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Moved page from wikipedia:en:Aristotle (history)
此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，翻译字数共10210，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。
{{short description|Classical Greek philosopher and polymath, founder of the Peripatetic School}}
{{other uses}}
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{{Use British English Oxford spelling|date=March 2020}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox philosopher
{{Infobox philosopher
{ Infobox 哲学家
| name=Aristotle
| name=Aristotle
名字 = 亚里士多德
| image=Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| image=Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
8575. jpg
| caption=Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Aristotle by [[Lysippos]], [[Circa|c.]] 330 BC, with modern [[alabaster]] [[mantle (clothing)|mantle]]
| caption=Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippos, c. 330 BC, with modern alabaster mantle
公元前330年，利西波斯用现代雪花石膏做的希腊亚里士多德半身铜像的罗马大理石复制品
| birth_date=384 BC{{efn-ua|That these dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown by [[August Boeckh]] (''Kleine Schriften'' VI 195); for further discussion, see [[Felix Jacoby]] on ''[[FGrHist]]'' 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'', Göteborg, 1957,{{p.|253}}}}
| birth_date=384 BC}}
384 BC }}
| birth_place=[[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidian League]]
| birth_place=Stagira, Chalcidian League
出生地: 查尔西迪亚联赛的斯塔吉拉
| death_date={{nowrap|322 BC (aged 61–62)}}
| death_date=
死亡日期
| death_place=[[Euboea]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Empire|Macedonian Empire]]
| death_place=Euboea, Macedonian Empire
死亡地点 = 埃维厄岛，马其顿王国
| predecessor=[[Plato]]
| predecessor=Plato
前任 = 柏拉图
| spouse=[[Pythias]]
| spouse=Pythias
| spouse=Pythias
| era=[[Ancient Greek philosophy]]
| era=Ancient Greek philosophy
古希腊哲学
| region=[[Western philosophy]]
| region=Western philosophy
| 地区 = 西方哲学
| school_tradition={{Flatlist}}
| school_tradition=
学校传统
* [[Peripatetic school]]
* [[Aristotelianism]]
* [[Classical republicanism]]
{{Endflatlist}}
| notable_students = [[Alexander the Great]], [[Theophrastus]]
| notable_students = Alexander the Great, Theophrastus
值得注意的学生 = 亚历山大大帝，Theophrastus
| main_interests={{Flatlist}}
| main_interests=
利益
* [[Biology]]
* [[Zoology]]
* [[Psychology]]{{sfn|Kantor|1963|page=116}}{{sfn|On the Soul}}
* [[Physics]]
* [[Metaphysics]]
* [[Logic]]
* [[Ethics]]
* [[Rhetoric]]
* [[Aesthetics]]
* [[Music]]
* [[Poetry]]
* [[Economics]]
* [[Politics]]
* [[Government]]
{{Endflatlist}}
| notable_ideas={{Flatlist}}
| notable_ideas=
值得注意的想法
* [[:Template:Aristotelianism|Aristotelian philosophy]]
* [[Syllogism]]
* [[On the Soul|Theory of the soul]]
* [[Virtue ethics]]
| influences={{Flatlist}}
| influences=
影响 =
* [[Plato]]
* [[Socrates]]
* [[Heraclitus]]
* [[Parmenides]]
* [[Empedocles]]
* [[Phaleas of Chalcedon|Phaleas]]
* [[Hippodamus of Miletus|Hippodamus]]
* [[Hippias]]
{{Endflatlist}}
| influenced={{longitem|Virtually all subsequent [[Western philosophy]], especially [[Aristotelianism]] e. g. [[Averroes]], [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]]. Also pre-[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] science (see [[List of writers influenced by Aristotle]])}}
| influenced=
影响 =
{{Endflatlist}}
}}
}}
}}
'''Aristotle''' ({{IPAc-en|ær|ɪ|s|ˈ|t|ɒ|t|əl}};{{sfn|Collins English Dictionary}} {{lang-grc-gre|Ἀριστοτέλης}} ''Aristotélēs'', {{IPA-grc|aristotélɛːs|pron}}; 384–322 BC) was a Greek [[philosopher]] and [[polymath]] during the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]] in [[Ancient Greece]]. Taught by [[Plato]], he was the founder of the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]], the [[Peripatetic school]] of philosophy, and the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] tradition. His writings cover many subjects including [[Physics (Aristotle)|physics]], [[biology]], [[zoology]], [[metaphysics]], [[logic]], [[ethics]], [[aesthetics]], [[Poetics (Aristotle)|poetry]], [[theatre]], [[music]], [[rhetoric]], [[psychology]], [[linguistics]], [[economics]], [[politics]], and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual [[lexicon]], as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
Aristotle (; Aristotélēs, ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
亚里士多德(Aristotle)是古希腊古典时期的希腊哲学家和博学家。在柏拉图的指导下，他创立了学院、哲学逍遥学派和亚里士多德传统。他的著作涉及许多学科，包括物理学、生物学、动物学、形而上学、逻辑学、伦理学、美学、诗歌、戏剧、音乐、修辞学、心理学、语言学、经济学、政治学和政府。亚里士多德对他之前存在的各种哲学进行了复杂的综合。最重要的是，正是从他的教义中，西方继承了其知识分子的词汇，以及问题和探究的方法。因此，他的哲学对西方几乎每一种形式的知识都产生了独特的影响，并且继续成为当代哲学讨论的主题。
Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]] in [[Northern Greece]]. His father, [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined [[Plato's Academy]] in [[Athens]] and remained there until the age of thirty-seven ([[Circa|c.]] 347 BC).{{sfn|Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}} Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of [[Philip II of Macedon]], tutored [[Alexander the Great]] beginning in 343 BC.{{sfn|Russell| 1972}} He established a library in the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on [[papyrus]] [[scrolls]]. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.{{sfn|Barnes|1995|p=9}}
Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.
关于他的生平我们知之甚少。亚里士多德出生于希腊北部的 Stagira。他的父亲，尼各马库斯，在亚里士多德还是个孩子的时候就去世了，他是由一位监护人抚养长大的。十七岁的时候，他加入了雅典的柏拉图学院，一直呆到37岁(约公元前347年)。在柏拉图死后不久，亚里士多德离开了雅典，在腓力二世的要求下，他从公元前343年开始辅导亚历山大大帝。他在学院里建立了一个图书馆，这个图书馆帮助他制作了数百本纸莎草卷轴方面的书籍。尽管亚里士多德写了许多优雅的论文和对话要出版，但是只有三分之一的原著保存下来，没有一本打算出版。
Aristotle's views on [[Aristotelian physics|physical science]] profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Early Middle Ages]] into the [[Renaissance]], and were not replaced systematically until [[Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]] and theories such as [[classical mechanics]] were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in [[Aristotle's biology|his biology]], such as on the [[Hectocotylus|hectocotyl (reproductive) arm]] of the [[octopus]], were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as [[Peter Abelard]] and [[John Buridan]]. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.
Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.
亚里士多德关于自然科学的观点深刻地影响了中世纪的学术。他们的影响从古代晚期和中世纪早期延伸到文艺复兴时期，直到启蒙运动和经典力学等理论的发展才被系统地取代。亚里士多德在他的生物学中发现的一些动物学观察，例如在章鱼的繁殖臂上发现的，直到19世纪才被人们所相信。他的著作包含了已知最早的逻辑学正式研究，研究的中世纪学者如彼得 · 阿伯拉尔和约翰 · 布里丹。亚里士多德对逻辑学的影响一直延续到19世纪。
He influenced [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)]] during the [[Middle Ages]], as well as [[Christian theology]], especially the [[Neoplatonism]] of the [[Early Church]] and the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]]. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like [[Thomas Aquinas]] as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of [[virtue ethics]], such as in the thinking of [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] and [[Philippa Foot]].
He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400) during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics, such as in the thinking of Alasdair MacIntyre and Philippa Foot.
他影响了犹太-伊斯兰哲学(800-1400)在中世纪，以及基督教神学，特别是新柏拉图主义的早期教会和经院传统的天主教会。亚里士多德在中世纪的穆斯林学者中被尊为“第一导师” ，在中世纪的基督徒如托马斯 · 阿奎那中被尊为“哲学家”。他的伦理学，尽管一直很有影响力，但随着现代美德伦理学的出现，例如阿拉斯代尔·麦金泰尔和菲利帕 · 福特的思想，又重新引起了人们的兴趣。
==Life==
[[File:20160518 092 mieza nympheum.jpg | thumb | left | School of Aristotle in [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]], [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia, Greece]]]]
Mieza, Macedonia, Greece]]
[希腊，马其顿]
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.{{efn-ua | See {{harvnb|Shields|2012|pp=3–16}}; {{harvnb|Düring|1957}} covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.}}
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.; covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.}}
一般来说，亚里士多德生平的细节并不完整。古代的传记往往是推测性的，历史学家只在几个要点上达成一致。包括亚里士多德的古代传记
Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,{{sfn|Campbell}}<!--better source desirable--> was born in 384 BC in [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidice]], about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]].{{sfn|McLeisch|1999|p=5}}{{sfn|Aristoteles-Park in Stagira}} His father [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]] was the personal physician to [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of Macedon]]. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] became his guardian.{{sfn|Hall|2018|p=14}} Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Kingship and the royal court|Macedonian monarchy]].{{sfn|Anagnostopoulos|2013|page=4}}
Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,<!--better source desirable--> was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.
亚里士多德，他的名字在古希腊语中的意思是“最好的目的” ，出生于公元前384年，Stagira，Chalcidice，距离现在的塞萨洛尼基大约55公里(34英里)。他的父亲尼古马库斯是马其顿国王阿敏塔斯的私人医生。亚里士多德的父母在他十三岁的时候就去世了，而来自阿塔尼厄斯的普罗齐诺斯成为了他的监护人。尽管关于亚里士多德童年的信息很少，但他可能在马其顿宫殿里呆过一段时间，与马其顿君主政体建立了第一次联系。
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at [[Platonic Academy|Plato's Academy]].{{sfn|Blits|1999|pp=58–63}} He probably experienced the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].{{sfn|Evans|2006}} Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew [[Speusippus]], although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.{{sfn|Aristotle|1984|pp=Introduction}} Aristotle then accompanied [[Xenocrates]] to the court of his friend [[Hermias of Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil [[Theophrastus]] to the island of [[Lesbos]], where together they researched the [[botany]] and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married [[Pythias]], either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor to his son [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]].{{sfn|Shields|2016}}{{sfn|Russell|1972}}
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν]. Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.
十七十八岁时，亚里士多德搬到雅典，在柏拉图学院继续他的学业。他可能经历过厄琉息斯秘仪，正如他在描述在厄琉息斯秘仪观察到的景象时所写的，“体验就是学习”[ παεθν αθν μθν ]。亚里士多德在雅典呆了将近20年，直到公元前348/47年离开。关于他离开的传统故事记载，他对学院在控制权传给柏拉图的侄子斯皮普斯之后的发展方向感到失望，尽管他可能害怕当时雅典的反马其顿情绪，并在柏拉图去世之前离开了。随后，亚里士多德陪同齐诺克利特来到他的朋友小亚细亚阿塔尼厄斯的赫米亚的宫廷。厄米亚斯死后，亚里士多德和他的学生泰奥弗拉斯特斯一起来到莱斯博斯岛，在那里他们一起研究了岛上及其环礁湖的植物学和动物学。在莱斯博斯岛的时候，亚里士多德娶了皮提亚斯，不是厄米斯的养女就是侄女。她给他生了一个女儿，他们也给她起名叫皮提亚。公元前343年，腓力二世邀请亚里士多德成为他儿子亚历山大的家庭教师。
[[File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg | thumb | upright | [[Bust (sculpture)|Portrait bust]] of Aristotle; an [[Roman Empire|Imperial Roman]] (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost [[bronze sculpture]] made by [[Lysippos]]]]
Portrait bust of Aristotle; an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos]]
亚里士多德的肖像半身像; 帝国罗马帝国(公元1或2世纪)仿制的遗失的青铜雕塑
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of [[Macedon]]. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Cassander]].{{sfn|Green|1991|pp=58–59}} Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards [[Persia]] was unabashedly [[Ethnocentricism|ethnocentric]]. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".{{sfn|Green|1991|pp=58–59}} By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]]. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with [[Herpyllis]] of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]]. If we believed the ''[[Suda]]'' (an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages) he may also had an ''[[eromenos|erômenos]]'', [[Palaephatus | Palaephatus of Abydus]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=88}}
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If we believed the Suda (an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages) he may also had an erômenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.
亚里士多德被任命为马其顿皇家学院院长。在亚里士多德在马其顿宫廷的时候，他不仅给亚历山大上课，还给另外两个未来的国王上课: 托勒密和卡山德。亚里士多德鼓励亚历山大征服东方，而亚里士多德自己对波斯的态度是毫不掩饰的种族中心主义。在一个著名的例子中，他建议亚历山大成为“希腊人的领袖，野蛮人的暴君，像照顾朋友和亲戚一样照顾前者，像对待动物或植物一样对待后者”。到公元前335年，亚里士多德回到雅典，在那里建立了他自己的学校，被称为学园。在接下来的十二年里，亚里士多德在学校里指导课程。在雅典期间，他的妻子皮提亚斯去世，亚里士多德与斯塔吉拉的赫皮利斯有染，后者为他生了一个儿子，以他父亲尼各马库斯的名字命名。如果我们相信苏达(中世纪的一个不严谨的汇编) ，他可能也有一个 erômenos，Palaephatus of Abydus。
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.{{sfn|Russell|1972}} He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in [[treatise]] form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[On the Soul]]'' and ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre."{{sfn|Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}}
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre."
公元前335年至公元前323年的雅典时期，被认为是亚里士多德创作许多作品的时期。他写了许多对话录，其中只有一些片段幸存了下来。那些保存下来的作品都是以论述的形式出版的，大部分并不打算广泛出版; 它们通常被认为是他的学生的讲座辅助工具。他最重要的论文包括《物理学》、《形而上学》、《尼各马可伦理学《政治学》、《论灵魂》和《诗学》。亚里士多德在“逻辑学、形而上学、数学、物理学、生物学、植物学、伦理学、政治学、农业、医学、舞蹈和戏剧学”方面做出了重大贡献
Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an [[Hagnothemis|unlikely claim]] made some six years after the death.{{sfn|Green|1991|p=460}} Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and [[Eurymedon the Hierophant]] reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,{{sfn|Filonik|2013|pp=72–73}} prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in [[Chalcis | Chalcis, on Euboea]], at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"{{sfn|Jones|1980|p=216}}{{sfn|Gigon|2017|p=41}}{{sfn|Düring|1957|p=T44a-e}} – a reference to Athens's [[Trial of Socrates|trial and execution of Socrates]]. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student [[Antipater]] as his chief [[executor]] and leaving a [[Will (law)|will]] in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.{{sfn|Haase|1992|p=3862}}
Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.
在他生命的最后阶段，亚历山大和亚里士多德因为亚历山大与波斯和波斯的关系而变得疏远。古代有一个广泛流传的传统，怀疑亚里士多德在亚历山大的死亡中扮演了一个角色，但是唯一能证明这一点的是亚里士多德死后大约六年的一个不太可能的断言。亚历山大死后，雅典的反马其顿情绪重新燃起。公元前322年，据说 Demophilus 和希罗芬特的 Eurymedon 谴责亚里士多德不敬神，促使他逃往他母亲在埃维厄岛哈尔基斯的家族庄园，据说当时他说: “我不允许雅典人两次违背哲学”——指的是雅典对苏格拉底的审判和处决。同年晚些时候，他因自然原因在埃维厄岛去世，任命他的学生安提帕特为他的首席遗嘱执行人，并留下一份遗嘱，要求与妻子葬在一起。
==Speculative philosophy==
===Logic===
{{main | Term logic}}
{{details | Non-Aristotelian logic}}
With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,{{sfn| Degnan | 1994 | pp=81–89}} and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in [[mathematical logic]].{{sfn| Corcoran | 2009 | pp=1–20}} [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] stated in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.{{sfn| Kant | 1787 | pages=Preface}}
With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.
在《先验分析学》一书中，亚里士多德被认为是最早研究形式逻辑的人，他对形式逻辑的概念一直是西方逻辑的主导形式，直到19世纪数理逻辑的发展。康德在《纯粹理性批判说，随着亚里士多德的逻辑达到了它的完成。
====''Organon''====
{{main | Organon}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
{| class="wikitable floatright"
{ | class = “ wikitable floatright”
|+ One of Aristotle's [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]]{{efn-ua|This [[Syllogism#Types|type of syllogism]], with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval) [[mnemonic]] [[Baralipton|B'''a'''rb'''a'''r'''a''']].{{sfn|Lagerlund|2016}}}}
|+ One of Aristotle's types of syllogism}}
| + 亚里士多德的三段论类型之一}
! In words !! In terms{{efn-ua|M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal).{{sfn|Lagerlund|2016}}}} !! In equations{{efn-ua|The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.'{{sfn|Predicate Logic}}}}
! In words !! In terms}} !! In equations}}
!用语言! ！用术语} ！方程式}
|-
|-
|-
| All men are mortal.<br><br> All Greeks are men.<br><br>[[Therefore sign|∴]] All Greeks are mortal.||M a P<br><br>S a M<br><br>S a P||[[File:Modus Barbara Equations.svg|180px]]
| All men are mortal.<br><br> All Greeks are men.<br><br>∴ All Greeks are mortal.||M a P<br><br>S a M<br><br>S a P||180px
所有的希腊人都是人。所有的希腊人都是凡人
|}
|}
|}
What we today call ''Aristotelian logic'' with its [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]] (methods of logical argument),{{sfn| Lagerlund | 2016}} Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the ''[[Organon]]'' around 40 BC by [[Andronicus of Rhodes]] or others among his followers.{{sfn| Pickover | 2009 | page=52}} The books are:
What we today call Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are:
今天我们称之为亚里士多德逻辑的三段论(逻辑论证的方法) ，亚里士多德自己可能会称之为“分析”。他所说的“逻辑”一词是指辩证法。亚里士多德的大部分作品可能并不是原来的形式，因为它很可能是由学生和后来的讲师编辑的。大约在公元前40年左右，亚里士多德及其追随者将他的逻辑著作汇编成了一套6本名为《罗德的尼克斯。这些书是:
# ''[[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]]''
Categories
类别
# ''[[On Interpretation]]''
On Interpretation
解释篇
# ''[[Prior Analytics]]''
Prior Analytics
优先分析
# ''[[Posterior Analytics]]''
Posterior Analytics
后分析篇
# ''[[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]]''
Topics
主题
# ''[[On Sophistical Refutations]]''[[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg | thumb | upright | [[Plato]] (left) and Aristotle in [[Raphael]]'s 1509 fresco, ''[[The School of Athens]]''. Aristotle holds his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' and gestures to the earth, representing his view in immanent realism, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''.{{sfn| School of Athens}}{{sfn|Stewart|2019}}]]
On Sophistical Refutations [[Plato (left) and Aristotle in Raphael's 1509 fresco, The School of Athens. Aristotle holds his Nicomachean Ethics and gestures to the earth, representing his view in immanent realism, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his Timaeus.]]
