|complexity theory]]" which, in turn, renewed interest in understanding complex physical and social systems across disciplinary boundaries.<ref name="SfSS1"/> Research organizations explicitly dedicated to the interdisciplinary study of complexity were also founded in this era: the [[Santa Fe Institute]] was established in 1984 by scientists based at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] and the BACH group at the [[University of Michigan]] likewise started in the mid-1980s. − − The 1970s and 1980s were also a time when physicists and mathematicians were attempting to model and analyze how simple component units, such as atoms, give rise to global properties, such as complex material properties at low temperatures, in magnetic materials, and within turbulent flows. Using cellular automata, scientists were able to specify systems consisting of a grid of cells in which each cell only occupied some finite states and changes between states were solely governed by the states of immediate neighbors. Along with advances in artificial intelligence and microcomputer power, these methods contributed to the development of "chaos theory" and "complexity theory" which, in turn, renewed interest in understanding complex physical and social systems across disciplinary boundaries. Research organizations explicitly dedicated to the interdisciplinary study of complexity were also founded in this era: the Santa Fe Institute was established in 1984 by scientists based at Los Alamos National Laboratory and the BACH group at the University of Michigan likewise started in the mid-1980s. − − 20世纪70年代和80年代也是物理学家和数学家试图模拟和分析简单的组成单位，如原子，如何引起全球性的特性，如在低温下，在磁性材料和湍流中的复杂材料特性。使用细胞自动机，科学家们能够指定由细胞网格组成的系统，其中每个细胞只占据一些有限的状态，状态之间的变化完全由相邻细胞的状态控制。随着人工智能和微型计算机能力的进步，这些方法促进了“混沌理论”和“复杂性理论”的发展，这反过来又重新引起了人们对跨学科界限理解复杂的物理和社会系统的兴趣。明确致力于复杂性跨学科研究的研究机构也是在这个时代成立的: 圣菲研究所是由洛斯阿拉莫斯国家实验室的科学家于1984年建立的，密歇根大学的 BACH 小组也是在20世纪80年代中期建立的。 − − − − This cellular automata paradigm gave rise to a third wave of social simulation emphasizing agent-based modeling. Like micro-simulations, these models emphasized bottom-up designs but adopted four key assumptions that diverged from microsimulation: autonomy, interdependency, simple rules, and adaptive behavior.<ref name="MW"/> Agent-based models are less concerned with predictive accuracy and instead emphasize theoretical development.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A simulation of the structure of academic science |journal=Sociological Research Online |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=1–15 |year=1997 |first=Nigel |last=Gilbert |url=http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/2/2/3.html |doi=10.5153/sro.85 |access-date=2009-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980524062306/http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socresonline/2/2/3.html |archive-date=1998-05-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1981, mathematician and political scientist [[Robert Axelrod]] and evolutionary biologist [[W.D. Hamilton]] published a major paper in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' titled "The Evolution of Cooperation" which used an agent-based modeling approach to demonstrate how social cooperation based upon reciprocity can be established and stabilized in a [[prisoner's dilemma]] game when agents followed simple rules of self-interest.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Evolution of Cooperation |first1=Robert |last1=Axelrod |first2=William D. |last2=Hamilton |journal=Science |volume=211 |issue=4489 |pages=1390–1396 |doi=10.1126/science.7466396|pmid=7466396 |date=March 27, 1981|bibcode=1981Sci...211.1390A }}</ref> Axelrod and Hamilton demonstrated that individual agents following a simple rule set of (1) cooperate on the first turn and (2) thereafter replicate the partner's previous action were able to develop "norms" of cooperation and sanctioning in the absence of canonical sociological constructs such as demographics, values, religion, and culture as preconditions or mediators of cooperation.<ref name="Cooperation"/> Throughout the 1990s, scholars like [[William Sims Bainbridge]], [[Kathleen Carley]], [[Michael Macy]], and [[John Skvoretz]] developed multi-agent-based models of [[generalized reciprocity]], [[prejudice]], [[social influence]], and organizational [[information processing]]. In 1999, [[Nigel Gilbert]] published the first textbook on Social Simulation: ''Simulation for the social scientist'' and established its most relevant journal: the [[Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation]]. − − This cellular automata paradigm gave rise to a third wave of social simulation emphasizing agent-based modeling. Like micro-simulations, these models emphasized bottom-up designs but adopted four key assumptions that diverged from microsimulation: autonomy, interdependency, simple rules, and adaptive behavior. In 1981, mathematician and political scientist Robert Axelrod and evolutionary biologist W.D. Hamilton published a major paper in Science titled "The Evolution of Cooperation" which used an agent-based modeling approach to demonstrate how social cooperation based upon reciprocity can be established and stabilized in a prisoner's dilemma game when agents followed simple rules of self-interest. Axelrod and