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{{Thermodynamics|cTopic=Laws}}<br>

{{Thermodynamics|cTopic=Laws}}<br>

The '''laws of thermodynamics''' define physical quantities, such as [[temperature]], [[energy]], and [[entropy]], that characterize [[thermodynamic system]]s at [[thermodynamic equilibrium]]. The laws describe the relationships between these quantities, and form a basis of precluding the possibility of certain phenomena, such as [[perpetual motion]]. In addition to their use in [[thermodynamics]], they are important fundamental [[Physical law|laws]] of [[physics]] in general, and are applicable in other natural [[sciences]].

The '''laws of thermodynamics''' define physical quantities, such as [[temperature]], [[energy]], and [[entropy]], that characterize [[thermodynamic system]]s at [[thermodynamic equilibrium]]. The laws describe the relationships between these quantities, and form a basis of precluding the possibility of certain phenomena, such as [[perpetual motion]]. In addition to their use in [[thermodynamics]], they are important fundamental [[Physical law|laws]] of [[physics]] in general, and are applicable in other natural [[sciences]].

The second law tells also about kinds of irreversibility other than heat transfer, for example those of friction and viscosity, and those of chemical reactions. The notion of entropy is needed to provide that wider scope of the law.

The second law tells also about kinds of irreversibility other than heat transfer, for example those of friction and viscosity, and those of chemical reactions. The notion of entropy is needed to provide that wider scope of the law.

第二定律也告诉我们除了热传递之外的不可逆性，例如摩擦力和粘度，以及化学反应。'''<font color="#32CD32">需要熵的概念给该定律提供更广泛的范围。

第二定律也告诉我们除了热传递之外的不可逆性，例如摩擦力和粘度，以及化学反应。'''<font color="#32CD32">需要熵的概念给该定律提供更广泛的范围。</font>'''

</font>'''

Entropy may also be viewed as a physical measure of the lack of physical information about the microscopic details of the motion and configuration of a system, when only the macroscopic states are known. This lack of information is often described as disorder on a microscopic or molecular scale. The law asserts that for two given macroscopically specified states of a system, there is a quantity called the difference of information entropy between them. This information entropy difference defines how much additional microscopic physical information is needed to specify one of the macroscopically specified states, given the macroscopic specification of the other – often a conveniently chosen reference state which may be presupposed to exist rather than explicitly stated. A final condition of a natural process always contains microscopically specifiable effects which are not fully and exactly predictable from the macroscopic specification of the initial condition of the process. This is why entropy increases in natural processes – the increase tells how much extra microscopic information is needed to distinguish the final macroscopically specified state from the initial macroscopically specified state.

Entropy may also be viewed as a physical measure of the lack of physical information about the microscopic details of the motion and configuration of a system, when only the macroscopic states are known. This lack of information is often described as disorder on a microscopic or molecular scale. The law asserts that for two given macroscopically specified states of a system, there is a quantity called the difference of information entropy between them. This information entropy difference defines how much additional microscopic physical information is needed to specify one of the macroscopically specified states, given the macroscopic specification of the other – often a conveniently chosen reference state which may be presupposed to exist rather than explicitly stated. A final condition of a natural process always contains microscopically specifiable effects which are not fully and exactly predictable from the macroscopic specification of the initial condition of the process. This is why entropy increases in natural processes – the increase tells how much extra microscopic information is needed to distinguish the final macroscopically specified state from the initial macroscopically specified state.

当只知道宏观状态时，熵也可以被看作是对系统运动和构型的微观细节有关的物理度量。这种细节通常在微观或分子尺度上被称为无序。该定律声称，对于一个系统的两个给定的宏观指定状态，它们之间存在一个被称为熵差的量。这种熵的差异定义了需要多少额外的微观物理信息来指定一个宏观指定状态，给定另一个宏观指定状态-通常是一个方便选择的参考状态，这可能是假定存在的，而不是明确陈述的。自然过程的最终条件始终包含着微观上特定的影响，而这些影响，从过程初始条件的宏观规定来看是无法被完全准确预测的。这就是为什么熵在自然过程中会增加——熵的增加告诉我们需要多少额外的微观信息来区分最终的宏观指定状态和最初的宏观指定状态。

