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无编辑摘要
==Specific skills==
==Specific skills==
特殊技能
特殊技能
Adaptive behavior includes the age-appropriate behaviors necessary for people to live independently and to function safely and appropriately in daily life. Adaptive behaviors include life skills such as grooming, dressing, safety, food handling, working, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and the personal [[moral responsibility|responsibility]] expected of their age and [[social group]].<ref name="Heward">William Heward: ''Exceptional Children'' 2005</ref> Specific skills include:
Adaptive behavior includes the age-appropriate behaviors necessary for people to live independently and to function safely and appropriately in daily life. Adaptive behaviors include life skills such as grooming, dressing, safety, food handling, working, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and the personal [[moral responsibility|responsibility]] expected of their age and [[social group]]. Specific skills include:
Adaptive behavior includes the age-appropriate behaviors necessary for people to live independently and to function safely and appropriately in daily life. Adaptive behaviors include life skills such as grooming, dressing, safety, food handling, working, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and the personal responsibility expected of their age and social group. Specific skills include:
Adaptive behavior includes the age-appropriate behaviors necessary for people to live independently and to function safely and appropriately in daily life. Adaptive behaviors include life skills such as grooming, dressing, safety, food handling, working, money management, cleaning, making friends, social skills, and the personal responsibility expected of their age and social group. Specific skills include:
<font color="#ff8000"> 适应行为Adaptive behavior</font>是指人们在日常生活中独立生活、安全适当地发挥作用所必需的与年龄相适应的行为。适应行为包括生活技能，如梳洗、穿衣、安全、食物处理、工作、理财、清洁、交友、社交技能，以及根据他们的年龄和社会角色应承担的个人责任。具体技能包括:
<font color="#ff8000"> 适应行为Adaptive behavior</font>是指人们在日常生活中独立生活、安全适当地发挥作用所必需的与年龄相适应的行为。适应行为包括生活技能，如梳洗、穿衣、安全、食物处理、工作、理财、清洁、交友、社交技能，以及根据他们的年龄和社会角色<ref name="Heward">William Heward: ''Exceptional Children'' 2005</ref>应承担的个人责任。具体技能包括:
* '''Community access skills'''
* '''Community access skills'''
<font color="#32CD32">社区使用技能</font>
<font color="#32CD32">社区使用技能</font>
# Bus riding (Neef et al. 1978)<ref>Neef, A.N.; Iwata, B.A.; Page T.J. et al. (1978). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1311310/pdf/jaba00110-0019.pdf Public Transportation Skills. In vivo versus classroom instruction]. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 11, 331–4.</ref>
# Bus riding (Neef et al. 1978)
Bus riding (Neef et al. 1978)
Bus riding (Neef et al. 1978)
公共汽车乘坐(尼夫等，1978)
公共汽车乘坐(尼夫等，1978)<ref>Neef, A.N.; Iwata, B.A.; Page T.J. et al. (1978). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1311310/pdf/jaba00110-0019.pdf Public Transportation Skills. In vivo versus classroom instruction]. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 11, 331–4.</ref>
# Independent walking (Gruber et al. 1979)<ref>Gruber, B.; Reeser R.; Reid, D.H. (1979). Providing a less restrictive environment to retarded persons by teaching independent walking skills. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 12, 285–97.</ref>
# Independent walking (Gruber et al. 1979)
Independent walking (Gruber et al. 1979)
Independent walking (Gruber et al. 1979)
独立行走(格鲁伯等，1979)
