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在统计学和经济学中,因果关系通常通过回归分析来检验。有几种方法可以用来区分真实的因果关系和虚假的相关性。第一,经济学家根据经济理论('''<font color='#ff8000>理论驱动theory-driven</font>'''的计量经济学)构建回归模型,从而确定因果关系的方向。例如,如果研究降雨与未来商品价格之间的依赖关系,那么一个广义上建构的理论表明,降雨可以影响价格,但未来价格不能改变降雨量。<ref>{{Cite book|last=Simon|first=Herbert|title=Models of Discovery|publisher=Springer|year=1977|location=Dordrecht|page=52}}</ref> . 第二,'''<font color = '#ff8000'>工具变量instrumental variables(IV)</font>'''技术可以通过引入其他已知不受因变量的影响的工具变量来消除任何反向因果关系。第三,通过在回归的右侧只包括时间上在因变量之前的变量,就可以使用结果不能优先于原因的原则。由于'''<font color='#ff8000>偏相关partial correlations</font>'''是对称的,人们不能在相关的基础上确定因果关系的方向。经济学家基于因果关系的'''<font color='#ff8000>概率观点probabilistic view</font>'''假设,原因必须在时间上优先于其结果。这导致经济学家使用较早发生的现象作为自变量,并开发适用于时间序列分析的因果关系检验计量经济方法(例如,'''<font color = '#ff8000'>格兰杰因果检验</font>''')<ref>{{Cite book|last=Maziarz|first=Mariusz|title=The Philosophy of Causality in Economics: Causal Inferences and Policy Proposals|publisher=Routledge|year=2020|location=New York}}</ref>。第四,有些方法包括了其他回归因素,以确保'''<font color = '#ff8000'>混淆变量confounding variables</font>'''不会导致一个回归项虚假地呈现显著。通过使用大样本和交叉验证检查在回归中未使用的数据上是否保持了相关性,可以排除巧合的,而不是反映实际依赖内在过程的相关性。但遭受'''<font color = '#ff8000'>多重共线性multicollinearity</font>'''问题困扰的领域,如宏观经济学,原则上不可能包括所有混淆因素,因此计量经济模型容易出现'''<font color = '#ff8000'>共因谬误common-cause fallacy</font>'''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henschen|first=Tobias|date=2018|title=The in-principle inconclusiveness of causal evidence in macroeconomics|journal=European Journal for Philosophy of Science|volume=8|pages=709–733}}</ref>。近年来,'''<font color = '#ff8000'>以研究设计为基础的计量经济学design-based econometrics</font>'''运动已经推广使用自然实验和准实验研究设计来解决'''<font color = '#ff8000'>虚假相关spurious correlations</font>'''的问题<ref>{{Cite book|last=Angrist Joshua & Pischke Jörn-Steffen|title=Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist's Companion|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton}}</ref>。
 
在统计学和经济学中,因果关系通常通过回归分析来检验。有几种方法可以用来区分真实的因果关系和虚假的相关性。第一,经济学家根据经济理论('''<font color='#ff8000>理论驱动theory-driven</font>'''的计量经济学)构建回归模型,从而确定因果关系的方向。例如,如果研究降雨与未来商品价格之间的依赖关系,那么一个广义上建构的理论表明,降雨可以影响价格,但未来价格不能改变降雨量。<ref>{{Cite book|last=Simon|first=Herbert|title=Models of Discovery|publisher=Springer|year=1977|location=Dordrecht|page=52}}</ref> . 第二,'''<font color = '#ff8000'>工具变量instrumental variables(IV)</font>'''技术可以通过引入其他已知不受因变量的影响的工具变量来消除任何反向因果关系。第三,通过在回归的右侧只包括时间上在因变量之前的变量,就可以使用结果不能优先于原因的原则。由于'''<font color='#ff8000>偏相关partial correlations</font>'''是对称的,人们不能在相关的基础上确定因果关系的方向。经济学家基于因果关系的'''<font color='#ff8000>概率观点probabilistic view</font>'''假设,原因必须在时间上优先于其结果。这导致经济学家使用较早发生的现象作为自变量,并开发适用于时间序列分析的因果关系检验计量经济方法(例如,'''<font color = '#ff8000'>格兰杰因果检验</font>''')<ref>{{Cite book|last=Maziarz|first=Mariusz|title=The Philosophy of Causality in Economics: Causal Inferences and Policy Proposals|publisher=Routledge|year=2020|location=New York}}</ref>。第四,有些方法包括了其他回归因素,以确保'''<font color = '#ff8000'>混淆变量confounding variables</font>'''不会导致一个回归项虚假地呈现显著。通过使用大样本和交叉验证检查在回归中未使用的数据上是否保持了相关性,可以排除巧合的,而不是反映实际依赖内在过程的相关性。但遭受'''<font color = '#ff8000'>多重共线性multicollinearity</font>'''问题困扰的领域,如宏观经济学,原则上不可能包括所有混淆因素,因此计量经济模型容易出现'''<font color = '#ff8000'>共因谬误common-cause fallacy</font>'''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Henschen|first=Tobias|date=2018|title=The in-principle inconclusiveness of causal evidence in macroeconomics|journal=European Journal for Philosophy of Science|volume=8|pages=709–733}}</ref>。近年来,'''<font color = '#ff8000'>以研究设计为基础的计量经济学design-based econometrics</font>'''运动已经推广使用自然实验和准实验研究设计来解决'''<font color = '#ff8000'>虚假相关spurious correlations</font>'''的问题<ref>{{Cite book|last=Angrist Joshua & Pischke Jörn-Steffen|title=Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist's Companion|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2008|location=Princeton}}</ref>。
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== In social science ==
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== In social science 在社会科学领域==
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在社会科学领域
   