当只知道宏观状态时，熵也可以被看作是对系统运动和构型的微观细节有关的物理度量。这种细节通常在微观或分子尺度上被称为无序。该定律声称，对于一个系统的两个给定的宏观指定状态，它们之间存在一个被称为熵差的量。'''<font color="#32CD32">这种熵的差异定义了需要多少额外的微观物理信息来指定一个宏观指定状态，给定另一个宏观指定状态-通常是一个方便选择的参考状态，这可能是假定存在的，而不是明确陈述的。自然过程的最终条件始终包含着微观上特定的影响，而这些影响，从过程初始条件的宏观规定来看是无法被完全准确预测的。这就是为什么熵在自然过程中会增加——熵的增加告诉我们需要多少额外的微观信息来区分最终的宏观指定状态和最初的宏观指定状态。</font>'''

 

At zero temperature the system must be in a state with the minimum thermal energy. This statement holds true if the perfect crystal has only one state with minimum energy.  Entropy is related to the number of possible microstates according to:

At zero temperature the system must be in a state with the minimum thermal energy. This statement holds true if the perfect crystal has only one state with minimum energy.  Entropy is related to the number of possible microstates according to:

在零温时，系统必须处于热能最小的状态。如果完美晶体只有一个能量最小的状态，这种说法也成立。熵与可能的微观状态数量有关，依据是:

在零温时，系统必须处于热能最小的状态。如果完美晶体只有一种能量最小的状态，则该说法成立。熵与可能的微状态数有关:

Where S is the entropy of the system, k_B Boltzmann's constant, and Ω the number of microstates (e.g. possible configurations of atoms). At absolute zero there is only 1 microstate possible (Ω=1 as all the atoms are identical for a pure substance and as a result all orders are identical as there is only one combination) and ln(1) = 0.

Where S is the entropy of the system, k_B Boltzmann's constant, and Ω the number of microstates (e.g. possible configurations of atoms). At absolute zero there is only 1 microstate possible (Ω=1 as all the atoms are identical for a pure substance and as a result all orders are identical as there is only one combination) and ln(1) = 0.

其中 s 是系统的熵，k 子 b / 子 Boltzmann 常数，以及微观状态的数目(例如:。可能的原子构型)。在绝对零度下只有1个微态可能(1，因为纯物质的所有原子都是相同的，所以所有的顺序都是相同的，因为只有一个组合)和 ln (1)0。

其中 s 是系统的熵，k_B是玻尔兹曼常数，以及Ω是微状态数(例如:可能的原子结构)。在绝对零度下只有一种微状态(Ω=1，因为纯物质的所有原子都是相同的，所以所有阶数都是相同的，因为只有一个组合)和 ln (1)=0。

A more general form of the third law that applies to a system such as a glass that may have more than one minimum microscopically distinct energy state, or may have a microscopically distinct state that is "frozen in" though not a strictly minimum energy state and not strictly speaking a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, at absolute zero temperature:

A more general form of the third law that applies to a system such as a glass that may have more than one minimum microscopically distinct energy state, or may have a microscopically distinct state that is "frozen in" though not a strictly minimum energy state and not strictly speaking a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, at absolute zero temperature:

第三定律的一个更一般的形式，适用于一个系统，如玻璃，可能有一个以上的最低微观上截然不同的能量状态，或可能有一个微观上截然不同的状态是“冻结在” ，虽然不是一个严格的最低能量状态，严格来说不是一个热力学平衡状态，在绝对零度:

第三定律的一个更普遍的形式，适用于一个系统，如玻璃，'''<font color="#32CD32">可能有一个以上的微观上截然不同的能量状态，或可能有一个微观上截然不同的“冻结状态”，虽然不是一个严格意义上的的最低能量状态，也不是严格意义上的热力学平衡，</font>'''在绝对零度:

:''The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero.''

:''The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero.''

The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero.

The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature approaches zero.

The constant value (not necessarily zero) is called the residual entropy of the system.

The constant value (not necessarily zero) is called the residual entropy of the system.

这个常量值(不一定是零)称为系统的余熵。

这个常数(不一定是零)称为系统的余熵。

Circa 1797, Count Rumford (born Benjamin Thompson) showed that endless mechanical action can generate indefinitely large amounts of heat from a fixed amount of working substance thus challenging the caloric theory of heat, which held that there would be a finite amount of caloric heat/energy in a fixed amount of working substance. The first established thermodynamic principle, which eventually became the second law of thermodynamics, was formulated by Sadi Carnot in 1824. By 1860, as formalized in the works of those such as Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, two established principles of thermodynamics had evolved, the first principle and the second principle, later restated as thermodynamic laws.  By 1873, for example, thermodynamicist Josiah Willard Gibbs, in his memoir Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids, clearly stated the first two absolute laws of thermodynamics.  Some textbooks throughout the 20th century have numbered the laws differently.  In some fields removed from chemistry, the second law was considered to deal with the efficiency of heat engines only, whereas what was called the third law dealt with entropy increases.  Directly defining zero points for entropy calculations was not considered to be a law.  Gradually, this separation was combined into the second law and the modern third law was widely adopted.

