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Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.

Working memory is impaired by acute and chronic psychological stress. This phenomenon was first discovered in animal studies by Arnsten and colleagues, who have shown that stress-induced catecholamine release in PFC rapidly decreases PFC neuronal firing and impairs working memory performance through feedforward, intracellular signaling pathways. Exposure to chronic stress leads to more profound working memory deficits and additional architectural changes in PFC, including dendritic atrophy and spine loss, which can be prevented by inhibition of protein kinase C signaling. fMRI research has extended this research to humans, and confirms that reduced working memory caused by acute stress links to reduced activation of the PFC, and stress increased levels of catecholamines. Imaging studies of medical students undergoing stressful exams have also shown weakened PFC functional connectivity, consistent with the animal studies. The marked effects of stress on PFC structure and function may help to explain how stress can cause or exacerbate mental illness.

工作记忆受到急性和慢性心理压力的损害。这种现象最早是由 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的，他们发现应激诱导 PFC 中儿茶酚胺的释放可以迅速降低 PFC 神经元的放电，并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次的工作记忆缺陷和额外的 PFC 结构变化，包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失，这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C 信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类，并证实急性压力导致的工作记忆减少与 PFC 的激活减少有关，而压力增加了儿茶酚胺的水平。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC 功能连接性减弱，这与动物实验结果一致。压力对 PFC 结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。

急性和慢性心理压力会损害工作记忆。这种现象最早是由 安斯登 Arnsten 和他的同事们在动物实验中发现的，他们发现应激诱导PFC中儿茶酚胺的释放可迅速降低PFC神经元的放电，并通过前馈和细胞内信号通路损害工作记忆。长期暴露在压力下会导致更深层次工作记忆的缺陷和PFC额外的结构变化，包括树突萎缩和脊柱丧失，这些都可以通过抑制蛋白激酶C信号来预防。功能磁共振成像的研究已经将这项研究扩展到人类，并证实了急性压力导致工作记忆减少会降低PFC的激活，压力会导致儿茶酚胺水平提高。医学院学生在经历紧张的考试后的成像研究也表明 PFC功能连接性减弱，与动物实验结果一致。压力对PFC结构和功能的显著影响可能有助于解释压力如何导致或加重精神疾病。

The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref>

The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.<ref>{{cite book|last=Revlin|first=Russell|title=Human Cognition : Theory and Practice.|year=2007|publisher=Worth Pub|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-7167-5667-5|page=147|edition=International}}</ref>

The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.

The more stress in one's life, the lower the efficiency of working memory in performing simple cognitive tasks. Students who performed exercises that reduced the intrusion of negative thoughts showed an increase in their working memory capacity. Mood states (positive or negative) can have an influence on the neurotransmitter dopamine, which in turn can affect problem solving.

生活中压力越大，工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。那些进行减少负面思想入侵的练习的学生，他们的工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺，从而影响问题解决。

生活中压力越大，工作记忆在完成简单认知任务时的效率就越低。对减少负面思想入侵进行练习的学生其工作记忆容量有所增加。情绪状态(积极或消极)会影响神经递质多巴胺，从而影响问题解决。

 

 

=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===

=== 神经生理学的酒精效果 Effects of alcohol on neurophysiology ===