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Social networks and the analysis of them is an inherently interdisciplinary academic field which emerged from social psychology, sociology, statistics, and graph theory. Georg Simmel authored early structural theories in sociology emphasizing the dynamics of triads and "web of group affiliations". Jacob Moreno is credited with developing the first sociograms in the 1930s to study interpersonal relationships. These approaches were mathematically formalized in the 1950s and theories and methods of social networks became pervasive in the social and behavioral sciences by the 1980s. Social network analysis is now one of the major paradigms in contemporary sociology, and is also employed in a number of other social and formal sciences. Together with other complex networks, it forms part of the nascent field of network science.

Social networks and the analysis of them is an inherently interdisciplinary academic field which emerged from social psychology, sociology, statistics, and graph theory. Georg Simmel authored early structural theories in sociology emphasizing the dynamics of triads and "web of group affiliations". Jacob Moreno is credited with developing the first sociograms in the 1930s to study interpersonal relationships. These approaches were mathematically formalized in the 1950s and theories and methods of social networks became pervasive in the social and behavioral sciences by the 1980s. Social network analysis is now one of the major paradigms in contemporary sociology, and is also employed in a number of other social and formal sciences. Together with other complex networks, it forms part of the nascent field of network science.

社会网络及其分析是社会心理学、社会学、统计学和图论中内在的跨学科学术领域。'''格奥尔格·西梅尔 Georg Simmel'''是早期社会学结构主义理论的作者，他强调三合会和“群体关系网”的动态性。'''雅各布·莫雷诺 Jacob Moreno'''被认为是在20世纪30年代发展了第一份'''<font color="#FFD700">社交关系图 Sociogram</font>'''以研究人际关系的人。这些方法在20世纪50年代得到数学化，到20世纪80年代，社会网络的理论和方法在社会和行为科学中变得普遍。社会网络分析现在是当代社会学的主要范式之一，也被用于许多其他社会科学及形式科学。它与其他复杂网络一起构成了网络科学新兴领域的一部分。

社会网络及其分析是社会心理学、社会学、统计学和图论中内在的跨学科学术领域。'''格奥尔格·齐美尔 Georg Simmel'''是早期社会学结构主义理论的作者，他强调三合会和“群体关系网”的动态性。'''雅各布·莫雷诺 Jacob Moreno'''被认为是在20世纪30年代发展了第一份'''<font color="#FFD700">社交关系图 Sociogram</font>'''以研究人际关系的人。这些方法在20世纪50年代得到数学化，到20世纪80年代，社会网络的理论和方法在社会和行为科学中变得普遍。社会网络分析现在是当代社会学的主要范式之一，也被用于许多其他社会科学及形式科学。它与其他复杂网络一起构成了网络科学新兴领域的一部分。

[[File:Barabasi Albert model.gif|thumb|left|Evolution graph of a social network: [[Barabási–Albert model|Barabási model]].]]

[[File:Barabasi Albert model.gif|thumb|left|Evolution graph of a social network: [[Barabási–Albert model|Barabási model]].图一：一个社会网络的演化图：巴拉巴西模型。]]

Barabási model.]]

Barabási model.]]

Barabási model.]]

Barabási model.]]

The social network is a theoretical construct useful in the social sciences to study relationships between individuals, groups, organizations, or even entire societies (social units, see differentiation). The term is used to describe a social structure determined by such interactions. The ties through which any given social unit connects represent the convergence of the various social contacts of that unit. This theoretical approach is, necessarily, relational.  An axiom of the social network approach to understanding social interaction is that social phenomena should be primarily conceived and investigated through the properties of relations between and within units, instead of the properties of these units themselves. Thus, one common criticism of social network theory is that individual agency is often ignored although this may not be the case in practice (see agent-based modeling). Precisely because many different types of relations, singular or in combination, form these network configurations, network analytics are useful to a broad range of research enterprises. In social science, these fields of study include, but are not limited to anthropology, biology, communication studies, economics, geography, information science, organizational studies, social psychology, sociology, and sociolinguistics.

The social network is a theoretical construct useful in the social sciences to study relationships between individuals, groups, organizations, or even entire societies (social units, see differentiation). The term is used to describe a social structure determined by such interactions. The ties through which any given social unit connects represent the convergence of the various social contacts of that unit. This theoretical approach is, necessarily, relational.  An axiom of the social network approach to understanding social interaction is that social phenomena should be primarily conceived and investigated through the properties of relations between and within units, instead of the properties of these units themselves. Thus, one common criticism of social network theory is that individual agency is often ignored although this may not be the case in practice (see agent-based modeling). Precisely because many different types of relations, singular or in combination, form these network configurations, network analytics are useful to a broad range of research enterprises. In social science, these fields of study include, but are not limited to anthropology, biology, communication studies, economics, geography, information science, organizational studies, social psychology, sociology, and sociolinguistics.