Hamilton demonstrated that individual agents following a simple rule set of (1) cooperate on the first turn and (2) thereafter replicate the partner's previous action were able to develop "norms" of cooperation and sanctioning in the absence of canonical sociological constructs such as demographics, values, religion, and culture as preconditions or mediators of cooperation. Throughout the 1990s, scholars like William Sims Bainbridge, Kathleen Carley, Michael Macy, and John Skvoretz developed multi-agent-based models of generalized reciprocity, prejudice, social influence, and organizational information processing. In 1999, Nigel Gilbert published the first textbook on Social Simulation: Simulation for the social scientist and established its most relevant journal: the Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation. − − 这种细胞自动机模式引发了强调基于主体的建模的第三次社会模拟浪潮。与微观模拟一样，这些模型强调自下而上的设计，但采用了与微观模拟不同的四个关键假设: 自主性、相互依赖性、简单规则和适应性行为。1981年，数学家、政治学家罗伯特 · 阿克塞尔罗德和进化生物学家 w.d。汉密尔顿在《科学》杂志上发表了一篇名为《合作的进化》的重要论文，该论文采用基于主体的建模方法，论证了在一个囚徒困境博弈中，当主体遵循简单的自我利益规则时，如何建立和稳定基于互惠的社会合作。阿克塞尔罗德和汉密尔顿证明，个体代理人遵循一套简单的规则: (1)在第一个转折点进行合作，(2)在其后复制合作伙伴以前的行动，能够在没有人口统计、价值观、宗教和文化等社会学规范的情况下制定合作和制裁的”规范” ，作为合作的先决条件或中介。整个20世纪90年代，像威廉·希姆斯·本布里奇，Kathleen Carley，Michael Macy 和 John Skvoretz 这样的学者开发了基于多 agent 的广义互惠，偏见，社会影响和组织信息处理模型。1999年，奈杰尔 · 吉尔伯特出版了第一本关于社会模拟: 社会科学家的模拟的教科书，并建立了它最相关的杂志: 人工社会和社会模拟杂志。 − − − − ===Data mining and social network analysis=== − − {{main|Data mining|Social network analysis}} − − Independent from developments in computational models of social systems, social network analysis emerged in the 1970s and 1980s from advances in graph theory, statistics, and studies of social structure as a distinct analytical method and was articulated and employed by sociologists like [[James Samuel Coleman|James S. Coleman]], [[Harrison White]], [[Linton Freeman]], [[J. Clyde Mitchell]], [[Mark Granovetter]], [[Ronald Burt]], and [[Barry Wellman]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Development of Social Network Analysis: A Study in the Sociology of Science |first=Linton C. |last=Freeman |publisher=Empirical Press |location=Vancouver, BC |year=2004}}</ref> The increasing pervasiveness of computing and telecommunication technologies throughout the 1980s and 1990s demanded analytical techniques, such as [[network theory|network analysis]] and [[multilevel modeling]], that could scale to increasingly complex and large data sets. The most recent wave of computational sociology, rather than employing simulations, uses network analysis and advanced statistical techniques to analyze large-scale computer databases of electronic proxies for behavioral data. Electronic records such as email and instant message records, hyperlinks on the [[World Wide Web]], mobile phone usage, and discussion on [[Usenet]] allow social scientists to directly observe and analyze social behavior at multiple points in time and multiple levels of analysis without the constraints of traditional empirical methods such as interviews, participant observation, or survey instruments.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Life in the network: the coming age of computational social science|first9=J|last10=Gutmann|first10=M.|last11=Jebara|first11=T.|last12=King|first12=G.|last13=Macy|first13=M.|last14=Roy|first14=D.|last15=Van Alstyne|first15=M.|last9=Fowler|first8=N|last8=Contractor|first7=N|last7=Christakis|first6=D|last6=Brewer|first5=AL|last5=Barabasi|first4=S |journal=Science|last4=Aral |date=February 6, 2009|first3=L |volume=323|pmid=19197046 |issue=5915|last3=Adamic |pages=721–723|pmc=2745217 |doi=10.1126/science.1167742 |first1=David |last1=Lazer |first2=Alex |last2=Pentland |display-authors=8}}</ref> Continued improvements in [[machine learning]] algorithms likewise have permitted social scientists and entrepreneurs to use novel techniques to identify latent and meaningful patterns of social interaction and evolution in large electronic datasets.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Jaideep |last1=Srivastava |first2=Robert |last2=Cooley |first3=Mukund |last3=Deshpande |first4=Pang-Ning |last4=Tan |journal=Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining |title=Web usage mining: discovery and applications of usage patterns from Web data|volume=1 |year=2000 |pages=12–23 |doi=10.1145/846183.846188|issue=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0169-7552(98)00110-X|title=The anatomy of a large-scale hypertextual Web search engine |first1=Sergey |last1=Brin |first2=Lawrence |last2=Page |journal=Computer Networks and ISDN Systems |volume=30 |issue=1–7 |pages=107–117 |date=April 1998|citeseerx=10.1.1.115.5930 }}</ref> − − Independent from developments in computational models of social systems, social network analysis emerged in the 1970s and 1980s from advances in graph theory, statistics, and studies of social structure as a distinct analytical method and was articulated and employed by sociologists like James S. Coleman, Harrison White, Linton Freeman, J. Clyde Mitchell, Mark Granovetter, Ronald Burt, and Barry Wellman. The increasing pervasiveness of computing and telecommunication technologies throughout the 1980s and 1990s demanded analytical techniques, such as network analysis and multilevel modeling, that could scale to increasingly complex and large