独立行走(格鲁伯等，1979)<ref>Gruber, B.; Reeser R.; Reid, D.H. (1979). Providing a less restrictive environment to retarded persons by teaching independent walking skills. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 12, 285–97.</ref>
# Coin summation (Lowe and Cuvo, 1976; Miller et al. 1977)<ref>Lowe, M.L. & Cuvo, A.J. (1976). Teaching coin summation to the mentally retarded. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 9, 483–9.</ref>
# Coin summation (Lowe and Cuvo, 1976; Miller et al. 1977)
Coin summation (Lowe and Cuvo, 1976; Miller et al. 1977)
Coin summation (Lowe and Cuvo, 1976; Miller et al. 1977)
加总钱币(劳和科沃，1976年; 米勒等，1977)
加总钱币(劳和科沃，1976年; 米勒等，1977)<ref>Lowe, M.L. & Cuvo, A.J. (1976). Teaching coin summation to the mentally retarded. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 9, 483–9.</ref>
# Ordering food in a restaurant (Haring 1987)
# Ordering food in a restaurant (Haring 1987)
自动售货机的使用(斯普雷格和霍纳，1984年)
自动售货机的使用(斯普雷格和霍纳，1984年)
# Eating in public places (van den Pol at al. 1981)<ref>Van den Pol, R.A.; Iwata, B.A.; Ivancic M.T.; Page, T.J.; Neef N.A. & Whitley (1981). Teaching the handicapped to eat in public places: Acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of restaurant skills. ''JABA''. 14, 61–9.</ref>
# Eating in public places (van den Pol at al. 1981)
Eating in public places (van den Pol at al. 1981)
在公共场所进食(文登坡等，1981)<ref>Van den Pol, R.A.; Iwata, B.A.; Ivancic M.T.; Page, T.J.; Neef N.A. & Whitley (1981). Teaching the handicapped to eat in public places: Acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of restaurant skills. ''JABA''. 14, 61–9.</ref>
# Pedestrian safety (Page et al. 1976)
# Pedestrian safety (Page et al. 1976)
* '''Peer access and retention'''
* '''Peer access and retention'''
朋辈交流和<font color="#32CD32">友谊维持</font>
朋辈交流和<font color="#32CD32">友谊维持</font>
# Clothing selection skills (Nutter and Reid, 1978)<ref>Nutter D. & Reid D.H. (1978). Teaching retarded women a clothing selection skill using community norms. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 11, 475–87.</ref>
# Clothing selection skills (Nutter and Reid, 1978)
Clothing selection skills (Nutter and Reid, 1978)
Clothing selection skills (Nutter and Reid, 1978)
服装选择技巧(纳特和瑞德，1978)
服装选择技巧(纳特和瑞德，1978)<ref>Nutter D. & Reid D.H. (1978). Teaching retarded women a clothing selection skill using community norms. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 11, 475–87.</ref>
# Appropriate mealtime behaviors (McGrath et al. 2004; O'Brien et al. 1972; Wilson et al. 1984)<ref>McGrath, A.; Bosch, S.; Sullivan, C.; Fuqua, R.W. (2003). Teaching reciprocal social interactions between preschoolers and a child diagnosed with autism. ''Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions'', 5, 47–54.</ref><ref>O'Brien, F.; Bugle, C. & Azrin N.H. (1972). Training and maintaining a retarded child's proper eating. ''JABA'', 5, 67–72.</ref><ref>Wilson, P.G.; Reid, D.H.; Phillips, J.F. & Burgio, L.D. (1984). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1307933/pdf/jaba00032-0065.pdf Normalization of institutional mealtimes for profoundly retarded persons]. Effects and non-effects of teaching family-style dining. ''JABA'', 17, 189–201.</ref>
# Appropriate mealtime behaviors (McGrath et al. 2004; O'Brien et al. 1972; Wilson et al. 1984)
Appropriate mealtime behaviors (McGrath et al. 2004; O'Brien et al. 1972; Wilson et al. 1984)
Appropriate mealtime behaviors (McGrath et al. 2004; O'Brien et al. 1972; Wilson et al. 1984)
适当的进餐时间行为(麦克克里斯等，2004; 欧比伦等，1972; 威尔森等，1984)