关于诡辩篇[拉斐尔1509年的壁画《雅典学派》中的柏拉图(左)和亚里士多德。亚里士多德举着他的尼各马可伦理学和手势指向大地，用内在的现实主义表达他的观点，而柏拉图举着手势指向天堂，表明他的形式理论，并举着他的蒂迈乌斯
The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics''){{sfn| Prior Analytics | pp= 24b18–20}}{{sfn| Bobzien | 2015}} and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The ''Rhetoric'' is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the ''Topics''.{{sfn| Smith | 2017}}
The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics.
这些书的顺序(或者说是它们的教义)并不确定，但是这个清单是从对亚里士多德著作的分析中得出的。它从基础、范畴中简单术语的分析、命题的分析以及它们之间的基本关系发展到解释篇中更为复杂的形式，即三段论和辩证诡辩篇。前三篇论文构成了严格意义上的逻辑理论的核心: 逻辑语言的语法和正确的推理规则。《修辞学》没有按照惯例包括在内，但它指出它依赖于《论题》。
===Metaphysics===
{{main|Metaphysics (Aristotle)}}
The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name ''Metaphysics''.{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}} Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (''theoretikē'') philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his ''Metaphysics'' (1026a16):
The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics. Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16):
“形而上学”这个词似乎是由公元一世纪的一位广告编辑创造的，他把亚里士多德的作品中的一些小片段汇编成我们所知的《形而上学》这篇论文。亚里士多德称之为“第一哲学” ，并把它与数学和自然科学(物理学)区别开来，称之为沉思(理论)哲学，即“神学”和研究神性。他在《形而上学》(1026a16)中写道:
{{quote | if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal ''in just this way'', because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.{{sfn| Aristotle | 1999 | page=111}}}}
==== Substance ====
{{see | Hylomorphism }}
Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] (''ousia'') and [[essence]] (''to ti ên einai'', "the what it was to be") in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called [[hylomorphism]]. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1043a 10–30}}{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}
Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.
亚里士多德在他的《形而上学》(第七卷)中研究了物质和本质的概念，他认为一个特定的物质是物质和形式的结合体，这是一个哲学理论，叫做亚同态论。在第八卷中，他区分了物质作为底层或构成它的东西的物质。例如，房子的物质是砖块、石头、木材等等，或者其他任何构成潜在房子的东西，而物质的形式是实际的房子，也就是‘覆盖身体和动产’或者任何其他让我们定义房子的差异。给出组分的公式是对物质的说明，给出差分的公式是对形式的说明。
===== Immanent realism =====
[[File:Platonic and Aristotelian Forms.svg | thumb | upright=1.6 | [[Plato]]'s [[Theory of forms|forms]] exist as [[universals]], like the ideal form of an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing ([[hylomorphism]]).]]
[[Plato's forms exist as universals, like the ideal form of an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing (hylomorphism).]]
柏拉图的形式作为普遍存在，就像苹果的理想形式一样。对于亚里士多德来说，物质和形式都属于个体的东西(亚同态论)
{{main|Aristotle's theory of universals}}
Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the [[Problem of universals|universal]]. Aristotle's [[ontology]] places the universal (''katholou'') in [[particular]]s (''kath' hekaston''), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what [[phenomena]] are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}
Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.
和他的老师柏拉图一样，亚里士多德的哲学也是以普遍性为目标的。亚里士多德的本体论把普遍性(天主教)放在具体的事物(凯斯的希卡斯顿)中，而对柏拉图来说，普遍性是实际事物模仿的一种单独的存在形式。对于亚里士多德来说，“形式”仍然是现象的基础，但是在一个特定的实体中“实例化”。
Plato argued that all things have a [[Theory of forms|universal form]], which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}{{sfn| Lloyd | 1968 | pages=43–47}}
Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.
柏拉图认为所有的事物都有一种普遍的形式，这种形式既可以是一种属性，也可以是与其他事物的关系。例如，当我们看一个苹果，我们看到一个苹果，我们也可以分析一个苹果的形状。在这个区别中，有一个特定的苹果和一个通用的苹果形式。此外，我们可以把苹果放在书的旁边，这样我们就可以说书和苹果是挨着的。柏拉图认为有一些普遍的形式不是特定事物的一部分。例如，有可能不存在特定的善，但“善”仍然是一种适当的普遍形式。亚里士多德不同意柏拉图在这一点上的观点，他认为所有的共相都是在某个时期实例化的，并且没有任何共相是独立于现有事物的。此外，亚里士多德不同意柏拉图关于共相的位置的观点。在柏拉图谈到形式世界时，亚里士多德认为，普遍性存在于每一个事物之中，每一个普遍性都是以这个事物为基础的。所以，根据亚里士多德的理论，苹果的形式存在于每个苹果中，而不是存在于形式的世界中。
===== Potentiality and actuality =====
{{see | Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)}}
With regard to the change (''[[Potentiality and actuality|kinesis]]'') and its causes now, as he defines in his ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' and ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'' 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:
With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:
关于现在的变化(动态)及其原因，正如他在《物理学》和《论生成与腐败》319b-320a 中所定义的那样，他将变化的来源区分为:
# growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;
growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;
增长和减少，即数量的变化;
# locomotion, which is change in space; and
locomotion, which is change in space; and
运动，即空间的变化; 以及
# alteration, which is change in quality.
alteration, which is change in quality.
改变，也就是质量的改变。
[[File:Flute-player dolphin Alcesti Group MAN.jpg | thumb | Aristotle argued that a capability like playing the flute could be acquired – [[Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)|the potential made actual]] – by learning.]]
the potential made actual – by learning.]]
[潜力实现-通过学习]
The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (''[[Dunamis|dynamis]]'') and actuality (''[[entelecheia]]'') in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (''dynamei'') plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (''poiein'') or 'be acted upon' (''paschein''), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (''telos'') is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}
The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.
形成是一种变化，其中没有任何东西持续存在，所产生的结果是一种属性。在这种特殊的变化中，他引入了与物质和形式相联系的潜在性(动力)和现实性(真实性)的概念。所谓潜能，是指一个事物在条件合适且不受其他事物阻碍的情况下，能够做或被做的事情。例如，土壤中植物的种子是潜在的(发电机)植物，如果没有什么东西阻止它，它就会变成植物。潜在的生命既可以“行动”(poiein) ，也可以“被行动”(paschein) ，这既可以是先天的，也可以是后天的。例如，眼睛具有视觉潜能(先天行为) ，而长笛演奏能力可以通过学习(练习动作)来实现。现实是潜能最终的实现。因为目的是一切变化的原则，而目的是潜在的，所以现实就是目的。然后参照我们前面的例子，我们可以说现状是当一个植物做植物做的活动之一。
{{quote | For that for the sake of which (''to hou heneka'') a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=IX 1050a 5–10}}}}
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a [[final cause]] or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to [[Plato]] there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1045a–b}}
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.
总而言之，房屋的物质具有作为房屋的潜力，建筑活动和最终房屋的形式都是现实，也是最终的原因或目的。然后亚里士多德进一步得出结论: 无论是在公式上，在时间上，还是在实体上，现实性都优于潜在性。亚里士多德对特定的物质(即物质和形式)下了这样的定义，他试图解决众生统一的问题，例如，“是什么使人合而为一? ”？既然根据柏拉图的理念有两种: 动物和两足动物，那么人又是如何统一的呢？然而，按照亚里士多德的说法，潜在的存在(物质)和实际的存在(形式)是一样的。
===Epistemology===
Aristotle's immanent realism means his [[epistemology]] is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal [[Theory of Forms|Forms]] (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these.{{sfn|Smith|2017}} Aristotle uses [[Inductive reasoning|induction]] from examples alongside [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]], whereas Plato relies on deduction from ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' principles.{{sfn|Smith|2017}}
Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori principles.
亚里士多德的内在实在论意味着他的认识论是建立在对世界上存在或发生的事物的研究之上的，并上升到对普遍性的认识，而柏拉图的认识论则是从对普遍形式(或思想)的认识开始，并下降到对这些特定的模仿的认识。亚里士多德在演绎推理的同时也使用例证的归纳，而柏拉图则依赖于先验原则的演绎推理。
==Natural philosophy==
Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences.{{sfn| Wildberg | 2016}} In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (''Metaphysics'' 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.{{sfn|Wildberg|2016}}
Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.
亚里士多德的“自然哲学”涵盖了广泛的自然现象，包括现在被物理学、生物学和其他自然科学所覆盖的自然现象。在亚里士多德的术语中，“自然哲学”是哲学的一个分支，研究自然世界的现象，包括今天被认为是物理学、生物学和其他自然科学的领域。亚里士多德的著作几乎涵盖了智力探究的所有方面。亚里士多德使广义的哲学与推理同时延伸，他也称之为“科学”。然而，请注意，他对“科学方法”一词的使用与“科学方法”一词所涵盖的含义不同。对于亚里士多德来说，“所有的科学(dianoia)要么是实践的，要么是诗意的，要么是理论的”(《形而上学》1025b25)。他的实践科学包括伦理学和政治学，他的诗学是包括诗学在内的美术学，他的理论科学包括物理学、数学和形而上学。
===Physics===
[[File:Four Classical Elements in Burning Log.svg | thumb | The four [[classical element]]s (fire, air, water, earth) of [[Empedocles]] and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.]]
The four [[classical elements (fire, air, water, earth) of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.]]
Empedocles 和亚里士多德的四元素(火、气、水、土)用燃烧的圆木来说明。日志在被销毁时释放所有四个元素。]
{{main | Aristotelian physics}}
====Five elements====
{{main | Classical element}}
In his ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'', Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by [[Empedocles]], [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], [[Water (classical element)|Water]], [[Air (classical element)|Air]], and [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly [[Aether (classical element)|Aether]], the divine substance of the [[Celestial spheres|heavenly spheres]], stars and planets.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1968 | pages=133–39, 166–69}}
In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets.
在《论世代与腐败》一书中，亚里士多德将恩培多克勒早期提出的四种元素---- 土、水、空气和火---- 中的每一种都与四种可感知的性质中的两种相联系，即热、冷、湿和干。在恩佩多克林计划中，所有物质都是由四种元素按不同的比例组成的。亚里士多德的方案增加了天上的以太，天上的球体，恒星和行星的神圣物质。
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
{ | class = “ wikitable”
|+ [[Classical element|Aristotle's elements]]{{sfn|Lloyd|1968|pages=133–39, 166–69}}
|+ Aristotle's elements
| + 亚里士多德的元素
! Element !!{{font color|red|Hot}}/{{font color|blue|Cold}} !!{{font color|green|Wet}}/{{font color|brown|Dry}} !! Motion !! Modern [[State of matter|state<br>of matter]]
! Element !!/ !!/ !! Motion !! Modern state<br>of matter
!元素！!/ !!/ !!动作! ！物质的现代状态
|-
|-
|-
|'''[[Earth (classical element)|Earth]]'''||{{font color|blue|Cold}}||{{font color|brown|Dry}}||Down||[[Solid]]
|Earth||||||Down||Solid
地球固体
|-
|-
|-
|'''[[Water (classical element)|Water]]'''||{{font color|blue|Cold}}||{{font color|green|Wet}}||Down||[[Liquid]]
|Water||||||Down||Liquid
水下液体
|-
|-
|-
|'''[[Air (classical element)|Air]]'''||{{font color|red|Hot}}||{{font color|green|Wet}}||Up||[[Gas]]
|Air||||||Up||Gas
空气上升气体
|-
|-
|-
|'''[[Fire (classical element)|Fire]]'''||{{font color|red|Hot}}||{{font color|brown|Dry}}||Up||[[Plasma (physics)|Plasma]]
|Fire||||||Up||Plasma
启动等离子体
|-
|-
|-
|'''[[Aether (classical element)|Aether]]'''||(divine<br>substance)||—||Circular<br>(in heavens)||—
|Aether||(divine<br>substance)||—||Circular<br>(in heavens)||—
| 乙醚 | | (神圣的物质) | | | ー | | 圆形的 < br > (在天堂) | | | ー
|}
|}
|}
====Motion====
{{see | History of classical mechanics}}
Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the ''Physics'' (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in ''On the Heavens'' (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also; in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,{{sfn| Allain | 2016}}{{efn-ua | Rhett Allain notes that [[Newton's First Law]] is "essentially a direct reply to Aristotle, that the natural state is ''not to change'' motion.{{sfn| Allain | 2016}}}} since Aristotle does not address [[friction]].{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}{{efn-ua | Leonard Susskind comments that Aristotle had clearly never gone [[ice skating]] or he would have seen that it takes force to stop an object.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}}} This would imply the equation{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}
Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also; in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,}} since Aristotle does not address friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.}} This would imply the equation
亚里士多德描述了两种运动: “猛烈的”或“非自然的运动” ，例如物理学中的扔石头(254b10) ，以及“自然运动” ，例如天空中的坠落物(300a20)。在剧烈运动中，一旦施动者停止引起，运动也停止; 换句话说，一个物体的自然状态是静止，}因为亚里士多德没有提到摩擦。基于这种理解，我们可以观察到，正如亚里士多德所说，重物(比如地面上的物体)需要更大的力才能使其移动，而受到更大力推动的物体移动得更快这将意味着等式
:: <math>F=mv</math>,
<math>F=mv</math>,
“数学” = “数学”
incorrect in modern physics.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}
incorrect in modern physics.
在现代物理学中是错误的。
Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,{{efn-ua | For heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon, and stars, the observed motions are "to a very good approximation" circular around the Earth's centre, (for example, the apparent rotation of the sky because of the rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the moon around the Earth) as Aristotle stated.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}}} while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}{{efn-ua | Drabkin quotes numerous passages from ''Physics'' and ''On the Heavens'' (''De Caelo'') which state Aristotle's laws of motion.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}}}
Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,}} while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.}}
自然运动取决于相关元素: 以太自然地围绕天空运动，}而4个 Empedoclean 元素垂直向上(如火，被观察到)或向下(如地球)朝向它们的自然栖息地。}
[[File:Aristotle's laws of motion.svg | thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle's laws of motion. In ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}]]
Physics he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in. This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.]]
物理学上，他认为物体下落的速度与它们的重量成正比，与它们所浸没的液体的密度成反比。这是地球引力场中在空气或水中运动的物体的正确近似值。]
In the ''Physics'' (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,{{efn-ua | Drabkin agrees that density is treated quantitatively in this passage, but without a sharp definition of density as weight per unit volume.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}}} ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}
In the Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,}} ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:
在《物理学》(215a25)中，亚里士多德有效地阐述了一个定量定律，即物体下落的速度 v 与其重量 w 成正比(例如，与常数 c 成正比) ，与其下落的流体密度成反比:
:: <math>v=c\frac{W}{\rho}</math>
<math>v=c\frac{W}{\rho}</math>
[ math > v = c frac { w }{ rho } </math >
Aristotle implies that in a [[vacuum]] the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view"{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative,{{sfn| Carteron | 1923 | pages=1–32 and passim}} but other authors reject this.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}
Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this.
亚里士多德暗示，在真空中，坠落的速度将是无限的，并从这个表面的荒谬得出结论，真空是不可能存在的。关于亚里士多德是否打算陈述定量法则，人们的意见各不相同。亨利 · 卡特龙持有“极端观点” ，认为亚里士多德的力的概念基本上是定性的，但其他作者拒绝这一点。
[[Archimedes]] corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they [[Archimedes' principle|displace enough water]]; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}
Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.
阿基米德纠正了亚里士多德的理论，即物体朝着它们自然休息的地方移动; 金属船只如果置换了足够多的水就能浮起来; 浮起取决于物体的质量和体积，而不是亚里士多德认为的基本构成。
Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the [[Early Modern]] period. [[John Philoponus]] (in the [[Middle Ages]]) and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.{{sfn| Wildberg | 2016}} A contrary opinion is given by [[Carlo Rovelli]], who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the [[Earth]]'s gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}{{efn-ua | Philoponus and Galileo correctly objected that for the transient phase (still increasing in speed) with heavy objects falling a short distance, the law does not apply: Galileo used balls on a short incline to show this. Rovelli notes that "Two heavy balls with the same shape and different weight do fall at different speeds from an aeroplane, confirming Aristotle's theory, not Galileo's."{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}}}
Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.}}
亚里士多德关于运动的著作一直影响到近代早期。约翰 · 菲洛普诺斯(中世纪)和伽利略据说通过实验证明，亚里士多德声称重物比轻物体下落得快的说法是错误的。他认为亚里士多德关于运动的物理学在其有效性的范围内是正确的，即地球引力场中的物体浸没在空气这样的流体中。在这个系统中，稳定下落的重物体确实比轻物体运动得更快(不管摩擦力是否被忽略) ，而且它们在密度更大的介质中下落得更慢。}
Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval [[theory of impetus]].{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}
Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.
牛顿的“强迫”运动相当于亚里士多德的“暴力”运动及其外部因素，但亚里士多德的假设，该因素的影响立即停止它停止行动(例如，球离开投掷者的手)有尴尬的后果: 他必须假设周围的液体有助于推动球沿着，使它继续上升，即使手不再作用于它，导致中世纪的冲力说。
====Four causes====
{{main | Four causes}}
[[File:Aristotle's Four Causes of a Table.svg | thumb | upright=1.6 | Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from [[four causes]]: in the case of a table, the wood used ([[material cause]]), its design ([[formal cause]]), the tools and techniques used ([[efficient cause]]), and its decorative or practical purpose ([[final cause]]).{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=88–90}}]]
Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from [[four causes: in the case of a table, the wood used (material cause), its design (formal cause), the tools and techniques used (efficient cause), and its decorative or practical purpose (final cause).]]
亚里士多德用木制品作类比，认为一件东西的形状来源于[[四个原因: 就桌子而言，使用的木材(材料原因) ，其设计(形式原因) ，使用的工具和技术(有效原因) ，以及其装饰性或实际目的(最终原因)]
Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term ''aitia'' is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}}{{sfn| Hankinson | 1998 | page=159}}
Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.
亚里士多德认为，任何事物产生的原因可以归结为四种不同类型的同时活跃的因素。他的术语 aitia 传统上被翻译为“原因” ，但它并不总是指时间顺序; 它可能更好地翻译为“解释” ，但传统的解释将在这里使用。
* [[Material cause]] describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}}
* The [[formal cause]] is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}}
* The [[efficient cause]] is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}} In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of [[developmental biology|how it develops from the egg]], and [[physiology|how its body functions]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=91–92, 369–73}}
* The [[final cause]] (''telos'') is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}} In the case of living things, it implies [[adaptation]] to a particular way of life.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=91–92, 369–73}}
====Optics====
{{further | History of optics}}
Aristotle describes experiments in [[optics]] using a [[camera obscura]] in ''[[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]]'', book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small [[aperture]] that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.{{sfn| Lahanas}}
Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.
亚里士多德在《问题》第15卷中描述了用暗箱进行光学实验的情况。这个装置包括一个带有小孔的暗室，可以让光线进入。有了它，他发现无论他创造了什么形状的洞，太阳的形象总是保持圆形。他还指出，增加光圈和图像表面之间的距离放大了图像。
====Chance and spontaneity====
{{further | Accident (philosophy)}}
According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of [[Accident (philosophy)|accidental things]], "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.{{sfn| Physics | p=2.6}}{{sfn| Miller | 1973 | pp=204–13}}
According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.