data sets. The most recent wave of computational sociology, rather than employing simulations, uses network analysis and advanced statistical techniques to analyze large-scale computer databases of electronic proxies for behavioral data. Electronic records such as email and instant message records, hyperlinks on the World Wide Web, mobile phone usage, and discussion on Usenet allow social scientists to directly observe and analyze social behavior at multiple points in time and multiple levels of analysis without the constraints of traditional empirical methods such as interviews, participant observation, or survey instruments. Continued improvements in machine learning algorithms likewise have permitted social scientists and entrepreneurs to use novel techniques to identify latent and meaningful patterns of social interaction and evolution in large electronic datasets. − − 社会网络分析独立于社会系统计算模型的发展，在20世纪70年代和80年代出现于图论、统计学和社会结构研究的进展中，作为一种独特的分析方法，被社会学家如 James s. Coleman，Harrison White，Linton Freeman，j. Clyde Mitchell，马克·格兰诺维特，Ronald Burt 和 Barry Wellman 阐述和采用。在整个1980年代和1990年代，计算和通信技术日益普及，要求采用诸如网络分析和多级建模等分析技术，这些技术可以扩展到日益复杂和庞大的数据集。最近的一波计算社会学没有使用模拟，而是使用网络分析和先进的统计技术来分析大规模电子代理数据库中的行为数据。电子记录，如电子邮件和即时消息记录，万维网上的超链接，移动电话的使用，以及 Usenet 上的讨论，使社会科学家能够直接观察和分析社会行为在多个时间点和多个层次的分析，而不受传统的实证方法，如访谈，参与观察，或调查工具的限制。机器学习算法的不断改进同样使得社会科学家和企业家能够使用新技术来识别大型电子数据集中潜在的和有意义的社会互动和进化模式。 − − − − [[File:Tripletsnew2012.png|thumb|right|Narrative network of US Elections 2012<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal|title=Automated analysis of the US presidential elections using Big Data and network analysis|author1=S Sudhahar|author2=GA Veltri|author3=N Cristianini|journal=Big Data & Society|volume=2|issue=1|pages=1–28|year=2015|doi=10.1177/2053951715572916|doi-access=free}}</ref>]] − − Narrative network of US Elections 2012 − − 2012年美国大选叙事网络 − − The automatic parsing of textual corpora has enabled the extraction of actors and their relational networks on a vast scale, − − The automatic parsing of textual corpora has enabled the extraction of actors and their relational networks on a vast scale, − − 文本语料库的自动解析使得参与者及其关系网络的提取成为可能, − − turning textual data into network data. The resulting networks, which can contain thousands of nodes, are then analysed by using tools from Network theory to identify the key actors, the key communities or parties, and general properties such as robustness or structural stability of the overall network, or centrality of certain nodes.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Network analysis of narrative content in large corpora|author1=S Sudhahar|author2=G De Fazio|author3=R Franzosi|author4=N Cristianini|journal=Natural Language Engineering|volume=21|issue=1|pages=1–32|year=2013|doi=10.1017/S1351324913000247 |url=https://research-information.bristol.ac.uk/files/129621186/Network_Analysis_of_Narrative_Content_in_Large_Corpora.pdf}}</ref> This automates the approach introduced by quantitative narrative analysis,<ref>{{cite book|title=Quantitative Narrative Analysis|last=Franzosi|first=Roberto|publisher=Emory University|year=2010}}</ref> whereby subject-verb-object triplets are identified with pairs of actors linked by an action, or pairs formed by actor-object.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> − − turning textual data into network data. The resulting networks, which can contain thousands of nodes, are then analysed by using tools from Network theory to identify the key actors, the key communities or parties, and general properties such as robustness or structural stability of the overall network, or centrality of certain nodes. This automates the approach introduced by quantitative narrative analysis, whereby subject-verb-object triplets are identified with pairs of actors linked by an action, or pairs formed by actor-object. − − 将文本数据转换为网络数据。由此产生的网络可以包含数千个节点，然后利用网络理论中的工具对其进行分析，以确定关键参与者、关键群体或党派，以及总体网络的健壮性或结构稳定性或某些节点的中心性等一般性质。这使定量叙事分析引入的方法自动化，据此，主语-动词-宾语三元组被认定为由动作连接的成对行为者，或者由行为者-宾语形成的成对行为者。 − − − − ===Computational content analysis=== − − [[Content analysis]] has been a traditional part of social sciences and media studies for a long time. The automation of content analysis has allowed a "[[big data]]" revolution to take place in that field, with studies in social media and newspaper content that include millions of news items. [[Gender bias]], [[readability]], content similarity, reader preferences, and even mood have been analyzed based on [[text mining]] methods over millions of documents.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=I. Flaounas|author2=M. Turchi|author3=O. Ali|author4=N. Fyson|author5=T. De Bie|author6=N. Mosdell|author7=J. Lewis|author8=N. Cristianini|title=The Structure of EU Mediasphere|journal=PLOS One|volume=5|issue=12|pages=e14243|year=2010|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0014243|url=https://orca-mwe.cf.ac.uk/50732/1/Flaounas%202010.pdf|pmid=21170383|pmc=2999531|bibcode=2010PLoSO...514243F}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Nowcasting Events from the Social Web with Statistical Learning|author1=V Lampos|author2=N Cristianini|journal=ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and Technology |volume=3|issue=4|page=72|doi=10.1145/2337542.2337557|year=2012|url=http://www.lampos.net/sites/default/files/papers/lampos2012nowcasting.