The social sciences have moved increasingly toward a quantitative framework for assessing causality. Much of this has been described as a means of providing greater rigor to social science methodology. Political science was significantly influenced by the publication of [[Designing Social Inquiry]], by Gary King, Robert Keohane, and Sidney Verba, in 1994. King, Keohane, and Verba (often abbreviated as KKV) recommended that researchers applying both quantitative and qualitative methods adopt the language of statistical inference to be clearer about their subjects of interest and units of analysis.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Designing social inquiry : scientific inference in qualitative research|first=Gary|last=King|date=2012|publisher=Princeton Univ. Press|isbn=978-0691034713|oclc=754613241}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Mahoney|first=James|date=January 2010|title=After KKV|journal=World Politics|volume=62|issue=1|pages=120–147|jstor=40646193|doi=10.1017/S0043887109990220}}</ref> Proponents of quantitative methods have also increasingly adopted the [[Rubin causal model|potential outcomes framework]], developed by [[Donald Rubin]], as a standard for inferring causality.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}
 
The social sciences have moved increasingly toward a quantitative framework for assessing causality. Much of this has been described as a means of providing greater rigor to social science methodology. Political science was significantly influenced by the publication of [[Designing Social Inquiry]], by Gary King, Robert Keohane, and Sidney Verba, in 1994. King, Keohane, and Verba (often abbreviated as KKV) recommended that researchers applying both quantitative and qualitative methods adopt the language of statistical inference to be clearer about their subjects of interest and units of analysis.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Designing social inquiry : scientific inference in qualitative research|first=Gary|last=King|date=2012|publisher=Princeton Univ. Press|isbn=978-0691034713|oclc=754613241}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Mahoney|first=James|date=January 2010|title=After KKV|journal=World Politics|volume=62|issue=1|pages=120–147|jstor=40646193|doi=10.1017/S0043887109990220}}</ref> Proponents of quantitative methods have also increasingly adopted the [[Rubin causal model|potential outcomes framework]], developed by [[Donald Rubin]], as a standard for inferring causality.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}
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社会科学越来越倾向于一个评估因果关系的定量框架。其中很大一部分被描述为一种提供更严密的社会科学方法论的手段。1994年,加里 · 金、罗伯特 · 基奥汉和西德尼 · 维尔巴合著的《'''<font color = '#ff8000'>设计社会探究</font>'''》对政治科学产生了重大影响。King,Keohane,和 Verba (通常缩写为 KKV)建议研究人员应用定量和定性的方法采用推论统计学的语言来更清楚地说明他们感兴趣的主题和分析的单位。定量方法的支持者也越来越多地采用'''<font color = '#ff8000'>唐纳德 · 鲁宾</font>'''开发的'''<font color = '#ff8000'>潜在结果框架</font>'''作为推断因果关系的标准。
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社会科学越来越倾向评估因果关系的定量框架。框架中的很大一部分已经被描述为一种提供更严格的'''<font color = '#ff8000'>社会科学方法social science methodology</font>'''的方式。1994年,'''<font color = '#ff8000'>加里·金Gary King</font>'''、'''<font color = '#ff8000'>罗伯特 · 基奥汉Robert Keohane</font>'''和'''<font color = '#ff8000'>西德尼 · 维尔巴Sidney Verba</font>'''合著的《'''<font color = '#ff8000'>设计社会学问卷Designing Social Inquiry</font>'''》对政治科学产生了重大影响。'''<font color = '#32cd32'>金、基奥汉,和维尔巴(通常缩写为 KKV)建议研究人员同时采用定量和定性的方法,采用统计推论的语言来更清楚地说明他们感兴趣的主题和分析的单位。King, Keohane, and Verba (often abbreviated as KKV) recommended that researchers applying both quantitative and qualitative methods adopt the language of statistical inference to be clearer about their subjects of interest and units of analysis.</font>'''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Designing social inquiry : scientific inference in qualitative research|first=Gary|last=King|date=2012|publisher=Princeton Univ. Press|isbn=978-0691034713|oclc=754613241}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Mahoney|first=James|date=January 2010|title=After KKV|journal=World Politics|volume=62|issue=1|pages=120–147|jstor=40646193|doi=10.1017/S0043887109990220}}</ref>定量方法的支持者也越来越多地采用'''<font color = '#ff8000'>唐纳德 · 鲁宾Donald Rubin</font>'''开发的'''<font color = '#ff8000'>潜在结果框架potential outcomes framework</font>'''作为推断因果关系的标准。
 