根据亚里士多德的观点，自发性和偶然性是某些事情的原因，与其他类型的原因，如简单的必然性是有区别的。偶然作为一种偶然的原因存在于偶然事物的领域，“来自于自发的”。还有一种特殊的机会，亚里士多德称之为“运气” ，它只适用于人们的道德选择。
===Astronomy===
{{further | History of astronomy}}
In [[astronomy]], Aristotle refuted [[Democritus]]'s claim that the [[Milky Way]] was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."{{sfn| Meteorology | p=1. 8}}
In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."
在天文学领域，亚里士多德驳斥了德谟克利特的观点，即银河系是由“那些被地球遮蔽的恒星，它们不受太阳光线的影响”构成的。亚里士多德正确地指出，如果“太阳的大小大于地球的大小，而恒星与地球的距离比太阳大许多倍，那么... ... 太阳照耀着所有的恒星，而地球却不遮挡任何一颗恒星。”
[[File:DenglerSW-Stromboli-20040928-1230x800.jpg | thumb | Aristotle noted that the ground level of the [[Aeolian islands]] changed before a [[volcanic eruption]].]]
Aristotle noted that the ground level of the [[Aeolian islands changed before a volcanic eruption.]]
亚里士多德注意到[[伊奥利亚群岛在火山喷发类型之前改变了]]的地平面
===Geology===
{{further | History of geology}}
Aristotle was one of the first people to record any [[geology|geological]] observations. He stated that [[Uniformitarianism|geological change]] was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.{{sfn| Moore | 1956 | page=13}}{{sfn| Meteorology | p=Book 1, Part 14}}
Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.
亚里士多德是最早记录地质观测的人之一。他说，地质变化过于缓慢，无法在一个人的一生中观察到。
The geologist [[Charles Lyell]] noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the [[Nile delta]] since the time of [[Homer]], and "the upheaving of one of the [[Aeolian islands]], previous to a [[volcanic eruption]]."'{{sfn| Lyell | 1832 | page=17}}
The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."'
地质学家 Charles Lyell 指出，亚里士多德描述了这种变化，包括“干涸的湖泊”和“被河流灌溉的沙漠” ，举例说明自荷马时代以来尼罗河三角洲的增长，以及“伊奥利亚群岛中的一个岛屿在火山喷发类型之前隆起”
===Biology===
{{main | Aristotle's biology}}
[[File:Tremoctopus violaceus5.jpg | thumb | upright | Among many pioneering zoological observations, Aristotle described the reproductive [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]] of the [[octopus]] (bottom left).]]
hectocotyl arm of the octopus (bottom left).]]
[章鱼的手臂(左下)]
====Empirical research====
Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically,{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=7}} and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of [[Lesbos]] and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=14}}{{sfn| Thompson | 1910 | page=Prefatory Note}} His data in ''[[History of Animals]]'', ''[[Generation of Animals]]'', ''[[Movement of Animals]]'', and ''[[Parts of Animals]]'' are assembled from his own observations,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/darwins-ghosts-by-rebecca-stott-7808310.html|title=Darwin's Ghosts, By Rebecca Stott
Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.
亚里士多德是第一个系统地研究生物学的人，生物学构成了他作品的很大一部分。他花了两年时间观察和描述莱斯博斯岛和周围海域的生态环境，特别是莱斯博斯岛中心的皮拉泻湖。他在《动物史》、《动物的世代》、《动物的运动》和《动物的部分》中的数据是根据他自己的观察、养蜂人和渔民等具有专业知识的人给出的陈述以及来自海外的旅行者提供的不太准确的描述汇编而成的。他明显强调动物而不是植物是一个历史偶然: 他的植物学著作已经遗失，但他的学生 Theophrastus 写的两本植物书却保存了下来。
|website=independent.co.uk|date=2 June 2012
|access-date=19 June 2012}}</ref> statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=196, 248}} His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on [[botany]] have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.{{sfn| Day | 2013 | pp=5805–16}}
Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.
亚里士多德通过对莱斯博斯岛的观察和渔民的捕获来描述海洋生物。他详细地描述了鲶鱼、电鳐和蛙鱼，以及章鱼和纸鹦鹉螺等头足类动物。直到19世纪，人们才广泛相信他所描述的头足类动物中的百克/胚轴臂，这一说法在20世纪有性生殖被广泛使用。他准确地描述了反刍动物的四腔前胃和猎鲨的卵胎生胚胎发育。
Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the [[catfish]], [[electric ray]], and [[frogfish]] in detail, as well as [[cephalopod]]s such as the [[octopus]] and [[paper nautilus]]. His description of the [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]] of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=66–74, 137}} He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of [[ruminant]]s,{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=118–19}} and of the [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]] embryological development of the [[hound shark]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=73}}
He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct.
他指出，动物的结构与功能非常匹配，因此，在鸟类中，生活在软泥沼泽、以捕鱼为生的苍鹭，有着长长的脖子和长长的腿，以及锋利的矛状喙，而会游泳的鸭子则有短短的腿和有蹼的脚。达尔文也注意到了相似种类动物之间的这些差异，但不像亚里士多德利用这些数据得出了进化论。在现代读者看来，亚里士多德的著作似乎暗示了进化论，但当亚里士多德意识到新的突变或杂交可能会发生时，他认为这些都是罕见的偶然事件。对于亚里士多德来说，意外事故，就像冬天的热浪一样，必须区别于自然原因。因此，他批评了恩培多克勒的唯物主义理论，即生物及其器官起源于适者生存，并嘲笑意外事故可能导致有序结果的观点。用现代术语来说，他并没有说不同的物种可以有共同的祖先，或者一种可以变成另一种，或者一种可以灭绝。
He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the [[heron]], which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas [[duck]]s that swim have short legs and webbed feet.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=135–36}} [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of [[evolution]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=206}} Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or [[Hybridisation (biology)|hybridizations]] could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results.{{sfn| Sedley | 2007 | page=189}} To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a [[common descent|common ancestor]], or that one kind can [[speciation|change into another]], or that kinds can become [[extinction|extinct]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=273}}
Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that [[brood size decreases with body mass, whereas gestation period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.]]
亚里士多德从他对动物的观察中推断出生长规律，其中包括[繁殖数量随体重减少，而妊娠期增加。他的这些预测是正确的，至少对哺乳动物来说是正确的: 数据显示的是老鼠和大象。]
====Scientific style====
[[File:Two of Aristotle's Growth Laws.svg | thumb | left | upright=1.4 | Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that [[brood size]] decreases with body mass, whereas [[gestation]] period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.]]
Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.
亚里士多德没有做现代意义上的实验。他用古希腊术语 peiramenoi 来表示观察，或者至多是像解剖这样的调查性手术。在《动物世代》一书中，他找到一个受精鸡蛋的适当阶段，打开它，看到胚胎的心脏在里面跳动。
Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense.{{sfn| Taylor | 1922 | page=42}} He used the ancient Greek term ''pepeiramenoi'' to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=361–65}} In ''Generation of Animals'', he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.{{sfn| Leroi | 2011}}{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=197–200}}
Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.
相反，他实践了一种不同的科学风格: 系统地收集数据，发现整个动物群体的共同模式，并从中推断可能的因果解释。这种风格在现代生物学中很常见，当大量数据在一个新的领域(如基因组学)可用时。它没有产生与实验科学相同的确定性，但它提出了可检验的假说，并对观察到的事物建立了叙述性的解释。从这个意义上说，亚里士多德的生物学是科学的。
Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=365–68}}{{sfn| Taylor | 1922 | page=49}} This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as [[genomics]]. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=365–68}}
From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.
从他收集和记录的数据中，亚里士多德推断出许多他所研究的四足动物(陆生胎盘哺乳动物)生活史特征的规律。以下是正确的预测。幼体大小随着(成年)体重的增加而减少，因此大象每窝产下的幼体(通常只有一个)比老鼠少。寿命随着妊娠期和体重的增加而延长，因此大象比老鼠活得更长，妊娠期更长，体重也更重。最后一个例子是，繁殖力随着寿命的延长而减少，所以像大象这样的长寿种类的幼崽总数要少于像老鼠这样的短寿种类。
From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of [[biological rules|rules]] relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. [[Life expectancy|Lifespan]] increases with [[gestation period]], and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, [[fecundity]] decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=408}}{{-}}
====Classification of living things====
Aristotle recorded that the [[embryo of <!--a different species shown-->a dogfish was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.]]
亚里士多德记录到[[另一种鱼的胚胎]角鲨鱼像高等动物一样被一根细绳连接到一种胎盘(卵黄囊)上，这是从最高到最低的线形鳞片的例外]
{{further | Scala naturae}}
[[File:Scyliorhinus retifer embryo.JPG | thumb | Aristotle recorded that the [[embryo]] of [[Mustelus canis|<!--a different species shown-->a dogfish]] was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the [[yolk sac]]), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=72–74}}]]
Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a scala naturae, with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals. see also: He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle,<!--Leroi | p= 113--> is convergent evolution. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.
亚里士多德区分了大约500种动物，将它们按照完美的等级排列在《动物史》一书中---- 一种自然史诗，其中人类居首。他的系统有十一个等级的动物，从最高的潜力到最低的，表现在他们出生的形式: 最高产生活热和潮湿的生物，最低产生寒冷，干燥的矿物质样的蛋。动物高于植物，而植物又高于矿物。另见: 他将现代动物学家所称的脊椎动物归类为更热的“有血动物” ，其次是较冷的无脊椎动物“无血动物”。那些有血的被分为活的(哺乳动物)和产卵的(鸟类，爬行动物，鱼类)。那些没有血液的是昆虫，甲壳动物(非壳头足类和有壳)和硬壳软体动物(双壳类和腹足类)。他认识到动物并不完全符合一个线性尺度，并注意到各种例外，例如鲨鱼有一个像四足动物一样的胎盘。对于一个现代生物学家来说，亚里士多德无法得到的解释是: 趋同演化。他认为，目的性的最终原因指导着所有的自然过程; 这种目的论的观点证明了他的观察数据是形式设计的表达。
Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of [[animal]]s,{{sfn| Bergstrom | Dugatkin | 2012 | page=35}}{{sfn| Rhodes | 1974 | page=7}} arranging these in the ''History of Animals'' in a graded scale of perfection, a ''[[scala naturae]]'', with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave [[viviparity|live birth]] to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above [[plant]]s, and these in turn were above minerals.{{sfn| Mayr | 1982 | pages=201–02}} see also:{{sfn| Lovejoy | 1976}} He grouped what the modern zoologist would call [[vertebrate]]s as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder [[invertebrate]]s as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing ([[mammal]]s), and the egg-laying ([[bird]]s, [[reptile]]s, [[fish]]). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and [[crustacea|shelled]]) and the hard-shelled [[mollusc]]s ([[bivalve]]s and [[gastropod]]s). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a [[placenta]] like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle,<!--Leroi | p= 113--> is [[convergent evolution]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=111–19}} He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this [[teleological]] view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | pp=43–44}}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%;"
{ | class = “ wikitable” style = “ font-size: 80% ; ”
|+ Aristotle's Scala naturae (highest to lowest)
| + 亚里士多德的自然史卡拉(最高到最低)
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%;"
! Group !! Examples<br>(given by Aristotle) !! Blood !! Legs !! Souls<br>(Rational,<br>Sensitive,<br>Vegetative) !! Qualities<br>(–,<br>–)
!集合! ！例子 < br > (由亚里士多德给出) ! ！血! ！腿! ！灵魂(理性，敏感，植物人) ! ！质量 < br > (- ，< br > -)
|+ Aristotle's ''[[Scala naturae]]'' (highest to lowest)
|-
|-
! Group !! Examples<br>(given by Aristotle) !! Blood !! Legs !! Souls<br>(Rational,<br>Sensitive,<br>Vegetative) !! Qualities<br>({{font color|red|Hot}}–{{font color|blue|Cold}},<br>{{font color|green|Wet}}–{{font color|brown|Dry}})
|Man||Man||with blood||2 legs||R, S, V||,
两条腿上有血的男人,
|-
|-
|-
|Man||Man||with blood||2 legs||R, S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}
|Live-bearing tetrapods||Cat, hare||with blood||4 legs||S, V||,
四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足
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|[[Mammal|Live-bearing tetrapods]]||Cat, [[hare]]||with blood||4 legs||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}
|Cetaceans||Dolphin, whale||with blood||none||S, V||,
鲸目动物海豚，鲸鱼，带有血液,
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|[[Cetaceans]]||[[Dolphin]], [[whale]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}
|Birds||Bee-eater, nightjar||with blood||2 legs||S, V||, , except eggs
蜂虎鸟，夜鹰，有血的两条腿，除了蛋
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|[[Birds]]||[[Bee-eater]], [[nightjar]]||with blood||2 legs||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, except {{font color|brown|Dry}} eggs
|Egg-laying tetrapods||Chameleon, crocodile||with blood||4 legs||S, V||, except scales, eggs
有血的变色龙，鳄鱼，4条腿，除了鳞片，蛋
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|[[Reptile|Egg-laying tetrapods]]||[[Chameleon]], [[crocodile]]||with blood||4 legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs
|Snakes||Water snake, Ottoman viper||with blood||none||S, V||, except scales, eggs
蛇水蛇奥斯曼毒蛇无血，只有鳞片和卵
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|[[Snakes]]||Water snake, [[Ottoman viper]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs
|Egg-laying fishes||Sea bass, parrotfish||with blood||none||S, V||, , including eggs
产卵鱼产卵鱼产卵鲈鱼，鹦嘴鱼，包括卵
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|Egg-laying [[fish]]es||[[Sea bass]], [[Sparisoma cretense|parrotfish]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, including eggs
|(Among the egg-laying fishes):<br>placental selachians||Shark, skate||with blood||none||S, V||, , but placenta like tetrapods
产卵鱼类中的胎盘类，鲨鱼，带血的鳐鱼，但胎盘类四足动物
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|(Among the egg-laying fishes):<br>placental [[selachian]]s||[[Shark]], [[Skate (fish)|skate]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, but [[placenta]] like tetrapods
|Crustaceans||Shrimp, crab||without||many legs||S, V||, except shell
甲壳类动物虾，蟹，无多条腿，除外壳
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|[[Crustaceans]]||[[Shrimp]], [[crab]]||without||many legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except shell
|Cephalopods||Squid, octopus||without||tentacles||S, V||,
章鱼，没有触须,
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|[[Cephalopods]]||[[Squid]], [[octopus]]||without||tentacles||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}
|Hard-shelled animals||Cockle, trumpet snail||without||none||S, V||, (mineral shell)
硬壳动物(矿物外壳)
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|[[Mollusc|Hard-shelled animals]]||[[Cockle (bivalve)|Cockle]], [[Charonia variegata|trumpet snail]]||without||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} (mineral shell)
|Larva-bearing insects||Ant, cicada||without||6 legs||S, V||,
蚂蚁，蝉，没有6条腿,
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|Larva-bearing insects||[[Ant]], [[cicada]]||without||6 legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}}
|Spontaneously-generating||Sponges, worms||without||none||S, V||, or , from earth
从地球上自发产生的海绵体，蠕虫
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|[[Spontaneous generation|Spontaneously-generating]]||[[Sponges]], [[worm]]s||without||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} or {{font color|brown|Dry}}, from earth
|Plants||Fig||without||none||V||,
植物没有无花果,
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|[[Plants]]||[[Common fig|Fig]]||without||none||V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}}
|Minerals||Iron||without||none||none||,
没有矿物没有铁，没有铁,
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|[[Mineral]]s||Iron||without||none||none||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}}
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===Psychology===
====Soul====
structure for souls of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.]]
植物，动物和人类灵魂的结构，使得人类拥有三种灵魂。]
{{further | On the Soul}}
[[File:Aristotelian Soul.png | thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle proposed a three-part [[Soul#Aristotle|structure for souls]] of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.]]
Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psychēs), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and logos (reason).
亚里士多德的心理学在他的论文《论灵魂》中提出了三种灵魂(“心理”) : 植物人的灵魂、敏感的灵魂和理性的灵魂。人类有理性的灵魂。人类的灵魂吸收了其他种类的力量: 就像植物人的灵魂一样，它可以生长并滋养自己; 就像敏感的灵魂一样，它可以体验感觉并在当地活动。人类理性灵魂的独特之处在于它能够接受其他事物的形式，并用理性(智力)和理性(理性)进行比较。
Aristotle's [[psychology]], given in his treatise ''[[On the Soul]]'' (''peri psychēs''), posits three kinds of [[soul]] ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the ''[[Nous#Aristotle|nous]]'' (intellect) and ''logos'' (reason).{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=156–63}}
For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.
对亚里士多德来说，灵魂是生命的形式。因为所有的生命都是形式和物质的组合，所以生命的形式就是赋予他们特定于生命的东西。启动运动的能力(或者在植物的情况下，生长和化学转化，亚里士多德认为运动的类型)。与早期的哲学家不同，但是和埃及人一样，他把理性的灵魂放在心里，而不是大脑。值得注意的是亚里士多德对感觉和思想的划分，这通常不同于以前的哲学家的概念，除了 Alcmaeon。
For Aristotle, the soul is the [[Hylomorphism#Body–soul hylomorphism|form]] of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).{{sfn| Shields | 2016}} In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p=45}} Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]].{{sfn| Guthrie | 2010 | p=348}}
====Memory====
According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian 'common sense', and thinking.
根据亚里士多德在《论灵魂》一书中的观点，记忆是一种能够在头脑中持有一种感知的经验，并且能够区分内在的“表象”和过去发生的事情。换句话说，记忆是一种可以恢复的心理图像(幻觉)。亚里士多德认为，为了形成记忆，半流体的身体器官会经历几次变化。当刺激如图像或声音如此复杂，以至于神经系统不能立即接收所有的印象时，记忆就产生了。这些变化与感觉、亚里士多德的“常识”和思维的运作相同。
According to Aristotle in ''On the Soul'', memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.{{sfn| Bloch | 2007 | p=12}} In other words, a memory is a mental picture ([[wikt:phantasm|phantasm]]) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when [[stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian '[[common sense]]', and thinking.{{sfn| Bloch | 2007 | p=61}}{{sfn| Carruthers | 2007 | p=16}}
Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.
亚里士多德使用记忆这个术语来描述可以从感觉发展出来的印象中对经验的实际记忆，以及伴随印象而来的智力焦虑，因为它是在特定的时间形成的，并处理特定的内容。记忆是关于过去的，预测是关于未来的，感觉是关于现在的。印象的提取不能突然进行。我们需要一个过渡性的渠道，这个渠道位于我们过去的经验中，既是为了我们过去的经验，也是为了我们现在的经验。
Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.{{sfn| Bloch | 2007 | p=25}}
Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.