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|title=NOAM: news outlets analysis and monitoring system|author1=I. Flaounas|author2=O. Ali|author3=M. Turchi|author4=T Snowsill|author5=F Nicart|author6=T De Bie|author7=N Cristianini|conference=Proc. of the 2011 ACM SIGMOD international conference on Management of data|year=2011|url=http://www.tijldebie.net/system/files/SIGMOD_11_demo_Ilias.pdf|doi=10.1145/1989323.1989474}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=N Cristianini|title=''Combinatorial Pattern Matching''|pages=2–13|year=2011|volume=6661|series= Lecture Notes in Computer Science|isbn=978-3-642-21457-8|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-21458-5_2|chapter=Automatic Discovery of Patterns in Media Content|citeseerx=10.1.1.653.9525}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lansdall-Welfare|first=Thomas|last2=Sudhahar|first2=Saatviga|last3=Thompson|first3=James|last4=Lewis|first4=Justin|last5=Team|first5=FindMyPast Newspaper|last6=Cristianini|first6=Nello|date=2017-01-09|title=Content analysis of 150 years of British periodicals|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2017/01/03/1606380114|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=114|issue=4|language=en|pages=E457–E465|doi=10.1073/pnas.1606380114|issn=0027-8424|pmid=28069962|pmc=5278459}}</ref> The analysis of readability, gender bias and topic bias was demonstrated in Flaounas et al.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=I. Flaounas|author2=O. Ali|author3=M. Turchi|author4=T. Lansdall-Welfare|author5=T. De Bie|author6=N. Mosdell|author7=J. Lewis|author8=N. Cristianini|title=Research methods in the age of digital journalism|journal=Digital Journalism|year=2012|doi=10.1080/21670811.2012.714928|volume=1|pages=102–116}}</ref> showing how different topics have different gender biases and levels of readability; the possibility to detect mood shifts in a vast population by analysing Twitter content was demonstrated as well.<ref>{{cite conference|title=Effects of the Recession on Public Mood in the UK|author=T Lansdall-Welfare|author2=V Lampos|author3=N Cristianini|series=Mining Social Network Dynamics (MSND) session on Social Media Applications|doi=10.1145/2187980.2188264|conference=Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on World Wide Web|pages=1221–1226|location=New York, NY, USA|url=http://www.cs.bris.ac.uk/Publications/Papers/2001521.pdf}}</ref> − − Content analysis has been a traditional part of social sciences and media studies for a long time. The automation of content analysis has allowed a "big data" revolution to take place in that field, with studies in social media and newspaper content that include millions of news items. Gender bias, readability, content similarity, reader preferences, and even mood have been analyzed based on text mining methods over millions of documents. The analysis of readability, gender bias and topic bias was demonstrated in Flaounas et al. showing how different topics have different gender biases and levels of readability; the possibility to detect mood shifts in a vast population by analysing Twitter content was demonstrated as well. − − 长期以来，内容分析一直是社会科学和媒体研究的传统部分。内容分析的自动化使得这一领域发生了一场“大数据”革命，社交媒体和报纸内容的研究包括了数百万条新闻。性别偏见，可读性，内容相似度，读者偏好，甚至语气已经被分析基于文本挖掘方法在数百万的文件。在 Flaounas 等国家的研究中，对可读性、性别偏见和话题偏见进行了分析。展示了不同的话题如何有不同的性别偏见和可读性水平; 通过分析 Twitter 内容来检测大量人群情绪变化的可能性也得到了证实。 − − − − The analysis of vast quantities of historical newspaper content has been pioneered by Dzogang et al.,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dzogang|first=Fabon|last2=Lansdall-Welfare|first2=Thomas|last3=Team|first3=FindMyPast Newspaper|last4=Cristianini|first4=Nello|date=2016-11-08|title=Discovering Periodic Patterns in Historical News|journal=PLOS One|volume=11|issue=11|pages=e0165736|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0165736|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5100883|pmid=27824911|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1165736D}}</ref> which showed how periodic structures can be automatically discovered in historical newspapers. A similar analysis was performed on social media, again revealing strongly periodic structures.<ref>[https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/83929129.pdf Seasonal Fluctuations in Collective Mood Revealed by Wikipedia Searches and Twitter Posts] F Dzogang, T Lansdall-Welfare, N Cristianini - 2016 IEEE International Conference on Data Mining, Workshop on ''Data Mining'' in Human Activity Analysis − − The analysis of vast quantities of historical newspaper content has been pioneered by Dzogang et al., which showed how periodic structures can be automatically discovered in historical newspapers. A similar analysis was performed on social media, again revealing strongly periodic structures.<ref>[https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/83929129.pdf Seasonal Fluctuations in Collective Mood Revealed by Wikipedia Searches and Twitter Posts] F Dzogang, T Lansdall-Welfare, N Cristianini - 2016 IEEE International Conference on Data Mining, Workshop on Data Mining in Human Activity Analysis − − Dzogang 等人率先分析了大量的历史报纸内容，展示了如何在历史报纸中自动发现周期结构。在社交媒体上也进行了类似的分析，再次揭示了强烈的周期性结构。 