适当的进餐时间行为(麦克克里斯<ref>McGrath, A.; Bosch, S.; Sullivan, C.; Fuqua, R.W. (2003). Teaching reciprocal social interactions between preschoolers and a child diagnosed with autism. ''Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions'', 5, 47–54.</ref><ref>O'Brien, F.; Bugle, C. & Azrin N.H. (1972). Training and maintaining a retarded child's proper eating. ''JABA'', 5, 67–72.</ref>等，2004; 欧比伦等，1972; 威尔森<ref>Wilson, P.G.; Reid, D.H.; Phillips, J.F. & Burgio, L.D. (1984). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1307933/pdf/jaba00032-0065.pdf Normalization of institutional mealtimes for profoundly retarded persons]. Effects and non-effects of teaching family-style dining. ''JABA'', 17, 189–201.</ref>等，1984)
# Toy play skills (Haring 1985) and playful activities (Lifter et al., 1993)<ref>Haring, T.G. (1985). Teaching between class generalization of toy play behavior to handicapped children. ''JABA'', 18, 127–39.</ref><ref>Lifter, K.; Sulzer-Azaroff, B.; Anderson, S.R. & Cowdery, G.E. (1993) Teaching Play Activities to Preschool Children with Disabilities: The Importance of Developmental Considerations. ''Journal of Early Intervention'', 17, 139–59.</ref>
# Toy play skills (Haring 1985) and playful activities (Lifter et al., 1993)
Toy play skills (Haring 1985) and playful activities (Lifter et al., 1993)
Toy play skills (Haring 1985) and playful activities (Lifter et al., 1993)
玩具使用技能(哈灵，1985)和好玩的活动(里伏特等，1993年)
玩具使用技能(哈灵<ref>Haring, T.G. (1985). Teaching between class generalization of toy play behavior to handicapped children. ''JABA'', 18, 127–39.</ref>，1985)和好玩的活动(里伏特<ref>Lifter, K.; Sulzer-Azaroff, B.; Anderson, S.R. & Cowdery, G.E. (1993) Teaching Play Activities to Preschool Children with Disabilities: The Importance of Developmental Considerations. ''Journal of Early Intervention'', 17, 139–59.</ref>等，1993年)
# Oral hygiene and teeth brushing (Singh et al., 1982; Horner & Keilitz, 1975)<ref>Singh, N.N.; Manning, P.J. & Angell M.J. (1982). Effects of an oral hyegene punishment procedure on chronic rumination and collateral behaviors in monozygous twins. ''JABA'', 15, 309–14.</ref><ref>Horner, R.D. & Keilitz, I. (1975). Training mentally retarded adolescents to brush their teeth. ''JABA'', 8, 301–9.</ref>
# Oral hygiene and teeth brushing (Singh et al., 1982; Horner & Keilitz, 1975)
Oral hygiene and teeth brushing (Singh et al., 1982; Horner & Keilitz, 1975)
Oral hygiene and teeth brushing (Singh et al., 1982; Horner & Keilitz, 1975)
口腔卫生和刷牙(辛格等，1982; 霍纳和科里兹，1975)
口腔卫生和刷牙(辛格<ref>Singh, N.N.; Manning, P.J. & Angell M.J. (1982). Effects of an oral hyegene punishment procedure on chronic rumination and collateral behaviors in monozygous twins. ''JABA'', 15, 309–14.</ref>等，1982; 霍纳和科里兹<ref>Horner, R.D. & Keilitz, I. (1975). Training mentally retarded adolescents to brush their teeth. ''JABA'', 8, 301–9.</ref>，1975)
# Soccer play (Luyben et al. 1986)
# Soccer play (Luyben et al. 1986)
Soccer play (Luyben et al.1986)
Soccer play (Luyben et al.1986)
Adaptive behaviors are considered to change due to the persons culture and surroundings. Professors have to delve into the students technical and comprehension skills to measure how adaptive their behavior is.<ref>{{cite web|title=Psychology: Adaptive Behavior |url=http://classof1.com/homework_answers/psychology/adaptive_behavior/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202113209/http://classof1.com/homework_answers/psychology/adaptive_behavior/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 February 2011 |accessdate=2 October 2011 }}</ref>
Adaptive behaviors are considered to change due to the persons culture and surroundings. Professors have to delve into the students technical and comprehension skills to measure how adaptive their behavior is.