社会网络是社会科学中研究个人、团体、组织甚至整个社会（社会单位，见分化）之间关系的理论构造。这个术语用来描述由这种相互作用决定的社会结构。任何一个特定的社会单元之间的联系都代表着这个单元各种社会联系的聚合。这种理论方法必然是相关的。理解社会互动的社会网络方法的一个公理是，社会现象应该主要通过单元之间和单元内部关系的性质来构思和研究，而不是这些单元本身的性质。因此，社会网络理论总被诟病的一点是其常忽视个体代理，而实践中可能并非如此（见基于主体的建模）。正是因为许多不同类型的关系（单独或组合形式）形成这些网络配置，网络分析在广泛的研究中有用。在社会科学中，这些研究领域包括但不限于'''<font color="#FFD700">人类学 Anthropology</font>'''、生物学、'''<font color="#FFD700">传播学 Communication Studies</font>'''、经济学、地理学、信息科学、组织学、社会心理学、社会学和'''<font color="#FFD700">社会语言学 Sociolinguistics</font>''。

社会网络是社会科学中研究个人、团体、组织甚至整个社会（社会单位，见分化）之间关系的理论构造。这个术语用来描述由这种相互作用决定的社会结构。任何一个特定的社会单元之间的联系都代表着这个单元各种社会联系的聚合。这种理论方法必然是相关的。理解社会互动的社会网络方法的一个公理是，社会现象应该主要通过单元之间和单元内部关系的性质来构思和研究，而不是这些单元本身的性质。因此，社会网络理论总被诟病的一点是其常忽视个体代理，而实践中可能并非如此（见基于主体的建模）。正是因为许多不同类型的关系（单独或组合形式）形成这些网络配置，网络分析在广泛的研究中有用。在社会科学中，这些研究领域包括但不限于'''<font color="#FFD700">人类学 Anthropology</font>'''、生物学、'''<font color="#FFD700">传播学 Communication Studies</font>'''、经济学、地理学、信息科学、组织学、社会心理学、社会学和'''<font color="#FFD700">社会语言学 Sociolinguistics</font>'''。

In the late 1890s, both Émile Durkheim and Ferdinand Tönnies foreshadowed the idea of social networks in their theories and research of social groups. Tönnies argued that social groups can exist as personal and direct social ties that either link individuals who share values and belief (Gemeinschaft, German, commonly translated as "community") or impersonal, formal, and instrumental social links (Gesellschaft, German, commonly translated as "society"). Durkheim gave a non-individualistic explanation of social facts, arguing that social phenomena arise when interacting individuals constitute a reality that can no longer be accounted for in terms of the properties of individual actors. Georg Simmel, writing at the turn of the twentieth century, pointed to the nature of networks and the effect of network size on interaction and examined the likelihood of interaction in loosely knit networks rather than groups.

In the late 1890s, both Émile Durkheim and Ferdinand Tönnies foreshadowed the idea of social networks in their theories and research of social groups. Tönnies argued that social groups can exist as personal and direct social ties that either link individuals who share values and belief (Gemeinschaft, German, commonly translated as "community") or impersonal, formal, and instrumental social links (Gesellschaft, German, commonly translated as "society"). Durkheim gave a non-individualistic explanation of social facts, arguing that social phenomena arise when interacting individuals constitute a reality that can no longer be accounted for in terms of the properties of individual actors. Georg Simmel, writing at the turn of the twentieth century, pointed to the nature of networks and the effect of network size on interaction and examined the likelihood of interaction in loosely knit networks rather than groups.

在19世纪90年代晚期，'''迪尔凯姆 Émile Durkheim'''和'''斐迪南·滕尼斯 Ferdinand Tönnies'''在他们关于社会群体的理论和研究中都预示了社会网络的概念。尼斯认为，社会群体可以作为个人和直接的社会关系存在，这种关系或者将具有共同价值观和信仰的个人联系在一起（德语 Gemeinschaft，通常翻译为“社区”），或者将非个人的、正式的和工具性的社会关系（德语 Gesellschaft，通常翻译为“社会”）。涂尔干对社会事实作了非个人主义的解释，认为当相互作用的个体构成一种现实时，社会现象就产生了，而这种现实再也不能用个体行为者的特性来解释。乔治 · 西梅尔在20世纪之交的著作中指出了网络的本质和网络规模对互动的影响，并研究了在松散的网络而不是群体中互动的可能性。