参考文献[维基百科搜索和 Twitter 帖子揭示的 https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/83929129.pdf 集体情绪的季节性波动] f Dzogang，t Lansdall-Welfare，n Cristianini-2016 IEEE 数据挖掘国际会议，人类活动分析数据挖掘研讨会 − − </ref> − − </ref> − − / 参考 − − − − ==Challenges== − − Computational sociology, as with any field of study, faces a set of challenges.<ref name="MCSS">Conte, Rosaria, et al. "[https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1140%252Fepjst%252Fe2012-01697-8.pdf Manifesto of computational social science]." The European Physical Journal Special Topics 214.1 (2012): 325-346.</ref> These challenges need to be handled meaningfully so as to make the maximum impact on society. − − Computational sociology, as with any field of study, faces a set of challenges. These challenges need to be handled meaningfully so as to make the maximum impact on society. − − 计算社会学，和其他研究领域一样，面临着一系列的挑战。必须有意义地处理这些挑战，以便对社会产生最大的影响。 − − − − ===Levels and their interactions=== − − Each society that is formed tends to be in one level or the other and there exists tendencies of interactions between and across these levels. Levels need not only be micro-level or macro-level in nature. There can be intermediate levels in which a society exists say - groups, networks, communities etc.<ref name="MCSS" /> − − Each society that is formed tends to be in one level or the other and there exists tendencies of interactions between and across these levels. Levels need not only be micro-level or macro-level in nature. There can be intermediate levels in which a society exists say - groups, networks, communities etc. − − 形成的每个社会往往处于一个或另一个层次，并且在这些层次之间和之间存在着相互作用的倾向。级别不必只是微观或宏观的性质。一个社会可以存在一个中间层次，比如群体、网络、社区等等。 − − − − The question however arises as to how to identify these levels and how they come into existence? And once they are in existence how do they interact within themselves and with other levels? − − The question however arises as to how to identify these levels and how they come into existence? And once they are in existence how do they interact within themselves and with other levels? − − 然而，问题是如何确定这些水平以及它们是如何产生的？一旦它们存在，它们如何在自身内部以及与其他层面相互作用？ − − − − If we view entities (agents) as nodes and the connections between them as the edges, we see the formation of networks. The connections in these networks do not come about based on just objective relationships between the entities, rather they are decided upon by factors chosen by the participating entities.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Egu´ıluz|first1=V. M.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=M. G.|last3=Cela-Conde|first3=C. J.|last4=San Miguel|first4=M.|title=American Journal of Sociology|issue=2005|pages=110, 977}}</ref> The challenge with this process is that, it is difficult to identify when a set of entities will form a network. These networks may be of trust networks, co-operation networks, dependence networks etc. There have been cases where heterogeneous set of entities have shown to form strong and meaningful networks among themselves.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sichman|first1=J. S.|last2=Conte|first2=R.|title=Computational & Mathematical Organization Theory|issue=2002|pages=8(2)}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ehrhardt|first1=G.|last2=Marsili|first2=M.|last3=Vega-Redondo|first3=F.|title=Physical Review E|issue=2006|pages=74(3)}}</ref> − − If we view entities (agents) as nodes and the connections between them as the edges, we see the formation of networks. The connections in these networks do not come about based on just objective relationships between the entities, rather they are decided upon by factors chosen by the participating entities. The challenge with this process is that, it is difficult to identify when a set of entities will form a network. These networks may be of trust networks, co-operation networks, dependence networks etc. There have been cases where heterogeneous set of entities have shown to form strong and meaningful networks among themselves. − − 如果我们把实体(代理人)看作节点，把它们之间的连接看作边，我们就看到了网络的形成。这些网络中的连接并非基于实体之间的公正客观关系，而是由参与实体选择的因素决定的。这个过程的挑战在于，很难确定一组实体何时形成网络。这些网络可以是信任网络、合作网络、依赖网络等。在一些情况下，异质实体集在它们之间形成了强大而有意义的网络。 − − − − As discussed previously, societies fall into levels and in one such level, the individual level, a micro-macro link<ref>Billari, Francesco C. [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Tc8iL0b-OycC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=%22Agent-based+computational+modelling:+applications+in+demography,+social,+economic+and+environmental+sciences%22&ots=6MNVK7JP-e&sig=-o_iS9zCK3r-t1eHn3554UVadUs Agent-based computational modelling: applications in demography, social, economic and environmental sciences]. Taylor & Francis, 2006.</ref> refers to the interactions which create higher-levels. There are a set of questions that needs to be answered regarding these Micro-Macro links. How they are formed? When do they converge? What is the feedback pushed to the lower levels and how are they pushed? − − As discussed previously, societies fall into levels and in one such level, the individual level, a micro-macro link refers to the interactions which create higher-levels. There are a set of questions that needs to be answered regarding these Micro-Macro links. How they are formed? When do they converge? What is the feedback pushed to the lower levels and how are they pushed? − − 正如前面所讨论的，社会分为层次，在这样的层次中，个人层次，微观-宏观联系是指创造更高层次的相互作用。