153
个编辑
更改
跳到导航
跳到搜索
第177行：
第177行： − + 第189行：
第189行： − + 第203行：
第203行： − + 第211行：
第211行： − + 第219行：
第219行： − + − + 第232行：
第232行： − + 第245行：
第245行： − + 第252行：
第252行： − + 第260行：
第260行： − + 第268行：
第268行： − + − +
无编辑摘要
K. A. Wilde submitted a paper to ''Science'' on December 15, 1952, before Miller submitted his paper to the same journal on February 10, 1953. Wilde's paper was published on July 10, 1953.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wilde |first=Kenneth A. |authorlink= |first2=Bruno J. |last2=Zwolinski |first3=Ransom B. |last3=Parlin |date=July 1953 |title=The Reaction Occurring in CO<sub>2</sub>, <sub>2</sub>O Mixtures in a High-Frequency Electric Arc |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=118 |issue=3054 |pages=43–44 |id= |doi=10.1126/science.118.3054.43-a |pmid=13076175 |bibcode=1953Sci...118...43W |df= }}</ref> Wilde used voltages up to only 600 V on a binary mixture of [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) and water in a flow system. He observed only small amounts of carbon dioxide reduction to carbon monoxide, and no other significant reduction products or newly formed carbon compounds.
K. A. Wilde submitted a paper to ''Science'' on December 15, 1952, before Miller submitted his paper to the same journal on February 10, 1953. Wilde's paper was published on July 10, 1953.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wilde |first=Kenneth A. |authorlink= |first2=Bruno J. |last2=Zwolinski |first3=Ransom B. |last3=Parlin |date=July 1953 |title=The Reaction Occurring in CO<sub>2</sub>, <sub>2</sub>O Mixtures in a High-Frequency Electric Arc |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=118 |issue=3054 |pages=43–44 |id= |doi=10.1126/science.118.3054.43-a |pmid=13076175 |bibcode=1953Sci...118...43W |df= }}</ref> Wilde used voltages up to only 600 V on a binary mixture of [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) and water in a flow system. He observed only small amounts of carbon dioxide reduction to carbon monoxide, and no other significant reduction products or newly formed carbon compounds.
1952年12月15日，王尔德向《科学》杂志提交了一篇论文，米勒在1953年2月10日向同一家杂志提交了他的论文。王尔德的论文发表于1953年7月10日。[17]王尔德在一个流动系统中使用了高达600V的二氧化碳（CO2）和水的二元混合物。他观察到只有少量二氧化碳还原成一氧化碳，没有其他显著的还原产物或新形成的碳化合物
Other researchers were studying [[Ultraviolet|UV]]-[[photolysis]] of water vapor with [[carbon monoxide]]. They have found that various alcohols, aldehydes and organic acids were synthesized in reaction mixture.<ref>[https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00931407 Synthesis of organic compounds from carbon monoxide and water by UV photolysis] ''Origins of Life''. December 1978, Volume 9, Issue 2, pp 93-101
Other researchers were studying [[Ultraviolet|UV]]-[[photolysis]] of water vapor with [[carbon monoxide]]. They have found that various alcohols, aldehydes and organic acids were synthesized in reaction mixture.<ref>[https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00931407 Synthesis of organic compounds from carbon monoxide and water by UV photolysis] ''Origins of Life''. December 1978, Volume 9, Issue 2, pp 93-101
其他研究人员正在研究水蒸气与[[一氧化碳]]的[[紫外线|紫外线]]-[[光解]]。他们发现在反应混合物中可以合成各种醇、醛和有机酸
其他研究人员正在研究水蒸气与[[一氧化碳]]的[[紫外线|紫外线]]-[[光解]]。他们发现在反应混合物中可以合成各种醇、醛和有机酸
More recent experiments by chemists Jeffrey Bada, one of Miller's graduate students, and Jim Cleaves at [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]] of the [[University of California, San Diego]] were similar to those performed by Miller. However, Bada noted that in current models of early Earth conditions, carbon dioxide and [[nitrogen]] (N<sub>2</sub>) create [[nitrite]]s, which destroy amino acids as fast as they form. <!--However, the early Earth may have had significant amounts of iron and [[carbonate minerals]] able to neutralize the effects of the nitrites.{{Citation needed|date=January 2016}} --> <!-- Please find a scientific paper that makes this statement before removing the tag -- and then the remark may be visible again --> When Bada performed the Miller-type experiment with the addition of iron and carbonate minerals, the products were rich in amino acids. This suggests the origin of significant amounts of amino acids may have occurred on Earth even with an atmosphere containing carbon dioxide and nitrogen.<ref name=Fox>{{Cite news |last=Fox |first=Douglas |date=2007-03-28 |title=Primordial Soup's On: Scientists Repeat Evolution's Most Famous Experiment |periodical=Scientific American |series=History of Science |publisher=Scientific American Inc. |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=primordial-soup-urey-miller-evolution-experiment-repeated |accessdate=2008-07-09 }}<br>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cleaves | first1 = H. J. | last2 = Chalmers | first2 = J. H. | last3 = Lazcano | first3 = A. | last4 = Miller | first4 = S. L. | last5 = Bada | first5 = J. L. | title = A Reassessment of Prebiotic Organic Synthesis in Neutral Planetary Atmospheres | doi = 10.1007/s11084-007-9120-3 | journal = Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 105–115 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18204914| bibcode = 2008OLEB...38..105C |url=http://www.astro.ulg.ac.be/~mouchet/BIOC0701-1/Cleaves-etal-2008.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107134729/http://www.astro.ulg.ac.be/~mouchet/BIOC0701-1/Cleaves-etal-2008.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-07 }}</ref>