Circa 1797, Count Rumford (born Benjamin Thompson) showed that endless mechanical action can generate indefinitely large amounts of heat from a fixed amount of working substance thus challenging the caloric theory of heat, which held that there would be a finite amount of caloric heat/energy in a fixed amount of working substance. The first established thermodynamic principle, which eventually became the second law of thermodynamics, was formulated by Sadi Carnot in 1824. By 1860, as formalized in the works of those such as Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, two established principles of thermodynamics had evolved, the first principle and the second principle, later restated as thermodynamic laws.  By 1873, for example, thermodynamicist Josiah Willard Gibbs, in his memoir Graphical Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids, clearly stated the first two absolute laws of thermodynamics.  Some textbooks throughout the 20th century have numbered the laws differently.  In some fields removed from chemistry, the second law was considered to deal with the efficiency of heat engines only, whereas what was called the third law dealt with entropy increases.  Directly defining zero points for entropy calculations was not considered to be a law.  Gradually, this separation was combined into the second law and the modern third law was widely adopted.

大约在1797年，计数拉姆福德(出生的本杰明·汤普森，伦福德伯爵)显示，无休止的机械作用可以产生无限大量的热量从一个固定数量的工作物质，从而挑战热量的热量理论，其中认为有一个固定数量的工作物质热量 / 能量有限数量的热量。第一个建立的热力学原理，最终成为热力学第二定律，是由 Sadi Carnot 在1824年制定的。到了1860年，正如鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯和威廉 · 汤姆森等人的著作所正式确定的那样，两个既定的热力学原理已经形成---- 第一原理和第二原理，后来重述为热力学定律。例如，到了1873年，热力学家约西亚·威拉德·吉布斯在他的回忆录《流体热力学的图形方法》中明确指出了前两个绝对热力学定律。整个20世纪的一些教科书对法律有不同的编号。在一些与化学无关的领域，第二定律被认为仅仅处理热机的效率问题，而所谓的第三定律则处理熵的增加问题。为熵计算直接定义零点不被认为是一个定律。这种分离逐渐形成了第二定律，现代第三定律被广泛采用。

大约在1797年，拉姆福德(出生于本杰明·汤普森)表明，无休止的机械作用可以从固定数量的工作物质中产生无限量的热量，从而挑战了热量理论。该理论认为在固定数量的工作物质中会有有限的热量 / 能量。1824年，萨迪·卡诺建立了第一个热力学原理，也就是后来的热力学第二定律。到1860年，正如鲁道夫 · 克劳修斯和威廉 · 汤姆森等人的著作所正式规定的那样，已经确立的两个热力学原理得到了发展，第一个原理和第二个原理，后来被重新定义为热力学定律。例如，1873年，热力学学家乔赛亚·威拉德·吉布斯在他的回忆录《流体热力学的图解法》中明确阐述了热力学的前两个绝对定律。整个20世纪的一些教科书对这些定律进行了不同的编号。在一些与化学无关的领域，第二定律被认为仅仅处理热机的效率问题，而所谓的第三定律则处理熵的增加问题。'''<font color="#32CD32">直接定义熵计算的零律不被认为是一条定律。</font>'''这种分离逐渐形成了第二定律，现代第三定律被广泛采用。

==See also==

==See also==

* [[Chemical thermodynamics]]

*化学热力学 [[Chemical thermodynamics]]

* [[Conservation law (physics)|Conservation law]]

*守恒定律 [[Conservation law (physics)|Conservation law]]

* [[Entropy production]]

*熵增 [[Entropy production]]

* [[Ginsberg's theorem]]

*金斯伯格定理 [[Ginsberg's theorem]]

* [[Heat death of the universe]]

*宇宙热寂 [[Heat death of the universe]]

* [[H-theorem]]

*H定理 [[H-theorem]]

* [[Laws of science]]

*科学规律 [[Laws of science]]

* [[Onsager reciprocal relations]] (sometimes described as a fourth law of thermodynamics)

*昂萨格倒易关系（有时被描述为热力学第四定律） [[Onsager reciprocal relations]] (sometimes described as a fourth law of thermodynamics)

* [[Statistical mechanics]]

*统计力学 [[Statistical mechanics]]

* [[Table of thermodynamic equations]]

*热力学方程表 [[Table of thermodynamic equations]]

==References==

==References==<br>

{{reflist|30em}}

{{reflist|30em}}