在19世纪90年代晚期，'''埃米尔·涂尔干 Émile Durkheim'''和'''斐迪南·滕尼斯 Ferdinand Tönnies'''在他们关于社会群体的理论和研究中都预示了社会网络的概念。滕尼斯认为，社会群体可以作为个人和直接的社会关系存在，这种关系或者将具有共同价值观和信仰的个人（德语 Gemeinschaft，通常翻译为“社区”）联系在一起，或者将非个人的、正式的和工具性的社会关系（德语 Gesellschaft，通常翻译为“社会”）联系在一起。涂尔干对社会事实给出了非个人主义的解释，认为当相互作用的个体构成一种再也不能用个体行为者的特性来解释的现实时，社会现象就产生了。格奥尔格·齐美尔在20世纪之交的著作中指出了网络的本质和网络规模对互动的影响，并研究了在松散的网络而非群体中互动的可能性。

[[File:Moreno Sociogram 2nd Grade.png|thumb|Moreno's sociogram of a 2nd grade class]]

[[File:Moreno Sociogram 2nd Grade.png|thumb|Moreno's sociogram of a 2nd grade class 图二：莫雷诺对一个二年级班级的社会关系图]]

 

 

Major developments in the field can be seen in the 1930s by several groups in psychology, anthropology, and mathematics working independently.<ref name=jscott /><ref>For a historical overview of the development of social network analysis, see: {{cite book|last1=Carrington|first1=Peter J.|last2=Scott|first2=John|chapter=Introduction|title=The Sage Handbook of Social Network Analysis| publisher=Sage|year=2011|isbn=978-1-84787-395-8|page=1|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2chSmLzClXgC&pg=PA1}}</ref><ref>See also the diagram in {{cite book|author=Scott, John|title=Social Network Analysis: A Handbook|publisher=Sage|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7619-6339-4|page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ww3_bKcz6kgC&pg=PA8}}</ref> In [[psychology]], in the 1930s, [[Jacob L. Moreno]] began systematic recording and analysis of social interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups (see [[sociometry]]). In [[anthropology]], the foundation for social network theory is the theoretical and [[ethnography|ethnographic]] work of [[Bronislaw Malinowski]],<ref>Malinowski, Bronislaw (1913). ''The Family Among the Australian Aborigines: A Sociological Study''. London: University of London Press.</ref> [[Radcliffe-Brown|Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]],<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald (1930) ''The social organization of Australian tribes''. Sydney, Australia: University of Sydney ''Oceania'' monographs, No.1.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Radcliffe-Brown | first1 = A. R. | year = 1940 | title = On social structure | url = | journal = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | volume = 70 | issue = 1| pages = 1–12 | doi=10.2307/2844197| jstor = 2844197 }}</ref> and [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]].<ref>Lévi-Strauss, Claude ([1947]1967). ''Les structures élémentaires de la parenté''. Paris: La Haye, Mouton et Co. (Translated, 1969 by J. H. Bell, J. R. von Sturmer, and R. Needham, 1969, as ''The Elementary Structures of Kinship'', Boston: Beacon Press.)</ref> A group of social anthropologists associated with [[Max Gluckman]] and the [[Manchester school (anthropology)|Manchester School]], including [[John Arundel Barnes|John A. Barnes]],<ref>Barnes, John (1954). "Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish". ''Human Relations'', (7): 39–58.</ref> [[J. Clyde Mitchell]] and [[Elizabeth Bott Spillius]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Freeman | first1 = Linton C. | last2 = Wellman | first2 = Barry | year = 1995 | title = A note on the ancestoral Toronto home of social network analysis | url = | journal = Connections | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 15–19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Savage | first1 = Mike | year = 2008 | title = Elizabeth Bott and the formation of modern British sociology | url = | journal = The Sociological Review | volume = 56 | issue = 4| pages = 579–605 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-954x.2008.00806.x}}</ref> often are credited with performing some of the first fieldwork from which network analyses were performed, investigating community networks in southern Africa, India and the United Kingdom.<ref name=jscott /> Concomitantly, British anthropologist [[Siegfried Frederick Nadel|S. F. Nadel]] codified a theory of social structure that was influential in later network analysis.<ref>Nadel, S. F. 1957. ''The Theory of Social Structure''. London: Cohen and West.</ref> In [[sociology]], the early (1930s) work of [[Talcott Parsons]] set the stage for taking a relational approach to understanding social structure.<ref>Parsons, Talcott ([1937] 1949). ''The Structure of Social Action: A Study in Social Theory with Special Reference to a Group of European Writers''. New York: The Free Press.</ref><ref>Parsons, Talcott (1951). ''The Social System''. New York: The Free Press.</ref> Later, drawing upon Parsons' theory, the work of sociologist [[Peter Blau]] provides a strong impetus for analyzing the relational ties of social units with his work on [[social exchange theory]].<ref>Blau, Peter (1956). ''Bureaucracy in Modern Society''. New York: Random House, Inc.</ref><ref>Blau, Peter (1960). "A Theory of Social Integration". ''The American Journal of Sociology'', (65)6: 545–556, (May).</ref><ref>Blau, Peter (1964). ''Exchange and Power in Social Life''.</ref>