More recent experiments by chemists Jeffrey Bada, one of Miller's graduate students, and Jim Cleaves at [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]] of the [[University of California, San Diego]] were similar to those performed by Miller. However, Bada noted that in current models of early Earth conditions, carbon dioxide and [[nitrogen]] (N<sub>2</sub>) create [[nitrite]]s, which destroy amino acids as fast as they form. <!--However, the early Earth may have had significant amounts of iron and [[carbonate minerals]] able to neutralize the effects of the nitrites.{{Citation needed|date=January 2016}} --> <!-- Please find a scientific paper that makes this statement before removing the tag -- and then the remark may be visible again --> When Bada performed the Miller-type experiment with the addition of iron and carbonate minerals, the products were rich in amino acids. This suggests the origin of significant amounts of amino acids may have occurred on Earth even with an atmosphere containing carbon dioxide and nitrogen.<ref name=Fox>{{Cite news |last=Fox |first=Douglas |date=2007-03-28 |title=Primordial Soup's On: Scientists Repeat Evolution's Most Famous Experiment |periodical=Scientific American |series=History of Science |publisher=Scientific American Inc. |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=primordial-soup-urey-miller-evolution-experiment-repeated |accessdate=2008-07-09 }}<br>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cleaves | first1 = H. J. | last2 = Chalmers | first2 = J. H. | last3 = Lazcano | first3 = A. | last4 = Miller | first4 = S. L. | last5 = Bada | first5 = J. L. | title = A Reassessment of Prebiotic Organic Synthesis in Neutral Planetary Atmospheres | doi = 10.1007/s11084-007-9120-3 | journal = Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres | volume = 38 | issue = 2 | pages = 105–115 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18204914| bibcode = 2008OLEB...38..105C |url=http://www.astro.ulg.ac.be/~mouchet/BIOC0701-1/Cleaves-etal-2008.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107134729/http://www.astro.ulg.ac.be/~mouchet/BIOC0701-1/Cleaves-etal-2008.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-07 }}</ref>
米勒的研究生之一、化学家杰弗里·巴达和加州大学圣地亚哥斯克里普斯海洋学研究所的吉姆·克里夫斯最近的实验与米勒的实验相似。然而，巴达指出，在目前的早期地球条件模型中，二氧化碳和氮气（N2）产生亚硝酸盐，亚硝酸盐在氨基酸形成的同时就被破坏。Bada在进行Miller型实验时添加了铁和碳酸盐矿物，产物富含氨基酸。这表明，即使在含有二氧化碳和氮气的大气中，也可能有大量氨基酸的起源
Some evidence suggests that Earth's original atmosphere might have contained fewer of the reducing molecules than was thought at the time of the Miller–Urey experiment. There is abundant evidence of major volcanic eruptions 4 billion years ago, which would have released carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S), and sulfur dioxide (SO<sub>2</sub>) into the atmosphere. Experiments using these gases in addition to the ones in the original Miller–Urey experiment have produced more diverse molecules. The experiment created a mixture that was racemic (containing both L and D enantiomers) and experiments since have shown that "in the lab the two versions are equally likely to appear"; however, in nature, L amino acids dominate. Later experiments have confirmed disproportionate amounts of L or D oriented enantiomers are possible.
Some evidence suggests that Earth's original atmosphere might have contained fewer of the reducing molecules than was thought at the time of the Miller–Urey experiment. There is abundant evidence of major volcanic eruptions 4 billion years ago, which would have released carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S), and sulfur dioxide (SO<sub>2</sub>) into the atmosphere. Experiments using these gases in addition to the ones in the original Miller–Urey experiment have produced more diverse molecules. The experiment created a mixture that was racemic (containing both L and D enantiomers) and experiments since have shown that "in the lab the two versions are equally likely to appear"; however, in nature, L amino acids dominate. Later experiments have confirmed disproportionate amounts of L or D oriented enantiomers are possible.
Some evidence suggests that Earth's original atmosphere might have contained fewer of the reducing molecules than was thought at the time of the Miller–Urey experiment. There is abundant evidence of major volcanic eruptions 4 billion years ago, which would have released carbon dioxide, nitrogen, [[hydrogen sulfide]] (H<sub>2</sub>S), and [[sulfur dioxide]] (SO<sub>2</sub>) into the atmosphere.<ref name=Green>{{Cite journal|last=Green|first=Jack|title=Academic Aspects of Lunar Water Resources and Their Relevance to Lunar Protolife|journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences|year=2011|volume=12|issue=9|pages=6051–6076|doi=10.3390/ijms12096051|pmid=22016644|pmc=3189768|ref=harv}}</ref> Experiments using these gases in addition to the ones in the original Miller–Urey experiment have produced more diverse molecules. The experiment created a mixture that was racemic (containing both L and D [[enantiomer]]s) and experiments since have shown that "in the lab the two versions are equally likely to appear";<ref name="NS">{{Cite news |date=2006-06-02 |title=Right-handed amino acids were left behind |periodical=[[New Scientist]] |publisher=Reed Business Information Ltd |issue=2554 |pages=18 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/mg19025545.200-righthanded-amino-acids-were-left-behind.html |accessdate=2008-07-09 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024211531/http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/mg19025545.200-righthanded-amino-acids-were-left-behind.html |archivedate=2008-10-24 }}</ref> however, in nature, L amino acids dominate. Later experiments have confirmed disproportionate amounts of L or D oriented enantiomers are possible.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kojo |first=Shosuke |first2=Hiromi |last2=Uchino |first3=Mayu |last3=Yoshimura |first4=Kyoko |last4=Tanaka |date=October 2004 |title=Racemic D,L-asparagine causes enantiomeric excess of other coexisting racemic D,L-amino acids during recrystallization: a hypothesis accounting for the origin of L-amino acids in the biosphere |journal=Chemical Communications |volume= |issue=19 |pages=2146–2147 |pmid=15467844 |doi=10.1039/b409941a}}</ref>