有一组问题，需要回答这些微观宏观链接。它们是如何形成的？它们什么时候会聚？什么样的反馈被推到了较低的层次，他们是如何被推动的？ − − − − Another major challenge in this category concerns the validity of information and their sources. In recent years there has been a boom in information gathering and processing. However, little attention was paid to the spread of false information between the societies. Tracing back the sources and finding ownership of such information is difficult. − − Another major challenge in this category concerns the validity of information and their sources. In recent years there has been a boom in information gathering and processing. However, little attention was paid to the spread of false information between the societies. Tracing back the sources and finding ownership of such information is difficult. − − 这一类别的另一个主要挑战涉及信息的有效性及其来源。近年来，信息收集和处理蓬勃发展。然而，人们很少关注社会之间虚假信息的传播。追溯资料来源并找到这些资料的所有权是困难的。 − − − − ===Culture modeling=== − − The evolution of the networks and levels in the society brings about cultural diversity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Centola|first1=D.|last2=Gonz´alez-Avella|first2=J. C.|last3=Egu´ıluz|first3=V. M.|last4=San Miguel|first4=M.|title=Journal of Conflict Resolution|issue=2007|pages=51}}</ref> A thought which arises however is that, when people tend to interact and become more accepting of other cultures and beliefs, how is it that diversity still persists? Why is there no convergence? A major challenge is how to model these diversities. Are there external factors like mass media, locality of societies etc. which influence the evolution or persistence of cultural diversities?{{Citation needed|reason=Sounds just like personal thoughts|date=May 2017}} − − The evolution of the networks and levels in the society brings about cultural diversity. A thought which arises however is that, when people tend to interact and become more accepting of other cultures and beliefs, how is it that diversity still persists? Why is there no convergence? A major challenge is how to model these diversities. Are there external factors like mass media, locality of societies etc. which influence the evolution or persistence of cultural diversities? − − 社会网络和层次的演变带来了文化的多样性。然而，随之产生的一个想法是，当人们倾向于相互作用并变得更能接受其他文化和信仰时，为什么多样性仍然存在？为什么没有趋同？一个主要的挑战是如何为这些多样性建立模型。是否存在大众传媒、社会地域性等外部因素。影响文化多样性的进化或持续？ − − − − ===Experimentation and evaluation=== − − Any study or modelling when combined with experimentation needs to be able to address the questions being asked. [[Computational social science]] deals with large scale data and the challenge becomes much more evident as the scale grows. How would one design informative simulations on a large scale? And even if a large scale simulation is brought up, how is the evaluation supposed to be performed? − − Any study or modelling when combined with experimentation needs to be able to address the questions being asked. Computational social science deals with large scale data and the challenge becomes much more evident as the scale grows. How would one design informative simulations on a large scale? And even if a large scale simulation is brought up, how is the evaluation supposed to be performed? − − 任何与实验结合的研究或建模都需要能够解决所提出的问题。计算社会科学处理大规模的数据和挑战变得更加明显的规模增长。如何设计一个大规模的信息模拟？即使提出了一个大规模的模拟，评估应该如何进行？ − − − − ===Model choice and model complexities=== − − Another challenge is identifying the models that would best fit the data and the complexities of these models. These models would help us predict how societies might evolve over time and provide possible explanations on how things work.<ref>Weisberg, Michael. [http://www.academia.edu/download/30604870/lessmorefinal.pdf When less is more: Tradeoffs and idealization in model building]. Diss. Stanford University, 2003.</ref> − − Another challenge is identifying the models that would best fit the data and the complexities of these models. These models would help us predict how societies might evolve over time and provide possible explanations on how things work. − − 另一个挑战是确定最适合数据的模型和这些模型的复杂性。这些模型将帮助我们预测随着时间的推移社会将如何演变，并为事物如何运作提供可能的解释。 − − − − ====Generative models==== − − Generative models helps us to perform extensive qualitative analysis in a controlled fashion. A model proposed by Epstein, is the agent-based simulation, which talks about identifying an initial set of heterogeneous entities (agents) and observe their evolution and growth based on simple local rules.<ref>Epstein, Joshua M. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Eric_Jones14/publication/283615593_Book_Review_-_Generative_Social_Science_Studies_in_Agent-Based_Computational_Modeling/links/5641398808aebaaea1f70216.pdf Generative social science: Studies in agent-based computational modeling]. Princeton University Press, 2006.</ref> − − Generative models helps us to perform extensive qualitative analysis in a controlled fashion. A model proposed by Epstein, is the agent-based simulation, which talks about identifying an initial set of heterogeneous entities (agents) and observe their evolution and growth based on simple local rules. − − 生成模型帮助我们以一种受控的方式进行广泛的定性分析。爱泼斯坦提出的一个模型是基于主体的模拟，该模型通过识别一组初始的异质实体(主体) ，并根据简单的局部规则观察它们的演化和增长。 − − − − But what are these local rules? How does one identify them for a set of heterogeneous agents? Evaluation and impact of these rules state a whole new set of difficulties. − − But what are these local rules? How does one identify them for a set of heterogeneous agents? Evaluation and impact of these rules state a whole new set of difficulties. − − 但是这些地方性的规则是什么呢？如何为一组异质的代理识别它们？这些规则的评估和影响提出了一整套新的困难。 − − − − ====Heterogeneous or ensemble models==== − − Integrating simple models which perform better on individual tasks to form a Hybrid model is an approach that can be looked into{{Citation needed|reason=unsupported claims|date=May 2017}}. These models can offer better performance and understanding of the data. However the trade-off of identifying and having a deep understanding of the interactions between these simple models arises when one needs to come up with one combined, well performing model. Also, coming up with tools and applications to help analyse and visualize the data based on these hybrid models is another added challenge. − − Integrating simple models which perform better on individual tasks to form a Hybrid model is an approach that can be looked into. These models can offer better performance and understanding of the data. However the trade-off of identifying and having a deep understanding of the interactions between these simple models arises when one needs to come up with one combined, well performing model. Also, coming up with tools and applications to help analyse and visualize the data based on these hybrid models is another added challenge. − − 集成简单的模型在单个任务中表现更好，形成混合模型是一种可以考虑的方法。这些模型可以提供更好的性能和对数据的理解。然而，当需要提出一个组合的、性能良好的模型时，识别并深入理解这些简单模型之间的相互作用的权衡就出现了。此外，开发工具和应用程序来帮助分析和可视化基于这些混合模型的数据是另一个额外的挑战。 − − − − ==Impact== − − Computational sociology can bring impacts to science, technology and society.<ref name="MCSS" /> − − Computational sociology can bring impacts to science, technology and society. − − 计算社会学可以给科学、技术和社会带来影响。 − − − − ===Impact on science=== − − In order for the study of computational sociology to be effective, there has to be valuable innovations. These innovation can be of the form of new data analytics tools, better models and algorithms. The advent of such innovation will be a boon for the scientific community in large. {{Citation needed|reason=citation for claim on innovation and the type of innovation|date=May 2017}} − − In order for the study of computational sociology to be effective, there has to be valuable innovations. These innovation can be of the form of new data analytics tools, better models and algorithms. The advent of such innovation will be a boon for the scientific community in large. − − 为了使计算社会学的研究有效，必须有一些有价值的创新。这些创新可以是新的数据分析工具、更好的模型和算法。这种创新的出现将为整个科学界带来福音。 − − − − ===Impact on society=== − − One of the major challenges of computational sociology is the modelling of social processes {{Citation needed|reason=to support the claim for need of modeling of social processes|date=May 2017}}. Various law and policy makers would be able to see efficient and effective paths to issue new guidelines and the mass in general would be able to evaluate and gain fair understanding of the options presented in front of them enabling an open and well balanced decision process. {{Citation needed|reason=unsupported claims|date=May 2017}}. − − One of the major challenges of computational sociology is the modelling of social processes . Various law and policy makers would be able to see efficient and effective paths to issue new guidelines and the mass in general would be able to evaluate and gain fair understanding of the options presented in front of them enabling an open and well balanced decision process. . − − 计算社会学的主要挑战之一是社会过程的建模。各种法律和政策制定者将能够看到发布新指导方针的高效率和有效途径，广大群众将能够评价和公平理解摆在他们面前的各种备选方案，从而实现公开和平衡的决策进程。. − − − − ==Journals and academic publications== − − The most relevant journal of the discipline is the [[Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation]]. − − The most relevant journal of the discipline is the Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation. − − 该学科最相关的期刊是《人工社会与社会模拟》。 − − * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100611121626/http://www.ccsr.uiuc.edu/web/Journals/Journals.html Complexity Research Journal List], from UIUC, IL − − * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100611091342/http://www.ccsr.uiuc.edu/web/Groups/Groups.html Related Research Groups], from UIUC, IL − − − − ==Associations, conferences and workshops== − − *[http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/naacsos/ North American Association for Computational Social and Organization Sciences] − − *[http://www.essa.eu.org/ ESSA: European Social Simulation Association] − − − − ==Academic programs, departments and degrees== − − * [http://mediapatterns.enm.bris.ac.uk/ University of Bristol "Mediapatterns" project] − − * [http://www.cos.cs.cmu.edu/ Carnegie Mellon University], [http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu PhD program] in Computation, Organizations and Society (COS) − − * [http://www.uchicago.edu University of Chicago] − − ** [https://macss.uchicago.edu/ Certificate, MA and PhD in Computational Social Sciences] − − * [http://www.gmu.edu George Mason University] − − ** PhD program in [http://css.gmu.edu CSS (Computational Social Sciences)] − − ** MA program in [http://mais.gmu.edu/programs/la-mais-css Master's of Interdisciplinary Studies, CSS emphasis] − − * [http://www.pdx.edu/sysc/program-systems-science-phd-program