Major developments in the field can be seen in the 1930s by several groups in psychology, anthropology, and mathematics working independently.<ref name=jscott /><ref>For a historical overview of the development of social network analysis, see: {{cite book|last1=Carrington|first1=Peter J.|last2=Scott|first2=John|chapter=Introduction|title=The Sage Handbook of Social Network Analysis| publisher=Sage|year=2011|isbn=978-1-84787-395-8|page=1|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2chSmLzClXgC&pg=PA1}}</ref><ref>See also the diagram in {{cite book|author=Scott, John|title=Social Network Analysis: A Handbook|publisher=Sage|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7619-6339-4|page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ww3_bKcz6kgC&pg=PA8}}</ref> In [[psychology]], in the 1930s, [[Jacob L. Moreno]] began systematic recording and analysis of social interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups (see [[sociometry]]). In [[anthropology]], the foundation for social network theory is the theoretical and [[ethnography|ethnographic]] work of [[Bronislaw Malinowski]],<ref>Malinowski, Bronislaw (1913). ''The Family Among the Australian Aborigines: A Sociological Study''. London: University of London Press.</ref> [[Radcliffe-Brown|Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]],<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald (1930) ''The social organization of Australian tribes''. Sydney, Australia: University of Sydney ''Oceania'' monographs, No.1.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Radcliffe-Brown | first1 = A. R. | year = 1940 | title = On social structure | url = | journal = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | volume = 70 | issue = 1| pages = 1–12 | doi=10.2307/2844197| jstor = 2844197 }}</ref> and [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]].<ref>Lévi-Strauss, Claude ([1947]1967). ''Les structures élémentaires de la parenté''. Paris: La Haye, Mouton et Co. (Translated, 1969 by J. H. Bell, J. R. von Sturmer, and R. Needham, 1969, as ''The Elementary Structures of Kinship'', Boston: Beacon Press.)</ref> A group of social anthropologists associated with [[Max Gluckman]] and the [[Manchester school (anthropology)|Manchester School]], including [[John Arundel Barnes|John A. Barnes]],<ref>Barnes, John (1954). "Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish". ''Human Relations'', (7): 39–58.</ref> [[J. Clyde Mitchell]] and [[Elizabeth Bott Spillius]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Freeman | first1 = Linton C. | last2 = Wellman | first2 = Barry | year = 1995 | title = A note on the ancestoral Toronto home of social network analysis | url = | journal = Connections | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 15–19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Savage | first1 = Mike | year = 2008 | title = Elizabeth Bott and the formation of modern British sociology | url = | journal = The Sociological Review | volume = 56 | issue = 4| pages = 579–605 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-954x.2008.00806.x}}</ref> often are credited with performing some of the first fieldwork from which network analyses were performed, investigating community networks in southern Africa, India and the United Kingdom.<ref name=jscott /> Concomitantly, British anthropologist [[Siegfried Frederick Nadel|S. F. Nadel]] codified a theory of social structure that was influential in later network analysis.<ref>Nadel, S. F. 1957. ''The Theory of Social Structure''. London: Cohen and West.</ref> In [[sociology]], the early (1930s) work of [[Talcott Parsons]] set the stage for taking a relational approach to understanding social structure.<ref>Parsons, Talcott ([1937] 1949). ''The Structure of Social Action: A Study in Social Theory with Special Reference to a Group of European Writers''. New York: The Free Press.</ref><ref>Parsons, Talcott (1951). ''The Social System''. New York: The Free Press.</ref> Later, drawing upon Parsons' theory, the work of sociologist [[Peter Blau]] provides a strong impetus for analyzing the relational ties of social units with his work on [[social exchange theory]].<ref>Blau, Peter (1956). ''Bureaucracy in Modern Society''. New York: Random House, Inc.</ref><ref>Blau, Peter (1960). "A Theory of Social Integration". ''The American Journal of Sociology'', (65)6: 545–556, (May).</ref><ref>Blau, Peter (1964). ''Exchange and Power in Social Life''.</ref>