Some evidence suggests that Earth's original atmosphere might have contained fewer of the reducing molecules than was thought at the time of the Miller–Urey experiment. There is abundant evidence of major volcanic eruptions 4 billion years ago, which would have released carbon dioxide, nitrogen, [[hydrogen sulfide]] (H<sub>2</sub>S), and [[sulfur dioxide]] (SO<sub>2</sub>) into the atmosphere.<ref name=Green>{{Cite journal|last=Green|first=Jack|title=Academic Aspects of Lunar Water Resources and Their Relevance to Lunar Protolife|journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences|year=2011|volume=12|issue=9|pages=6051–6076|doi=10.3390/ijms12096051|pmid=22016644|pmc=3189768|ref=harv}}</ref> Experiments using these gases in addition to the ones in the original Miller–Urey experiment have produced more diverse molecules. The experiment created a mixture that was racemic (containing both L and D [[enantiomer]]s) and experiments since have shown that "in the lab the two versions are equally likely to appear";<ref name="NS">{{Cite news |date=2006-06-02 |title=Right-handed amino acids were left behind |periodical=[[New Scientist]] |publisher=Reed Business Information Ltd |issue=2554 |pages=18 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/mg19025545.200-righthanded-amino-acids-were-left-behind.html |accessdate=2008-07-09 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024211531/http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/mg19025545.200-righthanded-amino-acids-were-left-behind.html |archivedate=2008-10-24 }}</ref> however, in nature, L amino acids dominate. Later experiments have confirmed disproportionate amounts of L or D oriented enantiomers are possible.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kojo |first=Shosuke |first2=Hiromi |last2=Uchino |first3=Mayu |last3=Yoshimura |first4=Kyoko |last4=Tanaka |date=October 2004 |title=Racemic D,L-asparagine causes enantiomeric excess of other coexisting racemic D,L-amino acids during recrystallization: a hypothesis accounting for the origin of L-amino acids in the biosphere |journal=Chemical Communications |volume= |issue=19 |pages=2146–2147 |pmid=15467844 |doi=10.1039/b409941a}}</ref>
一些证据表明，地球原始大气中含有的还原分子可能比米勒-尤里实验时所认为的要少。有大量证据表明，40亿年前的大型火山喷发会向大气中释放二氧化碳、氮气、硫化氢（H2S）和二氧化硫（SO2）。[20]除了最初米勒-尤里（Miller-Urey）实验中的实验外，使用这些气体的实验产生了更多不同的分子。实验产生了一种外消旋的混合物（同时含有L和D对映体），此后的实验表明，“在实验室中，两种对映体出现的可能性相等”；然而，在自然界中，L氨基酸占主导地位。后来的实验证实了不相称数量的L或D取向的对映体是可能的。
Originally it was thought that the primitive [[secondary atmosphere]] contained mostly ammonia and methane. However, it is likely that most of the atmospheric carbon was CO<sub>2</sub> with perhaps some CO and the nitrogen mostly N<sub>2</sub>. In practice gas mixtures containing CO, CO<sub>2</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>, etc. give much the same products as those containing CH<sub>4</sub> and NH<sub>3</sub> so long as there is no O<sub>2</sub>. The hydrogen atoms come mostly from water vapor. In fact, in order to generate aromatic amino acids under primitive earth conditions it is necessary to use less hydrogen-rich gaseous mixtures. Most of the natural amino acids, [[hydroxy acid|hydroxyacids]], purines, pyrimidines, and sugars have been made in variants of the Miller experiment.<ref name=bada2013/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ruiz-Mirazo|first1=Kepa|last2=Briones|first2=Carlos|last3=de la Escosura|first3=Andrés|title=Prebiotic Systems Chemistry: New Perspectives for the Origins of Life|journal=Chemical Reviews|year=2014|volume=114|issue=1|pages=285–366|doi=10.1021/cr2004844|pmid=24171674}}</ref>
Originally it was thought that the primitive [[secondary atmosphere]] contained mostly ammonia and methane. However, it is likely that most of the atmospheric carbon was CO<sub>2</sub> with perhaps some CO and the nitrogen mostly N<sub>2</sub>. In practice gas mixtures containing CO, CO<sub>2</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>, etc. give much the same products as those containing CH<sub>4</sub> and NH<sub>3</sub> so long as there is no O<sub>2</sub>. The hydrogen atoms come mostly from water vapor. In fact, in order to generate aromatic amino acids under primitive earth conditions it is necessary to use less hydrogen-rich gaseous mixtures. Most of the natural amino acids, [[hydroxy acid|hydroxyacids]], purines, pyrimidines, and sugars have been made in variants of the Miller experiment.<ref name=bada2013/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ruiz-Mirazo|first1=Kepa|last2=Briones|first2=Carlos|last3=de la Escosura|first3=Andrés|title=Prebiotic Systems Chemistry: New Perspectives for the Origins of Life|journal=Chemical Reviews|year=2014|volume=114|issue=1|pages=285–366|doi=10.1021/cr2004844|pmid=24171674}}</ref>
最初人们认为原始的二次大气主要含有氨和甲烷。然而，大气中的碳很可能大部分是二氧化碳，也许还有一些一氧化碳，氮主要是氮气。实际上，只要没有氧气，含有CO、CO2、N2等的气体混合物产生的产物与含有CH4和NH3的气体混合物的产物基本相同。氢原子主要来自水蒸气。事实上，为了在原始地球条件下产生芳香族氨基酸，有必要使用较少的富氢气体混合物。大多数天然氨基酸、羟基酸、嘌呤、嘧啶和糖都是在米勒实验的变体中制造的
In contrast to the general notion of early earth's reducing atmosphere, researchers at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in New York reported the possibility of oxygen available around 4.3 billion years ago. Their study reported in 2011 on the assessment of Hadean zircons from the earth's interior (magma) indicated the presence of oxygen traces similar to modern-day lavas. This study suggests that oxygen could have been released in the earth's atmosphere earlier than generally believed.
In contrast to the general notion of early earth's reducing atmosphere, researchers at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in New York reported the possibility of oxygen available around 4.3 billion years ago. Their study reported in 2011 on the assessment of Hadean zircons from the earth's interior (magma) indicated the presence of oxygen traces similar to modern-day lavas. This study suggests that oxygen could have been released in the earth's atmosphere earlier than generally believed.