因为亚里士多德认为人们接受各种感官知觉，并把它们看作是印象，所以人们不断地将新的经验印象编织在一起。为了寻找这些印象，人们寻找记忆本身。在记忆中，如果一个经历被提供而不是一个特定的记忆，那个人会拒绝这个经历，直到他们找到他们想要的。当一个被提取的经验自然地跟随着另一个经验时，回忆就产生了。如果需要一连串的“影像” ，一个记忆会刺激下一个。当人们回忆起经历时，他们刺激某些先前的经历，直到他们到达需要的那一个。因此，回忆是对储存在记忆印象中的信息进行检索的自主活动。只有人类才能记住对智力活动的印象，比如数字和单词。具有时间感知能力的动物可以恢复他们过去观察到的记忆。记忆只涉及对所记住的事物和过去的时间的感知。
Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=30}} Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=25}} Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression.{{sfn| Carruthers | 2007 | p=19}} Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=296}}
Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the [[sensorium (the heart), linked by his laws of association (similarity, contrast, and contiguity).]]
亚里士多德心理学中的感官、知觉、记忆、梦境、行为。印象被储存在[感觉中枢(心脏) ，由他的联想法则(相似性、对比度和接触性)联系起来]。]
[[File:Aristotle Senses Perception Memory Dreams Action.svg | thumb | upright=2.3 | Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the [[sensorium]] (the heart), linked by his [[laws of association]] (similarity, contrast, and [[Contiguity (psychology)|contiguity]]).]]
Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.
亚里士多德认为，思维链，即以回忆某些印象为终点的思维链，与他的联想法则所描述的相似性、对比性和接近性等关系有着系统的联系。亚里士多德认为过去的经验隐藏在心灵深处。一股力量运作，唤醒隐藏的材料，带来实际的体验。根据亚里士多德的观点，联想是精神状态中与生俱来的力量，它作用于过去未表达的经验残余，使它们能够上升并被唤起。
Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and [[Contiguity (psychology)|contiguity]], described in his [[laws of association]]. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=259}}{{sfn | Sorabji | 2006 | p=54}}
====Dreams====
{{see | Dream#Classical history}}
Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness. Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary.
亚里士多德在《论睡眠与觉醒》中描述了睡眠。睡眠是由于过度使用感官或消化系统的结果，所以它对身体至关重要。当一个人睡着的时候，包括思考、感知、回忆和记忆在内的重要活动并不像清醒时那样起作用。因为一个人在睡眠中不能感觉到他们不能有欲望，这是感觉的结果。然而，感官能够在睡眠中工作，虽然不同，除非他们是疲倦的。
Aristotle describes sleep in ''On Sleep and Wakefulness''.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} or of digestion,{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} so it is vital to the body.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep,{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} albeit differently,{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} unless they are weary.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}}
Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then look away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature. In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia.
梦实际上并不包括感知刺激。在梦中，感觉仍然存在，只是方式有所改变。亚里士多德解释说，当一个人盯着一个移动的刺激物，比如水体中的波浪，然后看向别处，他们看到的下一个东西似乎是波动的。当一个人感知到一个刺激物，而这个刺激物不再是他们注意力的焦点时，就会留下一个印象。当身体是清醒的，感官功能正常，一个人不断遇到新的刺激，以感知，所以以前感知的刺激印象被忽略。然而，在睡眠过程中，由于没有新的分散注意力的感官体验，全天的印象都会被注意到。所以，梦是由这些持久的印象产生的。由于印象是所有留下的，而不是确切的刺激，梦并不类似于实际的清醒经验。在睡眠中，一个人的精神状态发生了改变。亚里士多德把一个沉睡的人比作一个对刺激有强烈感情的人。例如，一个对某人有着强烈迷恋的人可能会开始认为他们在任何地方都能看到那个人，因为他们被自己的感觉所控制。由于睡眠者处于易受影响的状态，无法做出判断，他们很容易被梦中出现的东西所欺骗，就像痴迷的人一样。这使人相信梦是真实的，即使梦本质上是荒谬的。在《德阿尼玛三世》3中，亚里士多德把创造、储存和回忆图像的能力归因于想象力的缺失---- 幻觉。
Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then look away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience.{{sfn| Modrak | 2009 | pp=169–81}} During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} In ''De Anima'' iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, ''phantasia''.{{sfn| Shields | 2016}}
One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.
亚里士多德关于梦的理论的一个组成部分不同意以前人们持有的观点。他声称梦不是预言，也不是神的旨意。亚里士多德自然地推断，梦与未来事件相似的事例只是巧合。亚里士多德声称，一个人在经历梦境时处于睡眠状态，这一事实首先确立了梦的存在。如果一个人在醒来后有一个画面出现了一会儿，或者如果他们在黑暗中看到了什么东西，那么这个画面就不被认为是一个梦，因为它发生时他们是醒着的。其次，当一个人睡着时所感知到的任何感官体验都不属于梦的一部分。例如，当一个人睡觉时，一扇门关上了，在他们的梦中他们听到一扇门关上了，这种感官体验不是梦的一部分。最后，梦境的图像必须是清醒时感官体验的持久印象的结果。
One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences.{{sfn| Webb | 1990 | pages=174–84}} Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.{{sfn| Modrak | 2009 | pp=169–81}}
==Practical philosophy==
Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.
亚里士多德的实践哲学涵盖了伦理学、政治学、经济学和修辞学等领域。
Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.{{sfn| Wildberg | 2016}}
{| class="wikitable floatright" align=right style="font-size: 80%;"
{ | class = “ wikitable floatright” align = right style = “ font-size: 80% ;
|+ Virtues and their accompanying vices
| + 美德及其相伴的恶习
{| class="wikitable floatright" align=right style="font-size: 80%;"
! Too little !! Virtuous mean !! Too much
!太少了！有德行的卑鄙！太多了
|+ Virtues and their accompanying vices{{sfn|Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}}
|-
|-
! Too little !! Virtuous mean !! Too much
|Humbleness||High-mindedness||Vainglory
|Humbleness||High-mindedness||Vainglory
|-
|-
|-
|Humbleness||High-mindedness||Vainglory
|Lack of purpose||Right ambition||Over-ambition
缺乏目标正确的雄心过于雄心勃勃
|-
|-
|-
|Lack of purpose||Right ambition||Over-ambition
|Spiritlessness||Good temper||Irascibility
无精打采脾气好脾气暴躁
|-
|-
|-
|Spiritlessness||Good temper||Irascibility
|Rudeness||Civility||Obsequiousness
粗鲁，礼貌，谄媚
|-
|-
|-
|Rudeness||Civility||Obsequiousness
|Cowardice||Courage||Rashness
懦弱，勇气，鲁莽
|-
|-
|-
|Cowardice||Courage||Rashness
|Insensibility||Self-control||Intemperance
不敏感 | | 自我控制 | | 放纵
|-
|-
|-
|Insensibility||Self-control||Intemperance
|Sarcasm||Sincerity||Boastfulness
真诚自夸
|-
|-
|-
|Sarcasm||Sincerity||Boastfulness
|Boorishness||Wit||Buffoonery
|Boorishness||Wit||Buffoonery
|-
|-
|-
|Boorishness||Wit||Buffoonery
|Shamelessness||Modesty||Shyness
羞耻，羞怯
|-
|-
|-
|Shamelessness||Modesty||Shyness
|Callousness||Just resentment||Spitefulness
冷漠，怨恨，恶意
|-
|-
|-
|Callousness||Just resentment||Spitefulness
|Pettiness||Generosity||Vulgarity
琐碎慷慨粗俗
|-
|-
|-
|Pettiness||Generosity||Vulgarity
|Meanness||Liberality||Wastefulness
吝啬自由浪费
|-
|}
|}
|Meanness||Liberality||Wastefulness
|}
Aristotelian just war theory is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "natural slavery" would undermine civic freedom. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks'".
亚里士多德的正义战争理论在当今并不受到重视，尤其是他认为战争是奴役“天生的奴隶”的观点。在亚里士多德的哲学中，他认为“自然奴隶制”的废除会破坏公民自由。追求自由与追求对”那些应当成为奴隶的人”的控制是分不开的。根据《亚里士多德政治学的剑桥指南》 ，这场侵略战争的目标是非希腊人，注意到亚里士多德的观点，即“我们的诗人说‘希腊人统治非希腊人是适当的”’。
===Just war theory===
Aristotelian [[just war theory]] is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "[[natural slavery]]" would undermine civic [[freedom]]. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to ''The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics'' the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks'".{{sfn|Deslauriers|Destrée|2013|pp=157-162}}
Aristotle generally has a favourable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defense. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).
亚里士多德通常对战争持赞成态度，称赞战争是美德的契机，并写道，“随着和平而来的闲暇”往往使人们变得“傲慢”。“避免成为他人的奴隶”的战争被认为是正当防卫。他写道，战争“迫使人们变得公正和温和” ，然而，为了公正，“必须为了和平而选择战争”(上面讨论的侵略战争除外)。
Aristotle generally has a favourable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for [[virtue]] and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defense. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).{{sfn|Deslauriers|Destrée|2013|pp=157-162}}
===Ethics===
{{main | Aristotelian ethics}}
Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics.
亚里士多德认为伦理学是一门实践性而非理论性的研究，也就是说，一门旨在变得善良和行善的学科，而不是仅仅为了知道而知道。他写了几篇关于伦理学的论文，其中最著名的是《尼各马可伦理学。
Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''.{{sfn| Kraut | 2001}}
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.
亚里士多德教导说，美德与事物的正确功能(ergon)有关。一只眼睛只有在它能看到的范围内才是一只好眼睛，因为眼睛的正常功能是视觉。亚里士多德认为，人类必须具有一种特定于人类的功能，而这种功能必须是一种与理性(逻各斯)相一致的灵魂活动。亚里士多德认为，人类所有深思熟虑的行为——幸福——的目的，都是为了实现心灵的这种最佳活动(在与之相伴的过度或不足的恶习之间的良性平衡) ，通常被翻译为“幸福”或有时“幸福”。要以这种方式拥有永远幸福的潜力，就必须要有一个好的品格(thik aret) ，通常被翻译为道德或伦理上的美德或卓越。
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (''ergon'') of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the ''[[De Anima|psuchē]]'' (''soul'') in accordance with reason (''[[logos]]''). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency{{sfn| Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}}) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, ''[[eudaimonia]]'', generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (''ēthikē'' ''[[arete (moral virtue)|aretē]]''), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.{{sfn| Nicomachean Ethics | ps= Book I. See for example chapter 7.}}
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.
亚里士多德告诉我们，要想拥有一个美德和潜在的幸福品质，需要一个第一阶段的幸运，不是刻意去习惯，而是由老师和经验，导致一个人有意识地选择做最好的事情的后期阶段。当最优秀的人以这种方式生活时，他们的实践智慧(实践智慧)和理性智慧(理性智慧)可以相互发展，朝着人类最高可能的美德、成就卓著的理论或思辨思想家的智慧，或者换句话说，哲学家的智慧发展。
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (''[[phronesis]]'') and their intellect (''[[nous]]'') can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.{{sfn| Nicomachean Ethics | p= Book VI}}
===Politics===
{{main | Politics (Aristotle)}}
In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part". He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.
除了他关于伦理学的著作，涉及到个人，亚里士多德在他的著作《政治》中也涉及到城市。亚里士多德认为城市是一个自然的社区。此外，他认为城市对家庭的重要性优先于个人，”因为整体必须优先于部分”。他有句名言: “人天生就是一种政治动物” ，并认为在动物王国中，人类的决定性因素是其合理性。亚里士多德认为政治是一个有机体，而不是一个机器，是一个部件的集合，没有其他部件就不能存在。亚里士多德的城市概念是有机的，他被认为是最早以这种方式构思城市的人之一。
In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".{{sfn| Politics | pp=1253a19–24}} He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality.{{sfn| Aristotle | 2009 | pages=320–21}} Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.{{sfn| Ebenstein | Ebenstein | 2002 | page=59}}
Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions
亚里士多德对政治宪法的分类
[[File:Aristotle's constitutions.svg | thumb|upright=1.7 | Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions]]
The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia)<!-- (1252a1) -->. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability<!-- (1280b29–31) -->, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together<!-- (1281a1–3) -->." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."
现代人对政治共同体作为一个现代国家的共同理解，与亚里士多德的理解大相径庭。尽管他意识到更大帝国的存在和潜力，但是根据亚里士多德的理论，自然共同体是城市(城邦) ，其功能是作为一个政治“共同体”或“伙伴关系”(koin nia)。这座城市的目的不仅仅是避免不公正或者维持经济稳定，而是至少让一些公民有机会过上好日子，做出美好的行为: “因此，必须把政治伙伴关系看作是为了高尚的行为，而不是为了共同生活。”这不同于现代方法，从社会契约理论开始，根据这种理论，个人离开自然状态是因为”害怕暴力死亡”或其”不便”
The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (''[[polis]]'') which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (''koinōnia'')<!-- (1252a1) -->. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability<!-- (1280b29–31) -->, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together<!-- (1281a1–3) -->." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with [[social contract]] theory, according to which individuals leave the [[state of nature]] because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."{{efn-ua | For a different reading of social and economic processes in the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' and ''Politics'' see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in ''Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi'' ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115.}}
In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states:
在《 Protrepticus 》中，亚里士多德这样写道:
In ''[[Protrepticus (Aristotle)|Protrepticus]]'', the character 'Aristotle' states:{{sfn| Hutchinson | Johnson | 2015 | p=22}}
{{quote | For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.{{sfn| Hutchinson | Johnson | 2015 | p=22}}}}
===Economics===
{{main | Politics (Aristotle)}}
Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.
亚里士多德对经济学思想，尤其是中世纪的经济学思想做出了重大贡献。在《政治学》一书中，亚里士多德论述了城市、财产和贸易。在莱昂内尔 · 罗宾斯看来，他对私有财产批评的回应，预示了后来哲学家和经济学家中私有财产的支持者，因为它关系到社会安排的整体效用。亚里士多德认为，尽管公共安排似乎对社会有益，尽管私有财产常常被指责为社会冲突的罪魁祸首，但这些罪恶实际上来自人性。在《政治学》一书中，亚里士多德提出了关于货币起源的最早的解释之一。货币的使用是因为人们变得相互依赖，进口他们需要的东西，输出剩余。为了方便起见，人们随后同意交易本质上有用且易于使用的东西，比如铁或银。
Aristotle made substantial contributions to [[economics|economic thought]], especially to thought in the Middle Ages.{{sfn| Robbins | 2000 | pages=20–24}} In ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', Aristotle addresses the city, [[property]], and [[trade]]. His response to criticisms of [[private property]], in [[Lionel Robbins]]'s view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall [[utility]] of social arrangements.{{sfn| Robbins | 2000 | pages=20–24}} Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from [[human nature]]. In ''Politics'', Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of [[money]].{{sfn| Robbins | 2000 | pages=20–24}} Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or [[silver]].{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}}
Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.
亚里士多德关于零售和利息的讨论对中世纪的经济思想产生了重大影响。他不看好零售业，认为零售业不是用钱来购买管理家庭所需要的东西，而是谋求利润。因此，它使用商品作为达到目的的手段，而不是作为自身的目的。他认为零售业这样做是不自然的。类似地，亚里士多德认为通过非自然的兴趣来获利，因为它从货币本身而不是从货币的使用中获利。
Aristotle's discussions on [[retail]] and [[interest]] was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a [[profit (economics)|profit]]. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}}
Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".
亚里士多德总结了货币的功能，对于他那个时代来说，这个概念可能是非常早熟的。他写道，因为不可能通过计算每件商品的价值来确定每件商品的价值，所以必须要有一个单一的通用计量标准。因此，货币允许不同商品之间的联系，并使它们“可以通约”。他接着说，货币对于未来交换也很有用，使之成为一种安全保障。也就是说，“如果我们现在不需要一样东西，那么当我们确实需要它的时候，我们就能够得到它”。
Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable".{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}} He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}}
The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) by [[Bénigne Gagneraux. In his Poetics, Aristotle uses the tragedy Oedipus Tyrannus by Sophocles as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some hamartia (fault).]]
失明的俄狄浦斯将自己的孩子推荐给上帝(1784)作者: [班尼涅·加哥诺斯。在《诗学》一书中，亚里士多德以索福克勒斯的悲剧《俄狄浦斯王》为例，说明完美的悲剧应该是怎样构建的，一个通常很好的主人公开始了戏剧的繁荣，但是因为一些缺陷而失去了一切
===Rhetoric and poetics===
[[File:Bénigne Gagneraux, The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods.jpg | thumb | upright=1.3 | ''The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods'' (1784) by [[Bénigne Gagneraux]]. In his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'', Aristotle uses the tragedy ''[[Oedipus Rex|Oedipus Tyrannus]]'' by [[Sophocles]] as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some ''[[hamartia]]'' (fault).{{sfn| Kaufmann | 1968 | pages=56–60}}]]
{{main | Rhetoric (Aristotle) | Poetics (Aristotle)}}
Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example).
亚里士多德的修辞学提出，一个演讲者可以使用三种基本的诉求来说服他的听众: 民族精神(诉诸于演讲者的性格) ，感伤(诉诸于听众的情感)和理性(诉诸于逻辑推理)。他还将修辞分为三种类型: 富于词藻的(处理赞扬或指责的仪式性演讲)、法医性演讲(关于有罪或无辜的司法性演讲)和审议性演讲(呼吁听众就一个问题做出决定的演讲)。亚里士多德还概述了两种修辞上的证明: 推理论证(通过三段论证明)和并列证明(通过例证证明)。
Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ''[[ethos]]'' (an appeal to the speaker's character), ''[[pathos]]'' (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and ''[[logos]]'' (an appeal to logical reasoning).{{sfn| Garver | 1994 | pages=109–10}} He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: [[epideictic]] (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), [[Forensic rhetoric|forensic]] (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and [[Deliberative rhetoric|deliberative]] (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue).{{sfn| Rorty | 1996 | pages=3–7}} Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical [[Proof (truth)|proofs]]: ''[[enthymeme]]'' (proof by [[syllogism]]) and ''[[paradeigma]]'' (proof by example).{{sfn| Grimaldi | 1998 | p=71}}
Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.
亚里士多德在他的《诗学》中写道，史诗、悲剧、喜剧、酒神诗歌、绘画、雕塑、音乐和舞蹈从根本上说都是模仿的行为(“模仿”) ，每一种都因媒介、对象和方式的不同而不同。他认为，观众对模仿的实现对于理解作品本身至关重要。亚里士多德指出，模仿是人类区别于动物的一种自然本能，所有人类的艺术“遵循自然的模式”。正因为如此，亚里士多德相信，每一种模仿艺术都拥有斯蒂芬 · 哈利维尔所说的“达到目的的高度结构化的程序”例如，音乐模仿节奏和和谐的媒介，而舞蹈模仿节奏，诗歌模仿语言。各种形式的模仿对象也各不相同。例如，喜剧是对比一般人差的男人的戏剧性模仿; 而悲剧模仿的男人比一般人好一点。最后，形式的模仿方式不同——通过叙事或人物，通过改变或不改变，通过戏剧或不戏剧。
Aristotle writes in his ''Poetics'' that [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]], painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of ''[[mimesis]]'' ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}}{{sfn| Poetics | p= I 1447a}} He applies the term ''mimesis'' both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} and contends that the audience's realisation of the ''mimesis'' is vital to understanding the work itself.{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} Aristotle states that ''mimesis'' is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}}{{sfn| Poetics | p= IV}} and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature".{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what [[Stephen Halliwell (academic)|Stephen Halliwell]] calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes."{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.{{sfn| Poetics | p=III}}
While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.