Adaptive behaviors are considered to change due to the persons culture and surroundings. Professors have to delve into the students technical and comprehension skills to measure how adaptive their behavior is.
Adaptive behaviors are considered to change due to the persons culture and surroundings. Professors have to delve into the students technical and comprehension skills to measure how adaptive their behavior is.
适应行为被认为会随着人的文化和环境变化。教授们必须深入研究学生的技术性和理解性技能，以衡量他们的行为在多大程度上是适应性的。
适应行为被认为会随着人的文化和环境变化。教授们必须深入研究学生的技术性和理解性技能，以衡量他们的行为在多大程度上是适应性的。<ref>{{cite web|title=Psychology: Adaptive Behavior |url=http://classof1.com/homework_answers/psychology/adaptive_behavior/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110202113209/http://classof1.com/homework_answers/psychology/adaptive_behavior/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 February 2011 |accessdate=2 October 2011 }}</ref>
* '''Barriers to access to peers and communities'''
* '''Barriers to access to peers and communities'''
与同龄人和社会交流的障碍
与同龄人和社会交流的障碍
# Diurnal [[bruxism]] (Blount et al. 1982)<ref>Blount, R.L.; Drabman, R.S.; Wilson, N.; Stewart D. (1982). Reducing severe diurnal bruxism ib tw profoundly retarded females. ''JABA'', 15, 565–71.</ref>
# Diurnal [[bruxism]] (Blount et al. 1982)
Diurnal bruxism (Blount et al. 1982)
日间磨牙（布朗特等，1982）<ref>Blount, R.L.; Drabman, R.S.; Wilson, N.; Stewart D. (1982). Reducing severe diurnal bruxism ib tw profoundly retarded females. ''JABA'', 15, 565–71.</ref>
Diurnal bruxism (Blount et al.1982)
Diurnal bruxism (Blount et al.1982)
# Controlling [[rumination syndrome|rumination]] and vomiting (Kholenberg, 1970; Rast et al. 1981)<ref>Kholenberg (1970). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1311127/pdf/jaba00078-0013.pdf Punishment of persitent vomiting: A case study]. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 3, 241–5.</ref><ref>Rast, J.; Johnston, J.M.; Drum, C. & Corin, J. (1981). The relation of food quantity to rumination behavior. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 14, 121–30.</ref>
# Controlling [[rumination syndrome|rumination]] and vomiting (Kholenberg, 1970; Rast et al. 1981)
Controlling rumination and vomiting (Kholenberg, 1970; Rast et al. 1981)
Controlling rumination and vomiting (Kholenberg, 1970; Rast et al. 1981)
控制反刍和呕吐(诺伦伯格，1970; 拉斯特等，1981)
控制反刍和呕吐(诺伦伯格<ref>Kholenberg (1970). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1311127/pdf/jaba00078-0013.pdf Punishment of persitent vomiting: A case study]. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 3, 241–5.</ref>，1970; 拉斯特<ref>Rast, J.; Johnston, J.M.; Drum, C. & Corin, J. (1981). The relation of food quantity to rumination behavior. ''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'', 14, 121–30.</ref>等，1981)
# Pica (Mace and Knight, 1986)
# Pica (Mace and Knight, 1986)
== Practopoietic theory ==
== Practopoietic theory ==
<font color="#ff8000"> 拓扑理论</font>
<font color="#ff8000"> 拓扑理论</font>
According to '''practopoietic''' theory,<ref name=Nikolic2014>{{cite web|url=http://www.danko-nikolic.com/?smd_process_download=1&download_id=724|title=Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC].|author=Danko Nikolić|date=2014|accessdate=2014-06-06}}</ref> creation of adaptive behavior involves special, ''poietic'' interactions among different levels of system organization. These interactions are described on the basis of [[cybernetic]] theory in particular, [[good regulator]] theorem. In practopoietic systems, lower levels of organization determine the properties of higher levels of organization, but not the other way around. This ensures that lower levels of organization (e.g., genes) always possess cybernetically more general knowledge than the higher levels of organization—knowledge at a higher level being a special case of the knowledge at the lower level. At the highest level of organization lies the overt behavior. Cognitive operations lay in the middle parts of that hierarchy, above genes and below behavior. For behavior to be adaptive, at least three adaptive traverses are needed.