More recent results may question these conclusions. The University of Waterloo and University of Colorado conducted simulations in 2005 that indicated that the early atmosphere of Earth could have contained up to 40 percent hydrogen—implying a much more hospitable environment for the formation of prebiotic organic molecules. The escape of hydrogen from Earth's atmosphere into space may have occurred at only one percent of the rate previously believed based on revised estimates of the upper atmosphere's temperature.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://newsrelease.uwaterloo.ca/news.php?id=4348 |accessdate=2005-12-17 |title=Early Earth atmosphere favorable to life: study |publisher=University of Waterloo |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051214230357/http://newsrelease.uwaterloo.ca/news.php?id=4348 |archivedate=2005-12-14 }}</ref> One of the authors, Owen Toon notes: "In this new scenario, organics can be produced efficiently in the early atmosphere, leading us back to the organic-rich soup-in-the-ocean concept... I think this study makes the experiments by Miller and others relevant again." Outgassing calculations using a chondritic model for the early earth complement the Waterloo/Colorado results in re-establishing the importance of the Miller–Urey experiment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news-info.wustl.edu/news/page/normal/5513.html |accessdate=2005-12-17 |title=Calculations favor reducing atmosphere for early earth – Was Miller–Urey experiment correct? |first=Tony |last=Fitzpatrick |publisher=Washington University in St. Louis |year=2005 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720174657/http://news-info.wustl.edu/news/page/normal/5513.html |archivedate=2008-07-20 }}</ref>
More recent results may question these conclusions. The University of Waterloo and University of Colorado conducted simulations in 2005 that indicated that the early atmosphere of Earth could have contained up to 40 percent hydrogen—implying a much more hospitable environment for the formation of prebiotic organic molecules. The escape of hydrogen from Earth's atmosphere into space may have occurred at only one percent of the rate previously believed based on revised estimates of the upper atmosphere's temperature.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://newsrelease.uwaterloo.ca/news.php?id=4348 |accessdate=2005-12-17 |title=Early Earth atmosphere favorable to life: study |publisher=University of Waterloo |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20051214230357/http://newsrelease.uwaterloo.ca/news.php?id=4348 |archivedate=2005-12-14 }}</ref> One of the authors, Owen Toon notes: "In this new scenario, organics can be produced efficiently in the early atmosphere, leading us back to the organic-rich soup-in-the-ocean concept... I think this study makes the experiments by Miller and others relevant again." Outgassing calculations using a chondritic model for the early earth complement the Waterloo/Colorado results in re-establishing the importance of the Miller–Urey experiment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news-info.wustl.edu/news/page/normal/5513.html |accessdate=2005-12-17 |title=Calculations favor reducing atmosphere for early earth – Was Miller–Urey experiment correct? |first=Tony |last=Fitzpatrick |publisher=Washington University in St. Louis |year=2005 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080720174657/http://news-info.wustl.edu/news/page/normal/5513.html |archivedate=2008-07-20 }}</ref>
最近的研究结果可能会质疑这些结论。滑铁卢大学和科罗拉多大学在2005年进行了模拟，结果表明地球早期大气中可能含有高达40%的氢，这意味着有利于形成益生元有机分子的环境更加有利。氢从地球大气层逃逸到太空的速度可能只有先前根据对高层大气温度的修正估计而认为的速率的百分之一。[24]作者之一欧文·图恩指出：“在这种新的情况下，早期大气中可以有效地产生有机物，带我们回到海洋中有机丰富的汤的概念。】我认为这项研究使米勒和其他人的实验再次具有相关性。“利用早期地球的球粒陨石模型进行放气计算，补充了滑铁卢/科罗拉多州的结果，重新确立了米勒-尤里实验的重要性
In contrast to the general notion of early earth's reducing atmosphere, researchers at the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] in New York reported the possibility of oxygen available around 4.3 billion years ago. Their study reported in 2011 on the assessment of Hadean [[zircons]] from the earth's interior ([[magma]]) indicated the presence of oxygen traces similar to modern-day lavas.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Trail|first1=Dustin|last2=Watson|first2=E. Bruce|last3=Tailby|first3=Nicholas D.|title=The oxidation state of Hadean magmas and implications for early Earth's atmosphere|journal=Nature|year=2011|volume=480|issue=7375|pages=79–82|doi=10.1038/nature10655|pmid=22129728|bibcode=2011Natur.480...79T|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e87ff5db353f56ac40649b2a4ca618f3c2067cdb}}</ref> This study suggests that oxygen could have been released in the earth's atmosphere earlier than generally believed.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Scaillet|first1=Bruno|last2=Gaillard|first2=Fabrice|title=Earth science: Redox state of early magmas|journal=Nature|date=2011|volume=480|issue=7375|pages=48–49|doi=10.1038/480048a|pmid=22129723|bibcode=2011Natur.480...48S|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/648930/filename/Scaillet-Nature2-2011.pdf|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026110646/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/648930/filename/Scaillet-Nature2-2011.pdf|archivedate=2017-10-26|citeseerx=10.1.1.659.2086}}</ref>
In contrast to the general notion of early earth's reducing atmosphere, researchers at the [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] in New York reported the possibility of oxygen available around 4.3 billion years ago. Their study reported in 2011 on the assessment of Hadean [[zircons]] from the earth's interior ([[magma]]) indicated the presence of oxygen traces similar to modern-day lavas.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Trail|first1=Dustin|last2=Watson|first2=E. Bruce|last3=Tailby|first3=Nicholas D.|title=The oxidation state of Hadean magmas and implications for early Earth's atmosphere|journal=Nature|year=2011|volume=480|issue=7375|pages=79–82|doi=10.1038/nature10655|pmid=22129728|bibcode=2011Natur.480...79T|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e87ff5db353f56ac40649b2a4ca618f3c2067cdb}}</ref> This study suggests that oxygen could have been released in the earth's atmosphere earlier than generally believed.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Scaillet|first1=Bruno|last2=Gaillard|first2=Fabrice|title=Earth science: Redox state of early magmas|journal=Nature|date=2011|volume=480|issue=7375|pages=48–49|doi=10.1038/480048a|pmid=22129723|bibcode=2011Natur.480...48S|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/648930/filename/Scaillet-Nature2-2011.pdf|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026110646/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/648930/filename/Scaillet-Nature2-2011.pdf|archivedate=2017-10-26|citeseerx=10.1.1.659.2086}}</ref>
与早期地球大气还原的一般观念不同，纽约伦斯勒理工学院的研究人员报告说，大约43亿年前，有可能存在氧气。他们在2011年对来自地球内部（岩浆）的Hadean锆石进行评估的研究表明，存在着类似于现代熔岩的氧痕迹。这项研究表明，地球大气中的氧气可能比一般认为的更早释放。
Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the solar system, often substituting ultraviolet light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions. The Murchison meteorite that fell near Murchison, Victoria, Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life. Comets and other icy outer-solar-system bodies are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as tholins) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies. The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed. This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the panspermia hypothesis.
Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the solar system, often substituting ultraviolet light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions. The Murchison meteorite that fell near Murchison, Victoria, Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life. Comets and other icy outer-solar-system bodies are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as tholins) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies. The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed. This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the panspermia hypothesis.
Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the [[solar system]], often substituting [[ultraviolet]] light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nunn|first1=JF|title=Evolution of the atmosphere|journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. Geologists' Association|year=1998|volume=109|issue=1|pages=1–13|pmid=11543127|doi=10.1016/s0016-7878(98)80001-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Raulin|first1=F|last2=Bossard|first2=A|title=Organic syntheses in gas phase and chemical evolution in planetary atmospheres.|journal=Advances in Space Research|year=1984|volume=4|issue=12|pages=75–82|pmid=11537798|doi=10.1016/0273-1177(84)90547-7|bibcode=1984AdSpR...4...75R}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Raulin|first1=François|last2=Brassé|first2=Coralie|last3=Poch|first3=Olivier|last4=Coll|first4=Patrice|title=Prebiotic-like chemistry on Titan|journal= Chemical Society Reviews|year=2012|volume=41|issue=16|pages=5380–93|doi=10.1039/c2cs35014a|pmid=22481630}}</ref> The [[Murchison meteorite]] that fell near [[Murchison, Victoria]], Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life. [[Comet]]s and other [[Trans-Neptunian object|icy outer-solar-system bodies]] are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as [[tholin]]s) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Thompson WR, Murray BG, Khare BN, Sagan C |title=Coloration and darkening of methane clathrate and other ices by charged particle irradiation: applications to the outer solar system |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=92 |issue=A13 |pages=14933–47 |date=December 1987 |pmid=11542127 |doi=10.1029/JA092iA13p14933 |bibcode=1987JGR....9214933T|title-link=methane clathrate }}</ref> The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed.<ref>{{cite journal|last=PIERAZZO|first=E.|author2=CHYBA C.F.|title=Amino acid survival in large cometary impacts|journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science|year=2010|volume=34|issue=6|pages=909–918|doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.1999.tb01409.x|bibcode=1999M&PS...34..909P}}</ref> This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the [[panspermia]] hypothesis.
Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present in other regions of the [[solar system]], often substituting [[ultraviolet]] light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nunn|first1=JF|title=Evolution of the atmosphere|journal=Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. Geologists' Association|year=1998|volume=109|issue=1|pages=1–13|pmid=11543127|doi=10.1016/s0016-7878(98)80001-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Raulin|first1=F|last2=Bossard|first2=A|title=Organic syntheses in gas phase and chemical evolution in planetary atmospheres.|journal=Advances in Space Research|year=1984|volume=4|issue=12|pages=75–82|pmid=11537798|doi=10.1016/0273-1177(84)90547-7|bibcode=1984AdSpR...4...75R}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Raulin|first1=François|last2=Brassé|first2=Coralie|last3=Poch|first3=Olivier|last4=Coll|first4=Patrice|title=Prebiotic-like chemistry on Titan|journal= Chemical Society Reviews|year=2012|volume=41|issue=16|pages=5380–93|doi=10.1039/c2cs35014a|pmid=22481630}}</ref> The [[Murchison meteorite]] that fell near [[Murchison, Victoria]], Australia in 1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of which are found in Earth life. [[Comet]]s and other [[Trans-Neptunian object|icy outer-solar-system bodies]] are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon compounds (such as [[tholin]]s) formed by these processes, darkening surfaces of these bodies.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Thompson WR, Murray BG, Khare BN, Sagan C |title=Coloration and darkening of methane clathrate and other ices by charged particle irradiation: applications to the outer solar system |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=92 |issue=A13 |pages=14933–47 |date=December 1987 |pmid=11542127 |doi=10.1029/JA092iA13p14933 |bibcode=1987JGR....9214933T|title-link=methane clathrate }}</ref> The early Earth was bombarded heavily by comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules along with the water and other volatiles they contributed.<ref>{{cite journal|last=PIERAZZO|first=E.|author2=CHYBA C.F.|title=Amino acid survival in large cometary impacts|journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science|year=2010|volume=34|issue=6|pages=909–918|doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.1999.tb01409.x|bibcode=1999M&PS...34..909P}}</ref> This has been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the [[panspermia]] hypothesis.
与米勒-乌雷实验相似的条件也存在于太阳系的其他区域，通常用紫外线代替闪电作为化学反应的能源。1969年落在澳大利亚维多利亚州默奇森附近的莫奇森陨石被发现含有90多种不同的氨基酸，地球上有19个生命。彗星和其他冰冷的太阳系外天体被认为含有大量由这些过程形成的复杂碳化合物（如索林类化合物），使这些天体的表面变暗。早期地球受到彗星的猛烈轰炸，可能与水和其他挥发物一起提供了大量复杂的有机分子他们对此作出了贡献。这被用来推断地球外生命的起源：胚种假说。
In recent years, studies have been made of the amino acid composition of the products of "old" areas in "old" genes, defined as those that are found to be common to organisms from several widely separated species, assumed to share only the last universal ancestor (LUA) of all extant species. These studies found that the products of these areas are enriched in those amino acids that are also most readily produced in the Miller–Urey experiment. This suggests that the original genetic code was based on a smaller number of amino acids – only those available in prebiotic nature – than the current one.