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==here==
    
Debates over the appropriate application of quantitative methods to infer causality resulted in increased attention to the reproducibility of studies. Critics of widely-practiced methodologies argued that researchers have engaged in [[Data dredging|P hacking]] to publish articles on the basis of spurious correlations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/18/magazine/when-the-revolution-came-for-amy-cuddy.html|title=When the Revolution Came for Amy Cuddy|last=Dominus|first=Susan|date=18 October 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-03-02|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> To prevent this, some have advocated that researchers preregister their research designs prior to conducting to their studies so that they do not inadvertently overemphasize a non-reproducible finding that was not the initial subject of inquiry but was found to be statistically significant during data analysis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/the-statistical-crisis-in-science|title=The Statistical Crisis in Science|date=6 February 2017|website=American Scientist|language=en|access-date=2019-04-18}}</ref> Internal debates about methodology and reproducibility within the social sciences have at times been acrimonious.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}
 
Debates over the appropriate application of quantitative methods to infer causality resulted in increased attention to the reproducibility of studies. Critics of widely-practiced methodologies argued that researchers have engaged in [[Data dredging|P hacking]] to publish articles on the basis of spurious correlations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/18/magazine/when-the-revolution-came-for-amy-cuddy.html|title=When the Revolution Came for Amy Cuddy|last=Dominus|first=Susan|date=18 October 2017|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-03-02|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> To prevent this, some have advocated that researchers preregister their research designs prior to conducting to their studies so that they do not inadvertently overemphasize a non-reproducible finding that was not the initial subject of inquiry but was found to be statistically significant during data analysis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.americanscientist.org/article/the-statistical-crisis-in-science|title=The Statistical Crisis in Science|date=6 February 2017|website=American Scientist|language=en|access-date=2019-04-18}}</ref> Internal debates about methodology and reproducibility within the social sciences have at times been acrimonious.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}
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虽然在潜在结果框架中,大部分重点仍然放在推论统计学上,但社会科学方法论者已经开发出新的工具,用定性和定量的方法进行因果推断,有时被称为混合方法。不同方法论的支持者认为不同的方法论更适合不同的研究对象。社会学家 Herbert Smith 和政治学家 James Mahoney 和 Gary Goertz 引用了统计学家 Paul Holland 的观察结果,他在1986年发表了一篇名为《统计学和因果推断》的文章,认为推论统计学最适合于评估“原因的影响”而不是“影响的原因” 定性方法学家认为,形式化的因果关系模型,包括过程追踪和模糊集合理论,提供了推断因果关系的机会,通过在案例研究中识别关键因素或通过几个案例研究之间的比较过程。这些方法对于那些数量有限的潜在观察或混杂变量的存在会限制推论统计学的适用性的课题也是有价值的。
 
虽然在潜在结果框架中,大部分重点仍然放在推论统计学上,但社会科学方法论者已经开发出新的工具,用定性和定量的方法进行因果推断,有时被称为混合方法。不同方法论的支持者认为不同的方法论更适合不同的研究对象。社会学家 Herbert Smith 和政治学家 James Mahoney 和 Gary Goertz 引用了统计学家 Paul Holland 的观察结果,他在1986年发表了一篇名为《统计学和因果推断》的文章,认为推论统计学最适合于评估“原因的影响”而不是“影响的原因” 定性方法学家认为,形式化的因果关系模型,包括过程追踪和模糊集合理论,提供了推断因果关系的机会,通过在案例研究中识别关键因素或通过几个案例研究之间的比较过程。这些方法对于那些数量有限的潜在观察或混杂变量的存在会限制推论统计学的适用性的课题也是有价值的。
      
== See also ==
 
== See also ==
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