According to '''practopoietic''' theory, creation of adaptive behavior involves special, ''poietic'' interactions among different levels of system organization. These interactions are described on the basis of [[cybernetic]] theory in particular, [[good regulator]] theorem. In practopoietic systems, lower levels of organization determine the properties of higher levels of organization, but not the other way around. This ensures that lower levels of organization (e.g., genes) always possess cybernetically more general knowledge than the higher levels of organization—knowledge at a higher level being a special case of the knowledge at the lower level. At the highest level of organization lies the overt behavior. Cognitive operations lay in the middle parts of that hierarchy, above genes and below behavior. For behavior to be adaptive, at least three adaptive traverses are needed.
According to practopoietic theory, creation of adaptive behavior involves special, poietic interactions among different levels of system organization. These interactions are described on the basis of cybernetic theory in particular, good regulator theorem. In practopoietic systems, lower levels of organization determine the properties of higher levels of organization, but not the other way around. This ensures that lower levels of organization (e.g., genes) always possess cybernetically more general knowledge than the higher levels of organization—knowledge at a higher level being a special case of the knowledge at the lower level. At the highest level of organization lies the overt behavior. Cognitive operations lay in the middle parts of that hierarchy, above genes and below behavior. For behavior to be adaptive, at least three adaptive traverses are needed.
According to practopoietic theory, creation of adaptive behavior involves special, poietic interactions among different levels of system organization. These interactions are described on the basis of cybernetic theory in particular, good regulator theorem. In practopoietic systems, lower levels of organization determine the properties of higher levels of organization, but not the other way around. This ensures that lower levels of organization (e.g., genes) always possess cybernetically more general knowledge than the higher levels of organization—knowledge at a higher level being a special case of the knowledge at the lower level. At the highest level of organization lies the overt behavior. Cognitive operations lay in the middle parts of that hierarchy, above genes and below behavior. For behavior to be adaptive, at least three adaptive traverses are needed.
根据<font color="#ff8000"> 拓扑理论practopoietic theory/font>，适应行为的产生涉及到系统组织不同层次之间的特殊的、极性的相互作用。描述这些相互作用的基础是控制论，特别是良好的调节器定理。在拓扑系统中，系统组织的较低层次决定了系统组织较高层次的性质，而不是相反。这确保了系统组织的较低层次(例如，基因)总是比系统组织的较高层次拥有更多的控制意义上的一般知识——较高层次的知识是较低层次知识的特例。在组织的最高层次存在着明显的行为。认知运作位于这种等级制度的中间部分，在基因之上、行为之下。为了使行为具有适应性，我们至少需要三个适应性跨越。
根据<font color="#ff8000"> 拓扑理论practopoietic theory/font>，<ref name=Nikolic2014>{{cite web|url=http://www.danko-nikolic.com/?smd_process_download=1&download_id=724|title=Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC].|author=Danko Nikolić|date=2014|accessdate=2014-06-06}}</ref>适应行为的产生涉及到系统组织不同层次之间的特殊的、极性的相互作用。描述这些相互作用的基础是控制论，特别是良好的调节器定理。在拓扑系统中，系统组织的较低层次决定了系统组织较高层次的性质，而不是相反。这确保了系统组织的较低层次(例如，基因)总是比系统组织的较高层次拥有更多的控制意义上的一般知识——较高层次的知识是较低层次知识的特例。在组织的最高层次存在着明显的行为。认知运作位于这种等级制度的中间部分，在基因之上、行为之下。为了使行为具有适应性，我们至少需要三个适应性跨越。