In recent years, studies have been made of the amino acid composition of the products of "old" areas in "old" genes, defined as those that are found to be common to organisms from several widely separated species, assumed to share only the last universal ancestor (LUA) of all extant species. These studies found that the products of these areas are enriched in those amino acids that are also most readily produced in the Miller–Urey experiment. This suggests that the original genetic code was based on a smaller number of amino acids – only those available in prebiotic nature – than the current one.
In recent years, studies have been made of the [[amino acid]] composition of the products of "old" areas in "old" genes, defined as those that are found to be common to organisms from several widely separated [[species]], assumed to share only the [[last universal ancestor]] (LUA) of all extant species. These studies found that the products of these areas are enriched in those amino acids that are also most readily produced in the Miller–Urey experiment. This suggests that the original genetic code was based on a smaller number of amino acids – only those available in prebiotic nature – than the current one.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Brooks D.J. |author2=Fresco J.R. |author3=Lesk A.M. |author4=Singh M. |url=http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/1645 |title=Evolution of amino acid frequencies in proteins over deep time: inferred order of introduction of amino acids into the genetic code |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=October 1, 2002 |volume=19 |pages=1645–55 |pmid=12270892 |issue=10 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003988 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041213094516/http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/1645 |archivedate=December 13, 2004 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
In recent years, studies have been made of the [[amino acid]] composition of the products of "old" areas in "old" genes, defined as those that are found to be common to organisms from several widely separated [[species]], assumed to share only the [[last universal ancestor]] (LUA) of all extant species. These studies found that the products of these areas are enriched in those amino acids that are also most readily produced in the Miller–Urey experiment. This suggests that the original genetic code was based on a smaller number of amino acids – only those available in prebiotic nature – than the current one.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Brooks D.J. |author2=Fresco J.R. |author3=Lesk A.M. |author4=Singh M. |url=http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/1645 |title=Evolution of amino acid frequencies in proteins over deep time: inferred order of introduction of amino acids into the genetic code |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=October 1, 2002 |volume=19 |pages=1645–55 |pmid=12270892 |issue=10 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003988 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041213094516/http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/1645 |archivedate=December 13, 2004 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
近年来，人们对“老”基因中“老”区域产物的氨基酸组成进行了研究，这些“老”基因被定义为是几种广泛分离的物种的有机体所共有的氨基酸成分，假设它们只共享所有现存物种的最后一个宇宙祖先（LUA）。这些研究发现，这些地区的产品富含在米勒-尤里实验中最容易产生的氨基酸。这表明，最初的遗传密码是基于比现在更少的氨基酸-只有那些在益生元性质-比目前的
2008年，一组科学家检查了米勒20世纪50年代早期实验遗留下来的11个小瓶。除了经典的实验（让人想起查尔斯·达尔文设想的“温暖的小池塘”）外，米勒还进行了更多的实验，其中一个实验的条件与火山爆发时相似。这个实验有一个喷嘴在火花放电处喷射蒸汽。通过使用高效液相色谱和质谱，研究小组发现了比米勒更多的有机分子。他们发现，类似火山的实验产生了最多的有机分子，22个氨基酸，5个胺和许多羟基化分子，这些分子可能是由通电蒸汽产生的羟基自由基形成的。研究小组认为，火山岛系统以这种方式富含有机分子，而羰基硫化物的存在可能有助于这些分子形成肽。
2008年，一组科学家检查了米勒20世纪50年代早期实验遗留下来的11个小瓶。除了经典的实验（让人想起查尔斯·达尔文设想的“温暖的小池塘”）外，米勒还进行了更多的实验，其中一个实验的条件与火山爆发时相似。这个实验有一个喷嘴在火花放电处喷射蒸汽。通过使用高效液相色谱和质谱，研究小组发现了比米勒更多的有机分子。他们发现，类似火山的实验产生了最多的有机分子，22个氨基酸，5个胺和许多羟基化分子，这些分子可能是由通电蒸汽产生的羟基自由基形成的。研究小组认为，火山岛系统以这种方式富含有机分子，而羰基硫化物的存在可能有助于这些分子形成肽。
[[Jeffrey Bada]], himself Miller's student, inherited the original equipment from the experiment when Miller died in 2007. Based on sealed vials from the original experiment, scientists have been able to show that although successful, Miller was never able to find out, with the equipment available to him, the full extent of the experiment's success. Later researchers have been able to isolate even more different amino acids, 25 altogether. Bada has estimated that more accurate measurements could easily bring out 30 or 40 more amino acids in very low concentrations, but the researchers have since discontinued the testing. Miller's experiment was therefore a remarkable success at synthesizing complex organic molecules from simpler chemicals, considering that all known life uses just 20 different amino acids.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web |website=BBC Four |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00mbvfh |title=The Spark of Life |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113011054/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00mbvfh |archive-date=2010-11-13 |postscript=. TV Documentary. |date=26 August 2009}}</ref>
[[Jeffrey Bada]], himself Miller's student, inherited the original equipment from the experiment when Miller died in 2007. Based on sealed vials from the original experiment, scientists have been able to show that although successful, Miller was never able to find out, with the equipment available to him, the full extent of the experiment's success. Later researchers have been able to isolate even more different amino acids, 25 altogether. Bada has estimated that more accurate measurements could easily bring out 30 or 40 more amino acids in very low concentrations, but the researchers have since discontinued the testing. Miller's experiment was therefore a remarkable success at synthesizing complex organic molecules from simpler chemicals, considering that all known life uses just 20 different amino acids.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web |website=BBC Four |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00mbvfh |title=The Spark of Life |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113011054/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00mbvfh |archive-date=2010-11-13 |postscript=. TV Documentary. |date=26 August 2009}}</ref>