Major developments in the field can be seen in the 1930s by several groups in psychology, anthropology, and mathematics working independently. In psychology, in the 1930s, Jacob L. Moreno began systematic recording and analysis of social interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups (see sociometry). In anthropology, the foundation for social network theory is the theoretical and ethnographic work of Bronislaw Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, and Claude Lévi-Strauss. A group of social anthropologists associated with Max Gluckman and the Manchester School, including John A. Barnes, J. Clyde Mitchell and Elizabeth Bott Spillius, often are credited with performing some of the first fieldwork from which network analyses were performed, investigating community networks in southern Africa, India and the United Kingdom. In sociology, the early (1930s) work of Talcott Parsons set the stage for taking a relational approach to understanding social structure. Later, drawing upon Parsons' theory, the work of sociologist Peter Blau provides a strong impetus for analyzing the relational ties of social units with his work on social exchange theory.

Major developments in the field can be seen in the 1930s by several groups in psychology, anthropology, and mathematics working independently. In psychology, in the 1930s, Jacob L. Moreno began systematic recording and analysis of social interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups (see sociometry). In anthropology, the foundation for social network theory is the theoretical and ethnographic work of Bronislaw Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, and Claude Lévi-Strauss. A group of social anthropologists associated with Max Gluckman and the Manchester School, including John A. Barnes, J. Clyde Mitchell and Elizabeth Bott Spillius, often are credited with performing some of the first fieldwork from which network analyses were performed, investigating community networks in southern Africa, India and the United Kingdom. In sociology, the early (1930s) work of Talcott Parsons set the stage for taking a relational approach to understanding social structure. Later, drawing upon Parsons' theory, the work of sociologist Peter Blau provides a strong impetus for analyzing the relational ties of social units with his work on social exchange theory.

20世纪30年代，心理学、人类学和数学领域的几个独立研究小组已经看到了这一领域的重大发展。在心理学方面，在20世纪30年代，雅各布 · l · 莫雷诺开始系统地记录和分析小团体中的社会互动，尤其是课堂和工作团体中的社会互动。在人类学中，社会网络理论的基础是 Bronislaw Malinowski，阿尔弗雷德·拉德克利夫-布朗和克洛德·列维-斯特劳斯的理论和人种学著作。包括约翰 · a · 巴恩斯(John a. Barnes)、 j · 克莱德 · 米切尔(j. Clyde Mitchell)和伊丽莎白 · 博特 · 斯皮利厄斯(Elizabeth Bott Spillius)在内的一群与马克斯 · 格拉克曼(Max Gluckman)和曼彻斯特学院(Manchester School)有关的社会人类学家，经常被认为是进行了一些最早的野。在社会学方面，塔尔科特 · 帕森斯早期(1930年代)的著作为采用关系方法理解社会结构奠定了基础。后来，社会学家彼得 · 布劳的社会交换理论为分析社会单位之间的关系提供了强大的动力。

20世纪30年代，心理学、人类学和数学领域的几个独立研究小组已经看到了这一领域的重大发展。在心理学方面，在20世纪30年代，雅各布·L·莫雷诺开始系统地记录和分析小团体中的社会互动，尤其是课堂和工作团体中的社会互动（见'''<font color="#FFD700">社会测量 Sociometry）</font>'''。在人类学中，社会网络理论的基础是'''布罗尼斯拉夫·马林诺夫斯基 Bronislaw Malinowski'''，'''阿尔弗雷德·拉德克利夫-布朗 Alfred Radcliffe-Brown'''和'''克洛德·列维-斯特劳斯 Claude Lévi-Strauss'''的理论和人种学著作。包括约翰·A·巴恩斯 John A. Barnes、 j · 克莱德 · 米切尔(j. Clyde Mitchell)和伊丽莎白 · 博特 · 斯皮利厄斯(Elizabeth Bott Spillius)在内的一群与马克斯 · 格拉克曼(Max Gluckman)和曼彻斯特学院(Manchester School)有关的社会人类学家，经常被认为是进行了一些最早的野。在社会学方面，塔尔科特 · 帕森斯早期(1930年代)的著作为采用关系方法理解社会结构奠定了基础。后来，社会学家彼得 · 布劳的社会交换理论为分析社会单位之间的关系提供了强大的动力。