虽然人们认为亚里士多德的《诗学》最初包括两本书——一本是关于喜剧的，一本是关于悲剧的——但是只有关于悲剧的部分保存了下来。亚里士多德认为悲剧由六个要素组成: 情节结构、人物、风格、思想、景观和抒情诗。悲剧中的人物只不过是推动故事发展的一种手段; 悲剧的主要焦点是情节，而不是人物。悲剧是对引起怜悯和恐惧的行为的模仿，是为了宣泄同样的情感。亚里士多德在《诗学》的结尾部分讨论了哪一个更好: 史诗还是悲剧模仿。他认为，由于悲剧具有史诗的所有属性，可能具有诸如景观和音乐等附加属性，更加统一，并在较短的范围内实现了模仿的目的，因此可以认为悲剧优于史诗。亚里士多德热衷于系统地收集谜语、民间传说和谚语; 他和他的学派对特尔菲神谕的谜语特别感兴趣，并研究伊索寓言。
While it is believed that Aristotle's ''Poetics'' originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.{{sfn| Poetics | p=VI}} The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the [[catharsis]] of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes ''Poetics'' with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.{{sfn| Poetics | p=XXVI}} Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].{{sfn| Aesop | 1998 | pages=Introduction, xi–xii}}
===Views on women===
{{main | Aristotle's views on women}}
{{further | Aristotle's biology#Inheritance}}
Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.}}
亚里士多德对生育的分析描述了一种主动的、赋予灵魂的男性元素，将生命赋予一种惰性的、被动的女性元素。基于这个理由，女权主义形而上学的支持者指责亚里士多德厌恶女性和性别歧视。然而，亚里士多德对女人的幸福和对男人的幸福给予了同等的重视，并在他的修辞学中评论说，通向幸福的东西需要男人和女人一样
Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of [[feminist metaphysics]] have accused Aristotle of [[misogyny]]{{sfn| Freeland | 1998}} and [[sexism]].{{sfn| Morsink | 1979 | pp=83–112}} However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his ''Rhetoric'' that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.{{efn-ua | "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt."{{sfn| Rhetoric | p=Book I, Chapter 5}}}}
==Influence==
{{see | List of writers influenced by Aristotle}}
More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,<!----> pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".
在亚里士多德去世2300多年后，他仍然是有史以来最有影响力的人物之一。他对当时存在的人类知识的几乎每一个领域都做出了贡献，他还是许多新领域的创始人。根据哲学家布莱恩 · 马吉(Bryan Magee)的说法，“是否有人像他一样知道这么多是值得怀疑的。”。在无数的成就中，亚里士多德是形式逻辑的创始人，他是动物学研究的先驱，他对科学方法的贡献让每一个未来的科学家和哲学家都感激不尽。Taneli Kukkonen 在《古典传统》一书中写道，他在创立两门科学方面的成就是无与伦比的，他影响“知识事业的每一个分支” ，包括西方伦理和政治理论、神学、修辞学和文学分析的影响也同样长久。因此，Kukkonen 认为，今天对现实的任何分析“几乎肯定会带有亚里士多德的暗示... ... 证明思维异常强大。”乔纳森•巴恩斯(Jonathan Barnes)写道: “对亚里士多德的智力来世的描述，与欧洲思想史无异。”。
More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | p=8}}{{sfn| Aristotle's Influence | 2018}} He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher [[Bryan Magee]], "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".{{sfn| Magee | 2010 | page=34}} Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of [[formal logic]],{{sfn| Guthrie | 1990 | page=156}}<!--{{sfn| Case | p=518}}--> pioneered the study of [[zoology]], and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.{{sfn| Aristotle (Greek philosopher)}}{{sfn| Durant | 2006 | page=92}}{{sfn| Kukkonen | 2010 | pages=70–77}} Taneli Kukkonen, writing in ''The Classical Tradition'', observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind."{{sfn| Kukkonen | 2010 | pages=70–77}} [[Jonathan Barnes]] wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".{{sfn| Barnes | 1982 | page=86}}
===On his successor, Theophrastus===
Frontispiece to a 1644 version of Theophrastus's Historia Plantarum, originally written around 300 BC]]
1644年版本的忒奥弗拉斯特斯植物史，最初写于公元前300年]
{{main | Theophrastus | Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)}}
[[File:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg | thumb | upright | [[Book frontispiece|Frontispiece]] to a 1644 version of [[Theophrastus]]'s ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]'', originally written around 300 BC]]
Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber.
亚里士多德的学生和继承者泰奥弗拉斯特斯写了植物学史，这是一部植物学的开创性著作。他的一些技术术语仍然在使用，如心皮从心皮，水果，和果皮，从外皮，种子室。
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.
与亚里士多德相比，泰奥弗拉斯特斯对形式原因的关注要少得多，而是实用地描述了植物是如何运作的。
Aristotle's pupil and successor, [[Theophrastus]], wrote the ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|History of Plants]]'', a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as [[carpel]] from ''carpos'', fruit, and [[pericarp]], from ''pericarpion'', seed chamber.{{sfn| Hooker | 1831 | page=219}}
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.{{sfn| Mayr | 1982 | pp= 90–91}}{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p= 46}}
===On later Greek philosophers===
{{further | Peripatetic school}}
The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"
当 Lyceum 发展成为逍遥学派时，亚里士多德的作品立即产生了影响。亚里士多德著名的学生包括亚里士多德、狄卡伊尔库斯、法勒鲁姆的德米特里、罗得岛的尤德莫斯、哈帕卢斯、 Hephaestion、 Phocis 的姆纳松、尼各马库斯和泰奥弗拉斯特斯。亚里士多德对亚历山大大帝的影响可以从后者带来的大批动物学家、植物学家和研究人员看出。他还从他的老师那里学到了很多关于波斯习俗和传统的知识。尽管他对亚里士多德的尊敬因为他的旅行清楚地表明，亚里士多德的许多地理学理论显然是错误的而有所减弱，但当这位老哲学家向公众发表他的作品时，亚历山大抱怨道: “你没有很好地发表你的精神学说，因为如果我所接受的那些学说是所有人的共同财产，那么我还能在什么方面超越其他人呢? ”
The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the [[Peripatetic school]]. Aristotle's notable students included [[Aristoxenus]], [[Dicaearchus]], [[Demetrius of Phalerum]], [[Eudemos of Rhodes]], [[Harpalus]], [[Hephaestion]], [[Mnason of Phocis]], [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"{{sfn| Plutarch | 1919 | p= Part 1, 7:7}}
===On Hellenistic science===
{{details | Ancient Greek medicine}}
After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.
在泰奥弗拉斯特斯之后，Lyceum 未能创作出任何原创作品。尽管人们对亚里士多德思想的兴趣依然存在，但他们通常毫无疑问地接受了这些思想。直到托勒密统治下的亚历山大时代，生物学的进步才得以重见天日。
After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.{{sfn| Annas | 2001 | page=252}} It is not until the age of [[Alexandria]] under the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemies]] that advances in biology can be again found.
The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."
亚历山大的第一位医学教师，来自卡尔西登的赫罗菲勒斯，纠正了亚里士多德的错误，将智慧植入大脑，并将神经系统与运动和感觉联系起来。赫罗菲勒斯还区分了静脉和动脉，注意到后者是脉搏，而前者不是。尽管一些古代原子论者，如 Lucretius，挑战了亚里士多德关于生命的目的论观点，目的论(以及基督教兴起后的自然神学)在本质上仍然是生物学思想的核心，直到18和19世纪。恩斯特 · 迈尔说，“在卢克莱修和加伦之后，直到文艺复兴之前，生物学上没有任何实质性的结果。”
The first medical teacher at Alexandria, [[Herophilos|Herophilus of Chalcedon]], corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between [[vein]]s and [[artery|arteries]], noting that the latter [[pulse]] while the former do not.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p= 56}} Though a few ancient [[atomism|atomists]] such as [[Lucretius]] challenged the [[teleology|teleological]] viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, [[natural theology]]) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. [[Ernst Mayr]] states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."{{sfn| Mayr | 1985 | pp=90–94}}
===On Byzantine scholars===
{{see also | Commentaries on Aristotle | Byzantine Aristotelianism}}
Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.
希腊基督教抄写员抄写了所有现存的希腊语手稿，对保存亚里士多德起到了至关重要的作用。第一个广泛评论亚里士多德的希腊基督徒是六世纪的菲罗波诺斯、以利亚和大卫，以及七世纪早期的亚历山大的司提反。约翰 · 菲罗帕诺斯因试图从根本上批判亚里士多德关于世界、运动和其他亚里士多德思想的永恒性的观点而脱颖而出。菲洛普诺斯质疑亚里士多德的物理教学，指出其缺陷，并介绍了冲力说来解释他的观察。
Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and [[Stephen of Alexandria]] in the early seventh century.{{sfn| Sorabji | 1990 | pages=20, 28, 35–36}} [[John Philoponus]] stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.{{sfn| Sorabji | 1990 | pages=233–74}} Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the [[theory of impetus]] to explain his observations.{{sfn|Lindberg|1992|p=162}}
After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.
在中断了几个世纪之后，以弗所的 Eustratius 和 Michael 的正式注释在11世纪末和12世纪初重新出现，显然是由 Anna Comnena 发起的。
After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and [[Michael of Ephesus]] reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by [[Anna Comnena]].{{sfn|Sorabji|1990|pp=20–21, 28–29, 393–406, 407–08}}
===On the medieval Islamic world===
Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220
伊斯兰对亚里士多德的描绘，约1220年
{{further|Logic in Islamic philosophy|Transmission of the Greek Classics}}
[[File:Arabic aristotle.jpg | thumb|upright | Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220]]
Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.
亚里士多德是早期伊斯兰教神学派别最受尊敬的西方思想家之一。大多数现存的亚里士多德的著作，以及一些原始的希腊评论，被翻译成阿拉伯语，并由穆斯林哲学家，科学家和学者研究。阿维罗伊斯、阿维森纳和阿尔法拉比乌斯对亚里士多德的著述颇有深度，他们也影响了托马斯 · 阿奎那和其他西方基督教经院哲学家。阿尔金杜斯非常欣赏亚里士多德的哲学，阿韦罗斯称亚里士多德是未来哲学家的“典范”。中世纪的穆斯林学者经常称亚里士多德为“第一导师”。“老师”这个头衔最初是由穆斯林学者赋予亚里士多德的，后来被受到伊斯兰哲学传统影响的西方哲学家使用(如但丁的著名诗歌)。
Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early [[Islamic theology]]. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,{{sfn|Kennedy-Day|1998}} as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. [[Averroes]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Alpharabius]], who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced [[Thomas Aquinas]] and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. [[Alkindus]] greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy,{{sfn|Staley|1989}} and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.{{sfn|Averroes|1953|p=III, 2, 43}} Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".{{sfn|Kennedy-Day|1998}} The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]) who were influenced by the tradition of [[Islamic philosophy]].{{sfn|Nasr|1996|pp=59–60}}
===On medieval Europe===
Aristotle ridden by Phyllis by Hans Baldung, 1515]]
亚里士多德骑着菲利斯，汉斯 · 巴尔顿，1515]
{{anchor|Phyllis}}
[[File:Aristotle and Phyllis.jpg | thumb | upright | left | Woodcut of [[The tale of Phyllis and Aristotle|Aristotle ridden by Phyllis]] by [[Hans Baldung]], 1515{{sfn|Phyllis and Aristotle}}]]
{{further|Aristotelianism|Syllogism#Medieval}}
With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa Theologica, working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.
随着中世纪早期拉丁文西方对古希腊文的研究的缺失，亚里士多德在公元600年到公元1100年期间几乎不为人所知，除了通过波伊提乌斯对《奥加农手稿》的拉丁文翻译。在12世纪和13世纪，人们对亚里士多德的兴趣复兴了，拉丁基督徒也有译本，既有阿拉伯译本，如克雷莫纳的杰拉德，也有原希腊译本，如威尼斯的雅各和莫尔比克的威廉。在经院哲学家托马斯 · 阿奎那根据莫尔贝克的译本写了《神学大全后，人们对亚里士多德作品的需求增加了，希腊的手稿也回到了西方，刺激了欧洲亚里士多德主义的复兴，并一直延续到文艺复兴时期。这些思想家将亚里士多德哲学与基督教融合在一起，将古希腊思想带入中世纪。波伊提乌、彼得 · 阿贝拉尔和约翰 · 布里丹等学者致力于亚里士多德逻辑学。
With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early [[medieval]] Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the ''Organon'' made by [[Boethius]]. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by [[Gerard of Cremona]],{{sfn| Hasse | 2014}} and from the original Greek, such as those by [[James of Venice]] and [[William of Moerbeke]]. After the [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] Thomas Aquinas wrote his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher",{{sfn|Aquinas|2013}} the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the [[Renaissance]].{{sfn| Kuhn | 2018}} These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, [[Peter Abelard]], and [[John Buridan]] worked on Aristotelian logic.{{sfn| Lagerlund}}
The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having
中世纪英国诗人乔叟这样描述他的学生: 因为拥有一个孩子而感到快乐
The medieval English poet [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] describes his student as being happy by having
{{quote | <poem>at his beddes heed
{引用 | < 诗歌 > 在他的床边
Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,
二十个赌徒穿着布莱克或者芦苇,
{{quote | <poem>at his beddes heed
Of aristotle and his philosophie,</poem>}}
亚里士多德和他的哲学家
Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,
Of aristotle and his philosophie,{{sfn| Allen|Fisher|2011|p=17}}</poem>}}
A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.
一个警示性的中世纪故事说，亚里士多德建议他的学生亚历山大避开国王诱人的情妇菲利斯，但是他自己却被她迷住了，并允许她骑在他身上。菲利斯秘密地告诉亚历山大该期待什么，而他目睹了菲利斯证明女人的魅力甚至可以战胜最伟大的哲学家的男性智慧。艺术家如汉斯 · 巴尔顿创作了一系列流行主题的插图。
A [[The tale of Phyllis and Aristotle|cautionary medieval tale]] held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as [[Hans Baldung]] produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.{{sfn| Aristotle Phyllis}}{{sfn|Phyllis and Aristotle}}
The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in The Divine Comedy:
意大利诗人但丁在《神曲这样评价亚里士多德:
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 85%;"
{ | class = “ wikable” style = “ font-size: 85% ; ”
The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'':
|+
|+
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 85%;"
! Dante<br>L'Inferno, Canto IV. 131–135 !! Translation<br>Hell
!但丁《地狱篇》 ，第四章。131–135 !!地狱
|+
|-
|-
! [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]<br>''L'Inferno'', Canto IV. 131–135 !! Translation<br>''Hell''
|<poem>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno
|<poem>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno
|-
seder tra filosofica famiglia.
[咒语]。
|<poem>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:
seder tra filosofica famiglia.
quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone
quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:
che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;</poem>||<poem>I saw the Master there of those who know,
我在那里见到了那些知道的大师,
quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone
Amid the philosophic family,
在哲学家族中,
che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;</poem>||<poem>I saw the Master there of those who know,
By all admired, and by all reverenced;
受到所有人的敬仰和崇敬;
Amid the philosophic family,
There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,
在那里我也看到了柏拉图和苏格拉底,
By all admired, and by all reverenced;
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.
站在他身边的人比其他人都近。
There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,
</poem>
</诗歌 >
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.
|}
|}
</poem>
|}
[[William Harvey's De Motu Cordis, 1628, showed that the blood circulated, contrary to classical era thinking.]]
[威廉 · 哈维(William Harvey)的《德 · 莫图 · 科迪斯》(De Motu Cordis，1628)表明，血液循环与古典时代的思想相反。]
===On Early Modern scientists===
[[File:William Harvey ( 1578-1657) Venenbild.jpg | thumb | [[William Harvey]]'s ''[[Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus|De Motu Cordis]]'', 1628, showed that the [[circulation of the blood|blood circulated]], contrary to classical era thinking.]]
In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.
在近代早期，英国的威廉 · 哈维和意大利的伽利略 · 伽利略等科学家反对亚里士多德和其他古典时代思想家如加伦的理论，建立了一定程度上以观察和实验为基础的新理论。哈维证明了血液的循环，证明了心脏作为一个泵的功能，而不是像亚里士多德认为的那样，是灵魂的所在地和身体热量的控制器。伽利略使用了更多值得怀疑的论点来取代亚里士多德的物理学，他提出物体不论重量大小都以相同的速度下落。
In the [[Early Modern]] period, scientists such as [[William Harvey]] in England and [[Galileo Galilei]] in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like [[Galen]], establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the [[circulation of the blood]], establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought.{{sfn| Aird | 2011 | pp=118–29}} Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.{{sfn| Machamer | 2017}}
===On 19th-century thinkers===
The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.
据说19世纪德国哲学家弗里德里希·尼采的政治哲学几乎全部来自于亚里士多德。亚里士多德严格地将行动与生产分离开来，并主张某些人(“自然奴隶”)应得的服从，而另一些人的自然优越性(美德，受到尊重)。是马丁·海德格尔而不是尼采阐述了对亚里士多德的新解释，旨在保证他对学术和哲学传统的解构。
The 19th-century German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.{{sfn| Durant | 2006 | p=86}} Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, ''arete'') of others. It was [[Martin Heidegger]], not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.{{sfn| Sikka | 1997 | page=265}}
The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.
英国数学家乔治 · 布尔完全接受亚里士多德的逻辑，但在他1854年出版的《思想的法则》一书中，他决定用他的代数逻辑系统“超越、超越”亚里士多德的逻辑。这给逻辑以方程式的数学基础，使它能够解决方程式和检查有效性，并允许它处理更广泛的问题，通过扩大命题的任意数量的项，而不只是两个。
The English mathematician [[George Boole]] fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of [[Boolean algebra|algebraic logic]] in his 1854 book ''[[The Laws of Thought]]''. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check [[Validity (logic)|validity]], and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.{{sfn| Boole | 2003}}
"That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander". Illustration by , 1866
“最经久不衰的浪漫画面，是亚里士多德辅导未来的征服者亚历山大”。插图: 1866
===Modern rejection and rehabilitation===
[[File:Alexander and Aristotle.jpg | thumb|upright=1.2 | left | "That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander".{{sfn|Kukkonen|2010|pages=70–77}} Illustration by {{interlanguage link|Charles Laplante|fr}}, 1866]]
During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russell
在20世纪，亚里士多德的著作受到广泛的批评。哲学家伯特兰·罗素
argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.
他认为，“几乎每一个重大的知识进步都必须从攻击亚里士多德的某些学说开始”。罗素称亚里士多德的伦理学“令人厌恶” ，并称他的逻辑“绝对像托勒密的天文学一样陈旧”。罗素指出，这些错误使得亚里士多德很难做到历史公正，直到有人记得，他取得了什么进步，他所有的前任。
During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]]
argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.{{sfn|Russell|1972}}
The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".