杰弗里·巴达（Jeffrey Bada）是米勒的学生，他在2007年米勒去世时继承了这项实验的原始设备。根据最初实验中的密封小瓶，科学家们已经能够证明，虽然米勒成功了，但在现有设备的情况下，米勒始终无法发现实验成功的全部程度。后来的研究人员已经能够分离出更多不同的氨基酸，总共25种。Bada估计，更精确的测量可以很容易地在非常低的浓度下提取出30或40种氨基酸，但是研究人员已经停止了这项测试。考虑到所有已知生命只使用20种不同的氨基酸，米勒的实验因此在从较简单的化学物质合成复杂有机分子方面取得了显著成功。
In 2008, a group of scientists examined 11 vials left over from Miller's experiments of the early 1950s. In addition to the classic experiment, reminiscent of [[Charles Darwin]]'s envisioned "warm little pond", Miller had also performed more experiments, including one with conditions similar to those of [[volcano|volcanic]] eruptions. This experiment had a nozzle spraying a jet of steam at the spark discharge. By using [[high-performance liquid chromatography]] and [[mass spectrometry]], the group found more organic molecules than Miller had. They found that the volcano-like experiment had produced the most organic molecules, 22 amino acids, 5 [[amine]]s and many [[hydroxylate]]d molecules, which could have been formed by [[hydroxyl radical]]s produced by the electrified steam. The group suggested that volcanic island systems became rich in organic molecules in this way, and that the presence of [[carbonyl sulfide]] there could have helped these molecules form [[peptide]]s.<ref name=Johnson2008>{{cite journal |vauthors=Johnson AP, Cleaves HJ, Dworkin JP, Glavin DP, Lazcano A, Bada JL |title=The Miller volcanic spark discharge experiment |journal=Science |volume=322 |issue=5900 |pages=404 |date=October 2008 |pmid=18927386 |doi=10.1126/science.1161527|bibcode = 2008Sci...322..404J }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title='Lost' Miller–Urey Experiment Created More Of Life's Building Blocks | date=October 17, 2008 | website=Science Daily | url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081016141411.htm | accessdate=2008-10-18 | url-status=live | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081019111114/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081016141411.htm | archivedate=October 19, 2008 }}</ref>
In 2008, a group of scientists examined 11 vials left over from Miller's experiments of the early 1950s. In addition to the classic experiment, reminiscent of [[Charles Darwin]]'s envisioned "warm little pond", Miller had also performed more experiments, including one with conditions similar to those of [[volcano|volcanic]] eruptions. This experiment had a nozzle spraying a jet of steam at the spark discharge. By using [[high-performance liquid chromatography]] and [[mass spectrometry]], the group found more organic molecules than Miller had. They found that the volcano-like experiment had produced the most organic molecules, 22 amino acids, 5 [[amine]]s and many [[hydroxylate]]d molecules, which could have been formed by [[hydroxyl radical]]s produced by the electrified steam. The group suggested that volcanic island systems became rich in organic molecules in this way, and that the presence of [[carbonyl sulfide]] there could have helped these molecules form [[peptide]]s.<ref name=Johnson2008>{{cite journal |vauthors=Johnson AP, Cleaves HJ, Dworkin JP, Glavin DP, Lazcano A, Bada JL |title=The Miller volcanic spark discharge experiment |journal=Science |volume=322 |issue=5900 |pages=404 |date=October 2008 |pmid=18927386 |doi=10.1126/science.1161527|bibcode = 2008Sci...322..404J }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title='Lost' Miller–Urey Experiment Created More Of Life's Building Blocks | date=October 17, 2008 | website=Science Daily | url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081016141411.htm | accessdate=2008-10-18 | url-status=live | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081019111114/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081016141411.htm | archivedate=October 19, 2008 }}</ref>
20世纪50年代，除了经典的实验，让人想起查尔斯达尔文设想的“温暖的小池塘”，米勒还进行了更多的实验，包括一个条件类似于火山喷发的实验。这个实验有一个喷嘴在火花放电处喷射蒸汽。通过液相色谱法和质谱法发现了比米勒组更多的有机分子。他们发现，类似火山的实验产生了最多的有机分子，22个氨基酸，5个胺和许多羟基化分子，这些分子可能是由通电蒸汽产生的羟基自由基形成的。该小组认为，火山岛系统通过这种方式变得富含有机分子，而那里的羰基硫化物可能有助于这些分子形成肽。
The main problem of theories based around [[amino acids]] is the difficulty in obtaining spontaneous formation of peptides. Since [[John Desmond Bernal]]'s suggestion that clay surfaces could have played a role in [[abiogenesis]]<ref name=Bernal1949>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bernal JD |title=The physical basis of life |journal=Proc. Phys. Soc. A | issue=9 |volume=62 |pages=537–558 |date=1949|doi=10.1088/0370-1298/62/9/301 |bibcode=1949PPSA...62..537B }}</ref>, scientific efforts have been dedicated to investigating clay-mediated [[peptide bond]] formation, with limited success. Peptides formed remained over-protected and shown no evidence of inheritance or metabolism. In December 2017 a theoretical model developed by Erastova and collaborators <ref name="RT-2018">{{cite news | publisher=RT | url=https://www.rt.com/news/416581-scientists-unlock-life-puzzle-protein/ | title='How did life form from rocks?' Protein puzzle reveals secrets of Earth's evolution | date=January 2017}}</ref><ref name="Erastova2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Erastova V, Degiacomi MT, Fraser D, Greenwell HC |title=Mineral surface chemistry control for origin of prebiotic peptides |journal=Nature Communications |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=2033 |date=December 2017|pmid=29229963 |pmc=5725419 |doi=10.1038/s41467-017-02248-y |bibcode=2017NatCo...8.2033E }}</ref> suggested that peptides could form at the interlayers of [[layered double hydroxides]] such as [[green rust]] in early earth conditions. According to the model, drying of the intercalated layered material should provide energy and co-alignment required for peptide bond formation in a [[ribosome]]-like fashion, while re-wetting should allow mobilising the newly formed peptides and repopulate the interlayer with new amino acids. This mechanism is expected to lead to the formation of 12+ amino acid-long peptides within 15-20 washes. Researches also observed slightly different adsorption preferences for different amino acids, and postulated that, if coupled to a diluted solution of mixed amino acids, such preferences could lead to sequencing.