Portland State], PhD program in Systems Science − − * [http://www.pdx.edu/sysc/program-systems-science-masters-program Portland State], MS program in Systems Science − − * [http://www.ucd.ie University College Dublin], − − ** PhD Program in [http://www.ucd.ie/geary/postgraduatetraining/cscs Complex Systems and Computational Social Science] − − ** MSc in [https://sisweb.ucd.ie/usis/!W_HU_MENU.P_PUBLISH?p_tag=PROG&MAJR=W390 Social Data Analytics] − − ** BSc in [https://www.myucd.ie/courses/social-sciences/computational-social-science Computational Social Science] − − * [https://archive.is/20121215023745/http://hcs.ucla.edu/courses.htm UCLA], Minor in Human Complex Systems − − * [http://www.cs.ucla.edu/~cyber/ UCLA], Major in Computational & Systems Biology (including behavioral sciences) − − * [http://cscs.umich.edu/education/undergrad/undergrad.html Univ. of Michigan], Minor in Complex Systems − − * [http://www.pdx.edu/sysc/resources-other-systems-science-programs Systems Sciences Programs List], Portland State. List of other worldwide related programs. − − − − ==Centers and institutes== − − − − ===North America=== − − * [http://cnets.indiana.edu/ Center for Complex Networks and Systems Research], Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA. − − * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110430200327/http://www.ccsr.uiuc.edu/ Center for Complex Systems Research], University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA. − − * [http://socialcomplexity.gmu.edu/ Center for Social Complexity], George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA. − − * [http://www.asu.edu/clas/csdc/ Center for Social Dynamics and Complexity], Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA. − − * [http://www.cscs.umich.edu/ Center of the Study of Complex Systems], University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA. − − * [http://hcs.ucla.edu/ Human Complex Systems], University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA. − − * [http://www.iq.harvard.edu/ Institute for Quantitative Social Science], Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA. − − * [http://www.nico.northwestern.edu/ Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems (NICO)], Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA. − − * [http://www.santafe.edu/ Santa Fe Institute], Santa Fe, NM, USA. − − * Duke Network Analysis Center, [[Duke University]], Durham, NC, USA − − − − ===South America=== − − * [http://www5.each.usp.br/mestrado-academico-em-modelagem-de-sistemas-complexos/ Modelagem de Sistemas Complexos], University of São Paulo - EACH, São Paulo, SP, Brazil − − * [http://inct.cnpq.br/web/inct-sc Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Sistemas Complexos], Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil − − − − ===Europe=== − − * [http://cfpm.org Centre for Policy Modelling], Manchester, UK. − − * [http://cress.soc.surrey.ac.uk/ Centre for Research in Social Simulation], University of Surrey, UK. − − * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130425014018/http://dl.ucd.ie/ UCD Dynamics Lab- Centre for Computational Social Science], Geary Institute for Public Policy, University College Dublin, Ireland. − − * [http://www.rug.nl/research/gcscs/ Groningen Center for Social Complexity Studies (GCSCS)], Groningen, NL. − − * [http://www.soms.ethz.ch/ Chair of Sociology, in particular of Modeling and Simulation (SOMS)], Zürich, Switzerland. − − * [http://www.eco.unibs.it/gecs/ Research Group on Experimental and Computational Sociology (GECS)], Brescia, IT. − − − − ===Asia=== − − * [http://bandungfe.net Bandung Fe Institute, Centre for Complexity in Surya University], Bandung, Indonesia. − − − − == See also == − − * [[Artificial society]] − − * [[Simulated reality]] − − * [[Social simulation]] − − * [[Agent-based social simulation]] − − * [[Social complexity]] − − * [[Computational economics]] − − * [[Computational epidemiology]] − − * [[Cliodynamics]] − − * [[Predictive analytics]] − − − − == References == − − {{reflist|35em}} − − − − ==External links== − − *[http://cress.soc.surrey.ac.uk/s4ss/ On-line book "Simulation for the Social Scientist" by Nigel Gilbert and Klaus G. Troitzsch, 1999, second edition 2005] − − *[http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/JASSS.html Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation] − − *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110516072744/http://cmol.nbi.dk/models/ Agent based models for social networks, interactive java applets] − − *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090827052722/http://www.personal.kent.edu/~bcastel3/ Sociology and Complexity Science Website] − − − − [[Category:Subfields of sociology]] − − Category:Subfields of sociology − − 范畴: 社会学的子领域 − − [[Category:Complex systems theory]] − − Category:Complex systems theory − − 范畴: 复杂系统理论 − − [[Category:Methods in sociology]] − − Category:Methods in sociology − − 范畴: 社会学方法 − − [[Category:Computational fields of study]] − − Category:Computational fields of study − − 类别: 研究的计算领域 − − <noinclude> − − <small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Computational sociology]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[计算社会学/edithistory]]</small></noinclude> − − [[Category:待整理页面]]
重定向页面至社会计算
#重定向 [[社会计算]]