荷兰科学历史学家 Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis 写道，亚里士多德和他的前辈们在有限的感官证据基础上“如此轻易地构建一个如此普遍的理论” ，显示了科学的困难。1985年，生物学家彼得 · 梅达瓦仍然可以用“纯粹的17世纪”的语调说，亚里士多德已经组装了“一个奇怪的、一般来说相当令人厌烦的胡扯的传闻、不完善的观察、一厢情愿的想法和相当于彻头彻尾的轻信”。
The Dutch historian of science [[Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis]] wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses.{{sfn|Dijksterhuis|1969|p=72}} In 1985, the biologist [[Peter Medawar]] could still state in "pure seventeenth century"{{sfn|Leroi|2015|p=353}} tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".{{sfn|Leroi|2015|p=353}}{{sfn|Medawar|Medawar|1984|p=28}}
By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the Poetics in Hollywood.
然而，到了21世纪初，亚里士多德受到了更严肃的对待: 库科宁指出: “在20世纪最好的学术研究中，亚里士多德是一个与希腊哲学传统的全部重量角力的思想家。”阿拉斯代尔·麦金泰尔试图以一种反精英主义的方式改革他所称的亚里士多德传统，并且能够驳斥自由主义者和尼采主义者的主张。Kukkonen 还指出，“亚里士多德对未来的征服者亚历山大的指导，是最经久不衰的浪漫主义形象” ，正如2004年的电影《亚历山大》一样，而亚里士多德戏剧理论的“坚定规则”确保了《诗学》在好莱坞的地位。
By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition."{{sfn|Kukkonen|2010|pp=70–77}} [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.{{sfn|Knight|2007|pp=''passim''}} Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film ''[[Alexander (2004 film)|Alexander]]'', while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the ''Poetics'' in [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]].{{sfn|Kukkonen|2010|pp=70–77}}
Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny.
生物学家继续对亚里士多德的思想感兴趣。阿曼德 · 玛丽 · 莱罗伊重建了亚里士多德的生物学，而尼科 · 廷伯根根据亚里士多德的四个原因提出的四个问题，被用来分析动物行为; 他们研究功能、系统发育、机制和个体发育。
Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. [[Armand Marie Leroi]] has reconstructed Aristotle's biology,{{sfn|Leroi|2015}} while [[Tinbergen's four questions|Niko Tinbergen's four questions]], based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse [[animal behaviour]]; they examine [[function (biology)|function]], [[phylogeny]], [[mechanism (biology)|mechanism]], and [[ontogeny]].{{sfn|MacDougall-Shackleton|2011|pp=2076–85}}{{sfn|Hladký|Havlíček|2013}}
==Surviving works==
===Corpus Aristotelicum===
First page of a 1566 edition of the [[Nicomachean Ethics in Greek and Latin]]
1566年版本[希腊语和拉丁语的尼各马可伦理学]的第一页
{{main | Corpus Aristotelicum}}
[[File:Aristotelis De Moribus ad Nicomachum.jpg | thumb | upright | First page of a 1566 edition of the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in Greek and Latin]]
The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.
亚里士多德的著作是通过中世纪手稿传播而从古代流传下来的，现收藏在亚里士多德语料库中。这些文本，相对于亚里士多德失传的著作，是来自亚里士多德学派的技术哲学论文。参考他们是根据伊曼纽尔贝克的普鲁士皇家学院版(亚里士多德的歌剧编辑委员会学术区，柏林，1831-1870年) ，这是基于古代分类的这些作品。
The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of [[Immanuel Bekker]]'s Royal Prussian Academy edition (''Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica'', Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.{{sfn| Aristotelis Opera}}
===Loss and preservation===
{{see | Recovery of Aristotle}}
Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.}} His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school. Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.}} A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.
亚里士多德的作品是写在纸莎草卷轴上的，纸莎草卷轴是那个时代常用的书写工具他的著作可分为两类: 面向公众的“通俗”著作，以及在吕森学派内部使用的“深奥”著作。亚里士多德的《迷失》作品在20世纪90年代角色塑造与现存的亚里士多德语料库大相径庭。虽然这些遗失的作品看起来是为了以后的出版而写的，但现存的作品大多类似于不打算出版的课堂讲稿。西塞罗将亚里士多德的文学风格描述为“黄金之河” ，这一定适用于已出版的作品，而不是现存的笔记。}亚里士多德著作史上的一个主要问题是，那些开放的作品是如何丢失的，以及我们现在拥有的作品是如何来到我们面前的。人们一致认为，罗德的尼克斯收集了亚里士多德学派的深奥作品，这些作品以较小的、独立的作品的形式存在，将它们与泰奥弗拉斯特斯和其他周期学派的作品区分开来，对它们进行编辑，最后将它们汇编成更具凝聚力的、更大的作品，就像今天所知道的那样。
Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.{{efn-ua | "When the Roman dictator Sulla invaded Athens in 86 BC, he brought back to Rome a fantastic prize – Aristotle's library. Books then were papyrus rolls, from 10 to 20 feet long, and since Aristotle's death in 322 BC, worms and damp had done their worst. The rolls needed repairing, and the texts clarifying and copying on to new papyrus (imported from Egypt – Moses' bulrushes). The man in Rome who put Aristotle's library in order was a Greek scholar, Tyrannio."{{sfn| When libraries were | 2001}}}} His writings are divisible into two groups: the "[[exoteric]]", intended for the public, and the "[[esoteric]]", for use within the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] school.{{sfn| Barnes | 1995 | p=12}}{{efn-ua | 1=Aristotle: ''Nicomachean Ethics'' 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of ''exōterikoi logoi'', see [[W.D. Ross]], ''Aristotle's Metaphysics'' (1953), vol. 2 pp= 408–10. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the [[Peripatetic school]]", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.}}{{sfn| House | 1956 | page=35}} Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication.{{sfn| Irwin | Fine | 1996 | pp= xi–xii }}{{sfn| Barnes | 1995 | p=12}} [[Cicero]]'s description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.{{efn-ua | "''veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles''", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence").{{sfn| Cicero | 1874}}}} A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us.{{sfn| Barnes | Griffin | 1999 | pages=1–69}} The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.{{sfn| Anagnostopoulos | 2013 | page=16}}{{sfn| Barnes | 1995 | pp=10–15}}
==Legacy==
Paintings
绘画
===Depictions===
;Paintings
Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best known is Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."
在过去的几个世纪里，亚里士多德的形象被许多主要的艺术家所描绘，包括老卢卡斯·克拉纳赫，Justus van Gent，Raphael，Paolo Veronese，胡塞佩·德·里贝拉，Rembrandt，和 Francesco Hayez。其中最著名的是拉斐尔的壁画《雅典学校》 ，位于梵蒂冈的使徒宫，在那里柏拉图和亚里士多德的人物是图像的中心，在建筑的消失点，反映了他们的重要性。伦勃朗(Rembrandt)的《亚里士多德与荷马半身像》(Aristotle with a Bust of Homer)也是一部著名的作品，展示了知识渊博的哲学家和更早时代的盲人荷马: 正如艺术评论家乔纳森 · 琼斯(Jonathan Jones)所写的，“这幅画仍将是世界上最伟大、最神秘的画作之一，它发霉、发光、漆黑、对时间的了解令我们难以置信。”
Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]],{{sfn| Lucas Cranach the Elder}} [[Justus van Gent]], [[Raphael]], [[Paolo Veronese]], [[Jusepe de Ribera]],{{sfn| Lee | Robinson | 2005}} [[Rembrandt]],{{sfn| Aristotle with Bust | 2002}} and [[Francesco Hayez]] over the centuries. Among the best known is Raphael's [[fresco]] ''[[The School of Athens]]'', in the [[Apostolic Palace|Vatican's Apostolic Palace]], where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural [[vanishing point]], reflecting their importance.{{sfn| Phelan | 2002}} Rembrandt's ''[[Aristotle with a Bust of Homer]]'', too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic [[Jonathan Jones (journalist)|Jonathan Jones]] writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."{{sfn| Held | 1969}}{{sfn| Jones | 2002}}
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File:Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg | Nuremberg Chronicle anachronistically shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493
文件: 亚里士多德在纽伦堡编年史中的纽伦堡编年史。1493年，纸上的油墨和水彩
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File:Gent, Justus van - Aristotle - c. 1476.jpg | Aristotle by Justus van Gent. Oil on panel, c. 1476
文件: Gent，Justus van-Aristotle-c. 1476. jpg | Aristotle by Justus van Gent。面板上的油，c. 1476
File:Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg | ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' [[anachronism|anachronistically]] shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493
File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Phyllis und Aristotle (1530).jpg | Phyllis and Aristotle by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Oil on panel, 1530
File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä.- Phyllis und Aristotle (1530) . jpg | Phyllis and aristostotle by 老卢卡斯·克拉纳赫。面板上的油，1530
File:Gent, Justus van - Aristotle - c. 1476.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Justus van Gent]]. Oil on panel, c. 1476
File:Biblioteka Marciana, Aristotel.jpg | Aristotle by Paolo Veronese, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s
文件: Biblioteka Marciana，aristottel.jpg | Aristotle by Paolo Veronese，Biblioteka Marciana。帆布油画，16世纪60年代
File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Phyllis und Aristotle (1530).jpg | ''Phyllis and Aristotle'' by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]. Oil on panel, 1530
File:Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG | Aristotle and Campaspe, Alessandro Turchi (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713
档案: Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG | Aristotle and Campaspe，Alessandro Turchi (限定词)帆布油画，1713年
File:Biblioteka Marciana, Aristotel.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Paolo Veronese]], Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s
File:Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg | Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera. Oil on canvas, 1637
文件来源: Aristotle by Jusepe de ribera. jpg | Aristotle by 胡塞佩·德·里贝拉。帆布油画，1637年
File:Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG | ''Aristotle and [[Campaspe]]'',{{efn-ua | Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.}} [[Alessandro Turchi]] (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713
File:Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg | Aristotle with a Bust of Homer by Rembrandt. Oil on canvas, 1653
文件: 伦勃朗-亚里士多德与荷马半身像 -wga19232. jpg | 亚里士多德与伦勃朗荷马半身像。帆布油画，1653年
File:Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg | ''[[Aristotle (Ribera painting)|Aristotle]]'' by [[Jusepe de Ribera]]. Oil on canvas, 1637
File:Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg | Aristotle by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder. Oil on canvas, by 1813
File:Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg | Aristotle by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder.帆布油画，1813年
File:Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg | ''Aristotle with a Bust of [[Homer]]'' by [[Rembrandt]]. Oil on canvas, 1653
File:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg | Aristotle by Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1811
文件: Francesco Hayez 001. jpg | Aristotle by Francesco Hayez。帆布油画，1811年
File:Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder]]. Oil on canvas, by 1813
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</gallery >
File:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Francesco Hayez]]. Oil on canvas, 1811
</gallery>
Sculptures
雕塑
;Sculptures
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File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by Lysippos. Louvre Museum
文件: Aristoteles Louvre.jpg | 1或2世纪的罗马复制品，出自 Lysippos 的青铜原件。卢浮宫博物馆
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File:DSC00218 - Aristotele - Copia romana del 117-138 dC. - Foto di G. Dall'Orto.jpg|Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum
档案: DSC00218-Aristotele-Copia romana del 117-138 dC。- Foto di g. Dall‘ Orto.jpg | 公元117-138年希腊原版的罗马复制品。巴勒莫地区考古博物馆
File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by [[Lysippos]]. [[Louvre Museum]]
File:Formella 21, platone e aristotele o la filosofia, luca della robbia, 1437-1439.JPG|Relief of Aristotle and Plato by Luca della Robbia, Florence Cathedral, 1437-1439
档案: Formella 21，platone e aristotele o la filosofia，卢卡·德拉·罗比亚，1437-1439。亚里士多德和柏拉图的卢卡·德拉·罗比亚，圣母百花圣殿，1437-1439
File:DSC00218 - Aristotele - Copia romana del 117-138 dC. - Foto di G. Dall'Orto.jpg|Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum
File:Formella 21, platone e aristotele o la filosofia, luca della robbia, 1437-1439.JPG|Relief of Aristotle and Plato by [[Luca della Robbia]], [[Florence Cathedral]], 1437-1439
File:Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone's Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG|Stone statue in niche, Gladstone's Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899
File:Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone's Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG|Stone statue in niche, Gladstone's Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899
File:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|Bronze statue, University of Freiburg, Germany, 1915
文件: Uni Freiburg-Philosophen 4. jpg | 青铜雕像，弗赖堡大学，德国，1915年
File:Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone's Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG|Stone statue in niche, [[Gladstone's Library]], [[Hawarden]], Wales, 1899
</gallery>
</gallery >
File:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|Bronze statue, [[University of Freiburg]], Germany, 1915
</gallery>
===Eponyms===
The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it Antarctica. Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.
南极洲的亚里斯多德山脉以亚里士多德的名字命名。他是第一个已知的猜想，在他的书《气象学》 ，在南部高纬度地区的一块大陆的存在，并称之为南极洲。亚里士多德是月球上的一个陨石坑，是亚里士多德名字的经典形式。
The [[Aristotle Mountains]] in [[Antarctica]] are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]'', the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it ''Antarctica''.{{sfn| Aristotle Mountains}} [[Aristoteles (crater)|Aristoteles]] is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.{{sfn| Aristoteles}}
==See also==
* [[Aristotelian Society]]
* [[Conimbricenses]]
* [[Perfectionism (philosophy)|Perfectionism]]
==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist-ua | 30em}}
===Citations===
{{Reflist | colwidth=25em}}
===Sources===
{{refbegin|36em}}
* {{cite book |author=Aesop |author-link=Aesop |title=The Complete Fables By Aesop |date=1998 | translator-last=Temple | translator-first=Olivia | translator-last2=Temple | translator-first2=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&pg=PR3 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0-14-044649-4}}
* {{cite journal |last=Aird |first=W. C. |title=Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William Harvey |year=2011 |pages=118–29 |journal=Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis |volume=9 |doi=10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04312.x |pmid=21781247 |s2cid=12092592}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=I'm So Totally Over Newton's Laws of Motion |journal=Wired |date=21 March 2016 |url=https://www.wired.com/2016/03/im-totally-newtons-laws-motion/ |access-date=11 May 2018}}
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* {{cite book |last=Anagnostopoulos |first=Georgios |title=A Companion to Aristotle |year=2013 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-118-59243-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Annas |first=Julia |title=Classical Greek Philosophy |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285357-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Aquinas |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Aquinas |title=Summa Theologica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YiJCBAAAQBAJ |date=20 August 2013 |publisher=e-artnow |isbn=978-80-7484-292-4}}
* {{cite web | editor-first=Immanuel | editor-last=Bekker | orig-year=1831 |url=http://archive.org/details/bub_gb_jMz9zVYu9Q0C |title=Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica Aristoteles graece |last=Aristoteles |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=apud Georgium Reimerum |access-date=31 January 2019 |via=Internet Archive |ref=CITEREFAristotelis Opera}}
* {{cite web |title=Aristoteles |url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/nomenclature/SearchResults;jsessionid=BE8F9834B709207DDD5D36EFA5506C7F |website=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. United States Geological Survey |access-date=19 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristoteles}}
* {{cite web |title=Aristoteles-Park in Stagira |url=http://www.dimosaristoteli.gr/en/sights/aristotle-park |publisher=Dimos Aristoteli |access-date=20 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristoteles-Park in Stagira}}
* {{cite IEP |title=Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) |date=2009 | url-id=aristotl |issn=2161-0002 |ref=CITEREFAristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}}
* {{cite web |title=Aristotle (Greek philosopher) |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |website=Britannica.com |access-date=26 April 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422103155/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |archivedate=22 April 2009 | url-status=live |ref=CITEREFAristotle (Greek philosopher)}}
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* {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Meteorology |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFMeteorology}}
* {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Nicomachean Ethics |author=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |ref=CITEREFNicomachean Ethics}}
* {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/soul.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=On the Soul |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFOn the Soul}}
* {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Physics |author=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=31 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPhysics}}
* {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Poetics |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPoetics}}
* {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Politics |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPolitics}}
* {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/prior.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Prior Analytics |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |ref=CITEREFPrior Analytics}}
* {{cite web |author=Aristotle |title=Rhetoric | translator-first=W. Rhys | translator-last=Roberts |url=http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-5.html |archivedate=13 February 2015 |ref=CITEREFRhetoric| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213075039/http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-5.html}}
* {{cite web |title=Aristotle Mountains |url=https://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/gaz/scar/display_name.cfm?gaz_id=137410 |work=[[Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research|SCAR]] [[Composite Antarctic Gazetteer]] |publisher=[[Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide]] |agency=[[Department of the Environment and Energy]], [[Australian Antarctic Division]], [[Australian Government]] | access-date=1 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle Mountains}}
* {{cite book |author=Aristotle |title=Politics-Ethics, In Early Economic Thought: Selections from Economic Literature Prior to Adam Smith |date=1948 |editor=Monroe, Arthur E. |publisher=Harvard University Press}}
* {{cite book |author=Aristotle |title=The Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/politics0000aris |url-access=registration |date=1984 |editor=Lord, Carnes |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-92184-6}}
* {{cite book |author=Aristotle |title=Politics |date=2009 |others=Translated by Ernest Barker and revised with introduction and notes by R.F. Stalley |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953873-7 |edition=1st |origyear=1995}}
* {{cite book |author=Aristotle | translator-last1=Sachs | translator-first1=Joe |title=Aristotle's ''Metaphysics'' |year=1999 |publisher=Green Lion Press}}
* {{cite web |title=Aristotle and Phyllis |url=http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/20121 |publisher=Art Institute Chicago |access-date=22 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle Phyllis}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aristotle |title=Aristotle definition and meaning |publisher=Collins English Dictionary |website=www.collinsdictionary.com |ref=CITEREFCollins English Dictionary}}
* {{cite news |title=Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, Rembrandt (1653) |date=27 July 2002 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2002/jul/27/art.homer |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=23 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle with Bust2002}}
* {{cite book |last=Averroes |title=Commentarium Magnum in Aristotelis De Anima Libros|editor-last=Crawford|editor-first=F. Stuart |publisher=Mediaeval Academy of America |oclc=611422373 |date=1953}}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction |date=1982 |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285408-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Jonathan |chapter=Life and Work |title=The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle |date=1995 |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42294-9 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBqQOqM5dfsC}}
* {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |last2=Griffin |first2=Miriam Tamara |title=Philosophia Togata: Plato and Aristotle at Rome. II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r18BAAAACAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-815222-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bergstrom |first1=Carl T. |last2=Dugatkin |first2=Lee Alan |title=Evolution |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SeaEZwEACAAJ |publisher=Norton |isbn=978-0-393-92592-0}}
* {{cite journal |last=Blits |first=Kathleen C. |title=Aristotle: Form, function, and comparative anatomy |date=15 April 1999 |pages=58–63 |journal=The Anatomical Record |volume=257 |issue=2 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(19990415)257:2<58::AID-AR6>3.0.CO;2-I |pmid=10321433}}
* {{cite book |last=Bloch |first=David |title=Aristotle on Memory and Recollection |date=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwTHng_5RqAC&q=Aristotle+on+Memory+and+Recollection&pg=PR9 |isbn=978-90-04-16046-0}}
* {{cite book | chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/logic-ancient/ |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first=Susanne |last=Bobzien |chapter=Ancient Logic | editor-first=Edward N. | editor-last=Zalta |date=2015 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Sorabji |first1=R. |title=Aristotle on Memory |date=2006 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=54 |edition=2nd |quote=And this is exactly why we hunt for the successor, starting in our thoughts from the present or from something else, and from something similar, or opposite, or neighbouring. By this means recollection occurs...}}
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* {{cite web |last=Stewart |first=Jessica |title=The Story Behind Raphael's Masterpiece 'The School of Athens' |url=https://mymodernmet.com/school-of-athens-raphael/ |quote=Plato's gesture toward the sky is thought to indicate his Theory of Forms. ... Conversely, Aristotle's hand is a visual representation of his belief that knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism, as it is known, theorizes that humans must have concrete evidence to support their ideas |website=My Modern Met |year=2019 |access-date=29 March 2019}}
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=D'Arcy |author-link=D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson |title=Historia animalium |date=1910 |work=The works of Aristotle translated into English |editor1=Ross, W. D. |editor2=Smith, J. A. |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/history/index.html |oclc=39273217}}
* {{cite book |last=Warren |first=Howard C. |title=A History of the Association of Psychology |date=1921 |author-link=Howard C. Warren |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&q=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology&pg=PA3 |oclc=21010604 <!--dlc-->}}
* {{cite book |last1=Webb |first1=Wilse |title=Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night |date=1990 |publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher |isbn=978-0-87477-594-5|url=https://archive.org/details/dreamtimedreamwo00kriprich}}
* {{cite news |title=When libraries were on a roll |date=19 May 2001 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4723624/When-libraries-were-on-a-roll.html |publisher=Telegraph Media Group |access-date=29 June 2017 |ref=CITEREFWhen libraries were2001}}
* {{cite SEP |last=Wildberg | first Christian |title=John Philoponus |date=2016 | url-id=philoponus}}
* {{cite SEP |title=Aristotle's Influence |date=2018 | url-id=aristotle-influence |edition=Spring 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle's Influence2018}}
{{refend}}
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.