The main problem of theories based around [[amino acids]] is the difficulty in obtaining spontaneous formation of peptides. Since [[John Desmond Bernal]]'s suggestion that clay surfaces could have played a role in [[abiogenesis]]<ref name=Bernal1949>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bernal JD |title=The physical basis of life |journal=Proc. Phys. Soc. A | issue=9 |volume=62 |pages=537–558 |date=1949|doi=10.1088/0370-1298/62/9/301 |bibcode=1949PPSA...62..537B }}</ref>, scientific efforts have been dedicated to investigating clay-mediated [[peptide bond]] formation, with limited success. Peptides formed remained over-protected and shown no evidence of inheritance or metabolism. In December 2017 a theoretical model developed by Erastova and collaborators <ref name="RT-2018">{{cite news | publisher=RT | url=https://www.rt.com/news/416581-scientists-unlock-life-puzzle-protein/ | title='How did life form from rocks?' Protein puzzle reveals secrets of Earth's evolution | date=January 2017}}</ref><ref name="Erastova2017">{{cite journal |vauthors=Erastova V, Degiacomi MT, Fraser D, Greenwell HC |title=Mineral surface chemistry control for origin of prebiotic peptides |journal=Nature Communications |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=2033 |date=December 2017|pmid=29229963 |pmc=5725419 |doi=10.1038/s41467-017-02248-y |bibcode=2017NatCo...8.2033E }}</ref> suggested that peptides could form at the interlayers of [[layered double hydroxides]] such as [[green rust]] in early earth conditions. According to the model, drying of the intercalated layered material should provide energy and co-alignment required for peptide bond formation in a [[ribosome]]-like fashion, while re-wetting should allow mobilising the newly formed peptides and repopulate the interlayer with new amino acids. This mechanism is expected to lead to the formation of 12+ amino acid-long peptides within 15-20 washes. Researches also observed slightly different adsorption preferences for different amino acids, and postulated that, if coupled to a diluted solution of mixed amino acids, such preferences could lead to sequencing.
以氨基酸为基础的理论的主要问题是难以获得肽的自发形成。自从John Desmond Bernal提出粘土表面可能在非生物发生中起作用[36]以来，科学界一直致力于研究粘土介导的肽键形成，但收效甚微。形成的肽仍然受到过度保护，没有遗传或代谢的证据。2017年12月，Erastova及其合作者开发的一个理论模型表明，在早期地球条件下，肽可以在层状双氢氧化物（如绿锈）的层间形成。根据该模型，夹层材料的干燥应能以类似假种体的方式提供肽键形成所需的能量和协同排列，而再润湿应能使新形成的肽活化，并在夹层中重新填充新的氨基酸。这一机制有望在15-20次洗涤过程中形成12+氨基酸长肽。研究还观察到不同氨基酸的吸附偏好稍有不同，并假设，如果与混合氨基酸的稀释溶液相结合，这种偏好可能导致测序。
In October 2018, researchers at [[McMaster University]] on behalf of the [[Origins Institute]] announced the development of a new technology, called a ''[[Planet Simulator]]'', to help study the [[origin of life]] on planet [[Earth]] and beyond.<ref name="BW-20181004">{{cite news |last=Balch |first=Erica |title=Ground-breaking lab poised to unlock the mystery of the origins of life on Earth and beyond |url=https://brighterworld.mcmaster.ca/articles/ground-breaking-lab-poised-to-unlock-the-mystery-of-the-origins-of-life-on-earth-and-beyond/ |date=4 October 2018 |work=[[McMaster University]] |accessdate=4 October 2018 }}</ref><ref name="EA-20181004">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Ground-breaking lab poised to unlock the mystery of the origins of life |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-10/mu-glp100418.php |date=4 October 2018 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |accessdate=14 October 2018 }}</ref><ref name="IVG-2018">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Planet Simulator |url=https://www.intravisiongroup.com/planet-simulator |date=2018 |work=IntraVisionGroup.com |accessdate=14 October 2018 }}</ref><ref name="ES-209181014">{{cite web |last=Anderson |first=Paul Scott |title=New technology may help solve mystery of life's origins - How did life on Earth begin? A new technology, called Planet Simulator, might finally help solve the mystery. |url=http://earthsky.org/space/new-technology-solve-mystery-of-lifes-origins |date=14 October 2018 |work=[[EarthSky]] |accessdate=14 October 2018 }}</ref>
In October 2018, researchers at [[McMaster University]] on behalf of the [[Origins Institute]] announced the development of a new technology, called a ''[[Planet Simulator]]'', to help study the [[origin of life]] on planet [[Earth]] and beyond.<ref name="BW-20181004">{{cite news |last=Balch |first=Erica |title=Ground-breaking lab poised to unlock the mystery of the origins of life on Earth and beyond |url=https://brighterworld.mcmaster.ca/articles/ground-breaking-lab-poised-to-unlock-the-mystery-of-the-origins-of-life-on-earth-and-beyond/ |date=4 October 2018 |work=[[McMaster University]] |accessdate=4 October 2018 }}</ref><ref name="EA-20181004">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Ground-breaking lab poised to unlock the mystery of the origins of life |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-10/mu-glp100418.php |date=4 October 2018 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |accessdate=14 October 2018 }}</ref><ref name="IVG-2018">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Planet Simulator |url=https://www.intravisiongroup.com/planet-simulator |date=2018 |work=IntraVisionGroup.com |accessdate=14 October 2018 }}</ref><ref name="ES-209181014">{{cite web |last=Anderson |first=Paul Scott |title=New technology may help solve mystery of life's origins - How did life on Earth begin? A new technology, called Planet Simulator, might finally help solve the mystery. |url=http://earthsky.org/space/new-technology-solve-mystery-of-lifes-origins |date=14 October 2018 |work=[[EarthSky]] |accessdate=14 October 2018 }}</ref>
2018年10月，麦克马斯特大学（McMaster University）的研究人员代表起源研究所（Origins Institute）宣布开发一种新技术，名为“行星模拟器”（Planet Simulator），以帮助研究行星地球及其他星球上生命的起源。
==Amino acids identified氨基酸鉴定 ==
==Amino acids identified氨基酸鉴定 ==