关于亚里士多德的二手文献很多。以下只是一小部分选择。
==Further reading==
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.
{{refbegin | 30em}}
* [[J. L. Ackrill|Ackrill, J. L.]] (1997). ''Essays on Plato and Aristotle'', Oxford University Press.
*{{cite book |last=Ackrill |first=J.L. |title=Aristotle the Philosopher |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1981}}
*{{Cite book |last=Adler |first=Mortimer J. |author-link=Mortimer Adler |title=Aristotle for Everybody |publisher=Macmillan |date=1978 | title-link=Aristotle for Everybody}}
*{{cite book |last=Ammonius | editor1-last=Cohen | editor1-first=S. Marc | editor2-last=Matthews | editor2-first=Gareth B |title=On Aristotle's Categories |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1991 |isbn=978-0-8014-2688-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |date=1908–1952}} These translations are available in several places online; see External links.
* Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). ''Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments'', Trafford Publishing{{ISBN | 978-1412048439}}
*{{Cite book |last=Bocheński |first=I. M. |title=Ancient Formal Logic |publisher=North-Holland |date=1951}}
* Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
* [[Myles Burnyeat|Burnyeat, Myles F.]] ''et al.'' (1979). ''Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.
*{{cite book | editor1-last=Cantor | editor1-first=Norman F. | editor2-first=Peter L. | editor2-last=Klein |title=Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle |volume=1 |series=Monuments of Western Thought |publisher=Blaisdell |date=1969}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Chappell |first1=V. |year=1973 |title=Aristotle's Conception of Matter |url= |journal=Journal of Philosophy |volume=70 |issue=19 |pages=679–96 |doi=10.2307/2025076 |jstor=2025076}}
* Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.
*{{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=John |title=Aristotle |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotle0000ferg |url-access=registration |publisher=Twayne Publishers |date=1972 }}
* De Groot, Jean (2014). ''Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC'', Parmenides Publishing,{{ISBN | 978-1930972834}}
* Frede, Michael (1987). ''Essays in Ancient Philosophy''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
*{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=B.A.G. |author-link=Benjamin_Apthorp_Gould_Fuller |series=History of Greek Philosophy |volume=3 |title=Aristotle |publisher=Cape |date=1923}}
* [[Eugene Gendlin|Gendlin, Eugene T.]] (2012). ''[http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327012857/http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ |date=27 March 2017 }}'', Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.
* Gill, Mary Louise (1989). ''Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity''. Princeton University Press.
*{{Cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W.K.C. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy |volume=6 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1981}}
* Halper, Edward C. (2009). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta'', Parmenides Publishing,{{ISBN | 978-1930972216}}.
* Halper, Edward C. (2005). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books'', Parmenides Publishing,{{ISBN | 978-1930972056}}.
* [[Terence Irwin|Irwin, Terence H.]] (1988). [http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotle%27s%20first%20principles.pdf ''Aristotle's First Principles'']. Oxford: Clarendon Press,{{ISBN | 0198242905}}.
*{{cite book |last=Jaeger |first=Werner |title=Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development | editor-first=Richard | editor-last=Robinson |edition=2nd |publisher=Clarendon Press |date=1948}}
* [[Alberto Jori|Jori, Alberto]] (2003). ''Aristotele'', Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "[[International Academy of the History of Science]]"){{ISBN | 978-8842497370}}.
*{{cite book | editor-last=Kiernan | editor-first=Thomas P. |title=Aristotle Dictionary |publisher=Philosophical Library |date=1962}}
* Knight, Kelvin (2007). ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'', Polity Press.
* Lewis, Frank A. (1991). ''Substance and Predication in Aristotle''. Cambridge University Press.
* Lord, Carnes (1984). ''Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle''. Chicago University Press.
* Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
* Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) ''Reading Aristotle: Physics'' VII. 3: ''What is Alteration?'' ''Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference'', Parmenides Publishing.{{ISBN | 978-1930972735}}
*{{cite book |last=McKeon |first=Richard |title=Introduction to Aristotle |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=1973}}
*{{cite journal |last=Owen |first=G. E. L. |year=1965c |title=The Platonism of Aristotle |journal=Proceedings of the British Academy |volume=50 |pages=125–50}} [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). ''Articles on Aristotle'' Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]
* {{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511498282 |title=Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship |year=2002 |last1=Pangle |first1=Lorraine Smith |isbn=9780511498282}}
*{{cite book |last=Plato |author-link=Plato |title=The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle | editor1-first=Harold Joseph | editor1-last=Allen | editor2-first=James B | editor2-last=Wilbur |publisher=Prometheus Books |date=1979}}
* Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). ''Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Hackett.
*{{Cite book |last=Rose |first=Lynn E. |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic |publisher=Charles C Thomas |date=1968}}
*{{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Sir David |author-link=W. D. Ross |title=Aristotle |publisher=Routledge |edition=6th |date=1995}}
* Scaltsas, T. (1994). ''Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Cornell University Press.
* Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's ''Politics''", in ''The City and Man'', Rand McNally.
*{{Cite book |last=Swanson |first=Judith |title=The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/publicprivateina00swan |url-access=registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1992 }}
*{{Cite book |last=Veatch |first=Henry B. |author-link=Henry Babcock Veatch |title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation |publisher=Indiana University Press |date=1974}}
*{{cite book |last=Woods |first=M. J. |year=1991b |chapter=Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics |series=[[Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy]] |title=Aristotle and the Later Tradition |volume=Suppl |pages=41–56}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Sister project links | b=no | n=no | s=Author:Aristotle}}
{{Library resources box | by=yes | onlinebooks=yes | others=yes | about=yes | label=Aristotle
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{{Library resources box | by=yes | onlinebooks=yes | others=yes | about=yes | label=Aristotle
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*{{Britannica |id=34560}}
*{{PhilPapers|category|aristotle}}
*{{InPho | thinker | 2553}}
* At the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]:
*:{{hlist | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/ Aristotle (general article)] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/ Biology] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/ Ethics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ Logic] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/ Metaphysics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ Motion and its Place in Nature] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/ Poetics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/ Politics]}}
* At the [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index.html Internet Classics Archive]
* From the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]:
*:{{hlist | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle Aristotle (general article)] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/ Aristotle in the Renaissance] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/ Biology] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/ Causality] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/ Commentators on Aristotle] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Ethics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ Logic] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/ Mathematics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ Metaphysics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/ Natural philosophy] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/ Non-contradiction] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/ Political theory] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ Psychology] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ Rhetoric]}}
*{{cite CE1913 | first=William | last=Turner | wstitle=Aristotle | volume=1 | short=x}}
*{{cite LotEP |chapter=Aristotle}}
Collections of works
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* At [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology]
*{{Gutenberg author | id=2747}}
*{{Internet Archive author}}
*{{Librivox author | id=602}}
*{{OL author | OL22105A}}
*{{in lang|en|el}} [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle Perseus Project] at [[Tufts University]]
* At the [https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ University of Adelaide]
*{{in lang|el|fr}} [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm P. Remacle]
* The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ([http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ PDF]{{dot}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20050816192647/http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/ DJVU])
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<noinclude>
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Aristotle]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[亚里士多德/edithistory]]</small></noinclude>
[[Category:待整理页面]]
{{short description|Classical Greek philosopher and polymath, founder of the Peripatetic School}}
{{other uses}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
{{Use British English Oxford spelling|date=March 2020}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox philosopher
{{Infobox philosopher
{ Infobox 哲学家
| name=Aristotle
| name=Aristotle
名字 = 亚里士多德
| image=Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
| image=Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
8575. jpg
| caption=Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Aristotle by [[Lysippos]], [[Circa|c.]] 330 BC, with modern [[alabaster]] [[mantle (clothing)|mantle]]
| caption=Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippos, c. 330 BC, with modern alabaster mantle
公元前330年，利西波斯用现代雪花石膏做的希腊亚里士多德半身铜像的罗马大理石复制品
| birth_date=384 BC{{efn-ua|That these dates (the first half of the Olympiad year 384/383 BC, and in 322 shortly before the death of Demosthenes) are correct was shown by [[August Boeckh]] (''Kleine Schriften'' VI 195); for further discussion, see [[Felix Jacoby]] on ''[[FGrHist]]'' 244 F 38. Ingemar Düring, ''Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition'', Göteborg, 1957,{{p.|253}}}}
| birth_date=384 BC}}
384 BC }}
| birth_place=[[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidian League]]
| birth_place=Stagira, Chalcidian League
出生地: 查尔西迪亚联赛的斯塔吉拉
| death_date={{nowrap|322 BC (aged 61–62)}}
| death_date=
死亡日期
| death_place=[[Euboea]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Empire|Macedonian Empire]]
| death_place=Euboea, Macedonian Empire
死亡地点 = 埃维厄岛，马其顿王国
| predecessor=[[Plato]]
| predecessor=Plato
前任 = 柏拉图
| spouse=[[Pythias]]
| spouse=Pythias
| spouse=Pythias
| era=[[Ancient Greek philosophy]]
| era=Ancient Greek philosophy
古希腊哲学
| region=[[Western philosophy]]
| region=Western philosophy
| 地区 = 西方哲学
| school_tradition={{Flatlist}}
| school_tradition=
学校传统
* [[Peripatetic school]]
* [[Aristotelianism]]
* [[Classical republicanism]]
{{Endflatlist}}
| notable_students = [[Alexander the Great]], [[Theophrastus]]
| notable_students = Alexander the Great, Theophrastus
值得注意的学生 = 亚历山大大帝，Theophrastus
| main_interests={{Flatlist}}
| main_interests=
利益
* [[Biology]]
* [[Zoology]]
* [[Psychology]]{{sfn|Kantor|1963|page=116}}{{sfn|On the Soul}}
* [[Physics]]
* [[Metaphysics]]
* [[Logic]]
* [[Ethics]]
* [[Rhetoric]]
* [[Aesthetics]]
* [[Music]]
* [[Poetry]]
* [[Economics]]
* [[Politics]]
* [[Government]]
{{Endflatlist}}
| notable_ideas={{Flatlist}}
| notable_ideas=
值得注意的想法
* [[:Template:Aristotelianism|Aristotelian philosophy]]
* [[Syllogism]]
* [[On the Soul|Theory of the soul]]
* [[Virtue ethics]]
| influences={{Flatlist}}
| influences=
影响 =
* [[Plato]]
* [[Socrates]]
* [[Heraclitus]]
* [[Parmenides]]
* [[Empedocles]]
* [[Phaleas of Chalcedon|Phaleas]]
* [[Hippodamus of Miletus|Hippodamus]]
* [[Hippias]]
{{Endflatlist}}
| influenced={{longitem|Virtually all subsequent [[Western philosophy]], especially [[Aristotelianism]] e. g. [[Averroes]], [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]]. Also pre-[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] science (see [[List of writers influenced by Aristotle]])}}
| influenced=
影响 =
{{Endflatlist}}
}}
}}
}}
'''Aristotle''' ({{IPAc-en|ær|ɪ|s|ˈ|t|ɒ|t|əl}};{{sfn|Collins English Dictionary}} {{lang-grc-gre|Ἀριστοτέλης}} ''Aristotélēs'', {{IPA-grc|aristotélɛːs|pron}}; 384–322 BC) was a Greek [[philosopher]] and [[polymath]] during the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]] in [[Ancient Greece]]. Taught by [[Plato]], he was the founder of the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]], the [[Peripatetic school]] of philosophy, and the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] tradition. His writings cover many subjects including [[Physics (Aristotle)|physics]], [[biology]], [[zoology]], [[metaphysics]], [[logic]], [[ethics]], [[aesthetics]], [[Poetics (Aristotle)|poetry]], [[theatre]], [[music]], [[rhetoric]], [[psychology]], [[linguistics]], [[economics]], [[politics]], and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual [[lexicon]], as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
Aristotle (; Aristotélēs, ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
亚里士多德(Aristotle)是古希腊古典时期的希腊哲学家和博学家。在柏拉图的指导下，他创立了学院、哲学逍遥学派和亚里士多德传统。他的著作涉及许多学科，包括物理学、生物学、动物学、形而上学、逻辑学、伦理学、美学、诗歌、戏剧、音乐、修辞学、心理学、语言学、经济学、政治学和政府。亚里士多德对他之前存在的各种哲学进行了复杂的综合。最重要的是，正是从他的教义中，西方继承了其知识分子的词汇，以及问题和探究的方法。因此，他的哲学对西方几乎每一种形式的知识都产生了独特的影响，并且继续成为当代哲学讨论的主题。
Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]] in [[Northern Greece]]. His father, [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined [[Plato's Academy]] in [[Athens]] and remained there until the age of thirty-seven ([[Circa|c.]] 347 BC).{{sfn|Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}} Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of [[Philip II of Macedon]], tutored [[Alexander the Great]] beginning in 343 BC.{{sfn|Russell| 1972}} He established a library in the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on [[papyrus]] [[scrolls]]. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.{{sfn|Barnes|1995|p=9}}
Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.
关于他的生平我们知之甚少。亚里士多德出生于希腊北部的 Stagira。他的父亲，尼各马库斯，在亚里士多德还是个孩子的时候就去世了，他是由一位监护人抚养长大的。十七岁的时候，他加入了雅典的柏拉图学院，一直呆到37岁(约公元前347年)。在柏拉图死后不久，亚里士多德离开了雅典，在腓力二世的要求下，他从公元前343年开始辅导亚历山大大帝。他在学院里建立了一个图书馆，这个图书馆帮助他制作了数百本纸莎草卷轴方面的书籍。尽管亚里士多德写了许多优雅的论文和对话要出版，但是只有三分之一的原著保存下来，没有一本打算出版。
Aristotle's views on [[Aristotelian physics|physical science]] profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Early Middle Ages]] into the [[Renaissance]], and were not replaced systematically until [[Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]] and theories such as [[classical mechanics]] were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in [[Aristotle's biology|his biology]], such as on the [[Hectocotylus|hectocotyl (reproductive) arm]] of the [[octopus]], were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as [[Peter Abelard]] and [[John Buridan]]. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.
Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.
亚里士多德关于自然科学的观点深刻地影响了中世纪的学术。他们的影响从古代晚期和中世纪早期延伸到文艺复兴时期，直到启蒙运动和经典力学等理论的发展才被系统地取代。亚里士多德在他的生物学中发现的一些动物学观察，例如在章鱼的繁殖臂上发现的，直到19世纪才被人们所相信。他的著作包含了已知最早的逻辑学正式研究，研究的中世纪学者如彼得 · 阿伯拉尔和约翰 · 布里丹。亚里士多德对逻辑学的影响一直延续到19世纪。
He influenced [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)]] during the [[Middle Ages]], as well as [[Christian theology]], especially the [[Neoplatonism]] of the [[Early Church]] and the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]]. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like [[Thomas Aquinas]] as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of [[virtue ethics]], such as in the thinking of [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] and [[Philippa Foot]].
He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400) during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics, such as in the thinking of Alasdair MacIntyre and Philippa Foot.
他影响了犹太-伊斯兰哲学(800-1400)在中世纪，以及基督教神学，特别是新柏拉图主义的早期教会和经院传统的天主教会。亚里士多德在中世纪的穆斯林学者中被尊为“第一导师” ，在中世纪的基督徒如托马斯 · 阿奎那中被尊为“哲学家”。他的伦理学，尽管一直很有影响力，但随着现代美德伦理学的出现，例如阿拉斯代尔·麦金泰尔和菲利帕 · 福特的思想，又重新引起了人们的兴趣。
==Life==
[[File:20160518 092 mieza nympheum.jpg | thumb | left | School of Aristotle in [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]], [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia, Greece]]]]
Mieza, Macedonia, Greece]]
[希腊，马其顿]
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.{{efn-ua | See {{harvnb|Shields|2012|pp=3–16}}; {{harvnb|Düring|1957}} covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.}}
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.; covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.}}
一般来说，亚里士多德生平的细节并不完整。古代的传记往往是推测性的，历史学家只在几个要点上达成一致。包括亚里士多德的古代传记
Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,{{sfn|Campbell}}<!--better source desirable--> was born in 384 BC in [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidice]], about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]].{{sfn|McLeisch|1999|p=5}}{{sfn|Aristoteles-Park in Stagira}} His father [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]] was the personal physician to [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of Macedon]]. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] became his guardian.{{sfn|Hall|2018|p=14}} Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Kingship and the royal court|Macedonian monarchy]].{{sfn|Anagnostopoulos|2013|page=4}}
Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,<!--better source desirable--> was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy.
亚里士多德，他的名字在古希腊语中的意思是“最好的目的” ，出生于公元前384年，Stagira，Chalcidice，距离现在的塞萨洛尼基大约55公里(34英里)。他的父亲尼古马库斯是马其顿国王阿敏塔斯的私人医生。亚里士多德的父母在他十三岁的时候就去世了，而来自阿塔尼厄斯的普罗齐诺斯成为了他的监护人。尽管关于亚里士多德童年的信息很少，但他可能在马其顿宫殿里呆过一段时间，与马其顿君主政体建立了第一次联系。
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at [[Platonic Academy|Plato's Academy]].{{sfn|Blits|1999|pp=58–63}} He probably experienced the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].{{sfn|Evans|2006}} Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew [[Speusippus]], although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.{{sfn|Aristotle|1984|pp=Introduction}} Aristotle then accompanied [[Xenocrates]] to the court of his friend [[Hermias of Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil [[Theophrastus]] to the island of [[Lesbos]], where together they researched the [[botany]] and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married [[Pythias]], either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor to his son [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]].{{sfn|Shields|2016}}{{sfn|Russell|1972}}
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν]. Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.
十七十八岁时，亚里士多德搬到雅典，在柏拉图学院继续他的学业。他可能经历过厄琉息斯秘仪，正如他在描述在厄琉息斯秘仪观察到的景象时所写的，“体验就是学习”[ παεθν αθν μθν ]。亚里士多德在雅典呆了将近20年，直到公元前348/47年离开。关于他离开的传统故事记载，他对学院在控制权传给柏拉图的侄子斯皮普斯之后的发展方向感到失望，尽管他可能害怕当时雅典的反马其顿情绪，并在柏拉图去世之前离开了。随后，亚里士多德陪同齐诺克利特来到他的朋友小亚细亚阿塔尼厄斯的赫米亚的宫廷。厄米亚斯死后，亚里士多德和他的学生泰奥弗拉斯特斯一起来到莱斯博斯岛，在那里他们一起研究了岛上及其环礁湖的植物学和动物学。在莱斯博斯岛的时候，亚里士多德娶了皮提亚斯，不是厄米斯的养女就是侄女。她给他生了一个女儿，他们也给她起名叫皮提亚。公元前343年，腓力二世邀请亚里士多德成为他儿子亚历山大的家庭教师。
[[File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg | thumb | upright | [[Bust (sculpture)|Portrait bust]] of Aristotle; an [[Roman Empire|Imperial Roman]] (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost [[bronze sculpture]] made by [[Lysippos]]]]
Portrait bust of Aristotle; an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos]]
亚里士多德的肖像半身像; 帝国罗马帝国(公元1或2世纪)仿制的遗失的青铜雕塑
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of [[Macedon]]. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Cassander]].{{sfn|Green|1991|pp=58–59}} Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards [[Persia]] was unabashedly [[Ethnocentricism|ethnocentric]]. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".{{sfn|Green|1991|pp=58–59}} By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]]. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with [[Herpyllis]] of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]]. If we believed the ''[[Suda]]'' (an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages) he may also had an ''[[eromenos|erômenos]]'', [[Palaephatus | Palaephatus of Abydus]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=88}}
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If we believed the Suda (an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages) he may also had an erômenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.
亚里士多德被任命为马其顿皇家学院院长。在亚里士多德在马其顿宫廷的时候，他不仅给亚历山大上课，还给另外两个未来的国王上课: 托勒密和卡山德。亚里士多德鼓励亚历山大征服东方，而亚里士多德自己对波斯的态度是毫不掩饰的种族中心主义。在一个著名的例子中，他建议亚历山大成为“希腊人的领袖，野蛮人的暴君，像照顾朋友和亲戚一样照顾前者，像对待动物或植物一样对待后者”。到公元前335年，亚里士多德回到雅典，在那里建立了他自己的学校，被称为学园。在接下来的十二年里，亚里士多德在学校里指导课程。在雅典期间，他的妻子皮提亚斯去世，亚里士多德与斯塔吉拉的赫皮利斯有染，后者为他生了一个儿子，以他父亲尼各马库斯的名字命名。如果我们相信苏达(中世纪的一个不严谨的汇编) ，他可能也有一个 erômenos，Palaephatus of Abydus。
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.{{sfn|Russell|1972}} He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in [[treatise]] form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[On the Soul]]'' and ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre."{{sfn|Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}}
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre."
公元前335年至公元前323年的雅典时期，被认为是亚里士多德创作许多作品的时期。他写了许多对话录，其中只有一些片段幸存了下来。那些保存下来的作品都是以论述的形式出版的，大部分并不打算广泛出版; 它们通常被认为是他的学生的讲座辅助工具。他最重要的论文包括《物理学》、《形而上学》、《尼各马可伦理学《政治学》、《论灵魂》和《诗学》。亚里士多德在“逻辑学、形而上学、数学、物理学、生物学、植物学、伦理学、政治学、农业、医学、舞蹈和戏剧学”方面做出了重大贡献
Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an [[Hagnothemis|unlikely claim]] made some six years after the death.{{sfn|Green|1991|p=460}} Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and [[Eurymedon the Hierophant]] reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,{{sfn|Filonik|2013|pp=72–73}} prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in [[Chalcis | Chalcis, on Euboea]], at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"{{sfn|Jones|1980|p=216}}{{sfn|Gigon|2017|p=41}}{{sfn|Düring|1957|p=T44a-e}} – a reference to Athens's [[Trial of Socrates|trial and execution of Socrates]]. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student [[Antipater]] as his chief [[executor]] and leaving a [[Will (law)|will]] in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.{{sfn|Haase|1992|p=3862}}
Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.
在他生命的最后阶段，亚历山大和亚里士多德因为亚历山大与波斯和波斯的关系而变得疏远。古代有一个广泛流传的传统，怀疑亚里士多德在亚历山大的死亡中扮演了一个角色，但是唯一能证明这一点的是亚里士多德死后大约六年的一个不太可能的断言。亚历山大死后，雅典的反马其顿情绪重新燃起。公元前322年，据说 Demophilus 和希罗芬特的 Eurymedon 谴责亚里士多德不敬神，促使他逃往他母亲在埃维厄岛哈尔基斯的家族庄园，据说当时他说: “我不允许雅典人两次违背哲学”——指的是雅典对苏格拉底的审判和处决。同年晚些时候，他因自然原因在埃维厄岛去世，任命他的学生安提帕特为他的首席遗嘱执行人，并留下一份遗嘱，要求与妻子葬在一起。
==Speculative philosophy==
===Logic===
{{main | Term logic}}
{{details | Non-Aristotelian logic}}
With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,{{sfn| Degnan | 1994 | pp=81–89}} and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in [[mathematical logic]].{{sfn| Corcoran | 2009 | pp=1–20}} [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] stated in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.{{sfn| Kant | 1787 | pages=Preface}}
With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.
在《先验分析学》一书中，亚里士多德被认为是最早研究形式逻辑的人，他对形式逻辑的概念一直是西方逻辑的主导形式，直到19世纪数理逻辑的发展。康德在《纯粹理性批判说，随着亚里士多德的逻辑达到了它的完成。
====''Organon''====
{{main | Organon}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
{| class="wikitable floatright"
{ | class = “ wikitable floatright”
|+ One of Aristotle's [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]]{{efn-ua|This [[Syllogism#Types|type of syllogism]], with all three terms in 'a', is known by the traditional (medieval) [[mnemonic]] [[Baralipton|B'''a'''rb'''a'''r'''a''']].{{sfn|Lagerlund|2016}}}}
|+ One of Aristotle's types of syllogism}}
| + 亚里士多德的三段论类型之一}
! In words !! In terms{{efn-ua|M is the Middle (here, Men), S is the Subject (Greeks), P is the Predicate (mortal).{{sfn|Lagerlund|2016}}}} !! In equations{{efn-ua|The first equation can be read as 'It is not true that there exists an x such that x is a man and that x is not mortal.'{{sfn|Predicate Logic}}}}
! In words !! In terms}} !! In equations}}
!用语言! ！用术语} ！方程式}
|-
|-
|-
| All men are mortal.<br><br> All Greeks are men.<br><br>[[Therefore sign|∴]] All Greeks are mortal.||M a P<br><br>S a M<br><br>S a P||[[File:Modus Barbara Equations.svg|180px]]
| All men are mortal.<br><br> All Greeks are men.<br><br>∴ All Greeks are mortal.||M a P<br><br>S a M<br><br>S a P||180px
所有的希腊人都是人。所有的希腊人都是凡人
|}
|}
|}
What we today call ''Aristotelian logic'' with its [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]] (methods of logical argument),{{sfn| Lagerlund | 2016}} Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the ''[[Organon]]'' around 40 BC by [[Andronicus of Rhodes]] or others among his followers.{{sfn| Pickover | 2009 | page=52}} The books are:
What we today call Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are:
今天我们称之为亚里士多德逻辑的三段论(逻辑论证的方法) ，亚里士多德自己可能会称之为“分析”。他所说的“逻辑”一词是指辩证法。亚里士多德的大部分作品可能并不是原来的形式，因为它很可能是由学生和后来的讲师编辑的。大约在公元前40年左右，亚里士多德及其追随者将他的逻辑著作汇编成了一套6本名为《罗德的尼克斯。这些书是:
# ''[[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]]''
Categories
类别
# ''[[On Interpretation]]''
On Interpretation
解释篇
# ''[[Prior Analytics]]''
Prior Analytics
优先分析
# ''[[Posterior Analytics]]''
Posterior Analytics
后分析篇
# ''[[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]]''
Topics
主题
# ''[[On Sophistical Refutations]]''[[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg | thumb | upright | [[Plato]] (left) and Aristotle in [[Raphael]]'s 1509 fresco, ''[[The School of Athens]]''. Aristotle holds his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' and gestures to the earth, representing his view in immanent realism, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''.{{sfn| School of Athens}}{{sfn|Stewart|2019}}]]
On Sophistical Refutations [[Plato (left) and Aristotle in Raphael's 1509 fresco, The School of Athens. Aristotle holds his Nicomachean Ethics and gestures to the earth, representing his view in immanent realism, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his Timaeus.]]
关于诡辩篇[拉斐尔1509年的壁画《雅典学派》中的柏拉图(左)和亚里士多德。亚里士多德举着他的尼各马可伦理学和手势指向大地，用内在的现实主义表达他的观点，而柏拉图举着手势指向天堂，表明他的形式理论，并举着他的蒂迈乌斯
The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics''){{sfn| Prior Analytics | pp= 24b18–20}}{{sfn| Bobzien | 2015}} and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The ''Rhetoric'' is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the ''Topics''.{{sfn| Smith | 2017}}
The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics.
这些书的顺序(或者说是它们的教义)并不确定，但是这个清单是从对亚里士多德著作的分析中得出的。它从基础、范畴中简单术语的分析、命题的分析以及它们之间的基本关系发展到解释篇中更为复杂的形式，即三段论和辩证诡辩篇。前三篇论文构成了严格意义上的逻辑理论的核心: 逻辑语言的语法和正确的推理规则。《修辞学》没有按照惯例包括在内，但它指出它依赖于《论题》。
===Metaphysics===
{{main|Metaphysics (Aristotle)}}
The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name ''Metaphysics''.{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}} Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (''theoretikē'') philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his ''Metaphysics'' (1026a16):
The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics. Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16):
“形而上学”这个词似乎是由公元一世纪的一位广告编辑创造的，他把亚里士多德的作品中的一些小片段汇编成我们所知的《形而上学》这篇论文。亚里士多德称之为“第一哲学” ，并把它与数学和自然科学(物理学)区别开来，称之为沉思(理论)哲学，即“神学”和研究神性。他在《形而上学》(1026a16)中写道:
{{quote | if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal ''in just this way'', because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.{{sfn| Aristotle | 1999 | page=111}}}}
==== Substance ====
{{see | Hylomorphism }}
Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] (''ousia'') and [[essence]] (''to ti ên einai'', "the what it was to be") in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called [[hylomorphism]]. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1043a 10–30}}{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}
Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.
亚里士多德在他的《形而上学》(第七卷)中研究了物质和本质的概念，他认为一个特定的物质是物质和形式的结合体，这是一个哲学理论，叫做亚同态论。在第八卷中，他区分了物质作为底层或构成它的东西的物质。例如，房子的物质是砖块、石头、木材等等，或者其他任何构成潜在房子的东西，而物质的形式是实际的房子，也就是‘覆盖身体和动产’或者任何其他让我们定义房子的差异。给出组分的公式是对物质的说明，给出差分的公式是对形式的说明。
===== Immanent realism =====
[[File:Platonic and Aristotelian Forms.svg | thumb | upright=1.6 | [[Plato]]'s [[Theory of forms|forms]] exist as [[universals]], like the ideal form of an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing ([[hylomorphism]]).]]
[[Plato's forms exist as universals, like the ideal form of an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing (hylomorphism).]]
柏拉图的形式作为普遍存在，就像苹果的理想形式一样。对于亚里士多德来说，物质和形式都属于个体的东西(亚同态论)
{{main|Aristotle's theory of universals}}
Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the [[Problem of universals|universal]]. Aristotle's [[ontology]] places the universal (''katholou'') in [[particular]]s (''kath' hekaston''), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what [[phenomena]] are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}
Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.
和他的老师柏拉图一样，亚里士多德的哲学也是以普遍性为目标的。亚里士多德的本体论把普遍性(天主教)放在具体的事物(凯斯的希卡斯顿)中，而对柏拉图来说，普遍性是实际事物模仿的一种单独的存在形式。对于亚里士多德来说，“形式”仍然是现象的基础，但是在一个特定的实体中“实例化”。
Plato argued that all things have a [[Theory of forms|universal form]], which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}{{sfn| Lloyd | 1968 | pages=43–47}}
Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.
柏拉图认为所有的事物都有一种普遍的形式，这种形式既可以是一种属性，也可以是与其他事物的关系。例如，当我们看一个苹果，我们看到一个苹果，我们也可以分析一个苹果的形状。在这个区别中，有一个特定的苹果和一个通用的苹果形式。此外，我们可以把苹果放在书的旁边，这样我们就可以说书和苹果是挨着的。柏拉图认为有一些普遍的形式不是特定事物的一部分。例如，有可能不存在特定的善，但“善”仍然是一种适当的普遍形式。亚里士多德不同意柏拉图在这一点上的观点，他认为所有的共相都是在某个时期实例化的，并且没有任何共相是独立于现有事物的。此外，亚里士多德不同意柏拉图关于共相的位置的观点。在柏拉图谈到形式世界时，亚里士多德认为，普遍性存在于每一个事物之中，每一个普遍性都是以这个事物为基础的。所以，根据亚里士多德的理论，苹果的形式存在于每个苹果中，而不是存在于形式的世界中。
===== Potentiality and actuality =====
{{see | Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)}}
With regard to the change (''[[Potentiality and actuality|kinesis]]'') and its causes now, as he defines in his ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' and ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'' 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:
With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from:
关于现在的变化(动态)及其原因，正如他在《物理学》和《论生成与腐败》319b-320a 中所定义的那样，他将变化的来源区分为:
# growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;
growth and diminution, which is change in quantity;
增长和减少，即数量的变化;
# locomotion, which is change in space; and
locomotion, which is change in space; and
运动，即空间的变化; 以及
# alteration, which is change in quality.
alteration, which is change in quality.
改变，也就是质量的改变。
[[File:Flute-player dolphin Alcesti Group MAN.jpg | thumb | Aristotle argued that a capability like playing the flute could be acquired – [[Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)|the potential made actual]] – by learning.]]
the potential made actual – by learning.]]
[潜力实现-通过学习]
The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (''[[Dunamis|dynamis]]'') and actuality (''[[entelecheia]]'') in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (''dynamei'') plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (''poiein'') or 'be acted upon' (''paschein''), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (''telos'') is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}
The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.
形成是一种变化，其中没有任何东西持续存在，所产生的结果是一种属性。在这种特殊的变化中，他引入了与物质和形式相联系的潜在性(动力)和现实性(真实性)的概念。所谓潜能，是指一个事物在条件合适且不受其他事物阻碍的情况下，能够做或被做的事情。例如，土壤中植物的种子是潜在的(发电机)植物，如果没有什么东西阻止它，它就会变成植物。潜在的生命既可以“行动”(poiein) ，也可以“被行动”(paschein) ，这既可以是先天的，也可以是后天的。例如，眼睛具有视觉潜能(先天行为) ，而长笛演奏能力可以通过学习(练习动作)来实现。现实是潜能最终的实现。因为目的是一切变化的原则，而目的是潜在的，所以现实就是目的。然后参照我们前面的例子，我们可以说现状是当一个植物做植物做的活动之一。
{{quote | For that for the sake of which (''to hou heneka'') a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=IX 1050a 5–10}}}}
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a [[final cause]] or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to [[Plato]] there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1045a–b}}
In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.
总而言之，房屋的物质具有作为房屋的潜力，建筑活动和最终房屋的形式都是现实，也是最终的原因或目的。然后亚里士多德进一步得出结论: 无论是在公式上，在时间上，还是在实体上，现实性都优于潜在性。亚里士多德对特定的物质(即物质和形式)下了这样的定义，他试图解决众生统一的问题，例如，“是什么使人合而为一? ”？既然根据柏拉图的理念有两种: 动物和两足动物，那么人又是如何统一的呢？然而，按照亚里士多德的说法，潜在的存在(物质)和实际的存在(形式)是一样的。
===Epistemology===
Aristotle's immanent realism means his [[epistemology]] is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal [[Theory of Forms|Forms]] (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these.{{sfn|Smith|2017}} Aristotle uses [[Inductive reasoning|induction]] from examples alongside [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]], whereas Plato relies on deduction from ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' principles.{{sfn|Smith|2017}}
Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori principles.
亚里士多德的内在实在论意味着他的认识论是建立在对世界上存在或发生的事物的研究之上的，并上升到对普遍性的认识，而柏拉图的认识论则是从对普遍形式(或思想)的认识开始，并下降到对这些特定的模仿的认识。亚里士多德在演绎推理的同时也使用例证的归纳，而柏拉图则依赖于先验原则的演绎推理。
==Natural philosophy==
Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences.{{sfn| Wildberg | 2016}} In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (''Metaphysics'' 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.{{sfn|Wildberg|2016}}
Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.
亚里士多德的“自然哲学”涵盖了广泛的自然现象，包括现在被物理学、生物学和其他自然科学所覆盖的自然现象。在亚里士多德的术语中，“自然哲学”是哲学的一个分支，研究自然世界的现象，包括今天被认为是物理学、生物学和其他自然科学的领域。亚里士多德的著作几乎涵盖了智力探究的所有方面。亚里士多德使广义的哲学与推理同时延伸，他也称之为“科学”。然而，请注意，他对“科学方法”一词的使用与“科学方法”一词所涵盖的含义不同。对于亚里士多德来说，“所有的科学(dianoia)要么是实践的，要么是诗意的，要么是理论的”(《形而上学》1025b25)。他的实践科学包括伦理学和政治学，他的诗学是包括诗学在内的美术学，他的理论科学包括物理学、数学和形而上学。
===Physics===
[[File:Four Classical Elements in Burning Log.svg | thumb | The four [[classical element]]s (fire, air, water, earth) of [[Empedocles]] and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.]]
The four [[classical elements (fire, air, water, earth) of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.]]
Empedocles 和亚里士多德的四元素(火、气、水、土)用燃烧的圆木来说明。日志在被销毁时释放所有四个元素。]
{{main | Aristotelian physics}}
====Five elements====
{{main | Classical element}}
In his ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'', Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by [[Empedocles]], [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], [[Water (classical element)|Water]], [[Air (classical element)|Air]], and [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly [[Aether (classical element)|Aether]], the divine substance of the [[Celestial spheres|heavenly spheres]], stars and planets.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1968 | pages=133–39, 166–69}}
In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets.
在《论世代与腐败》一书中，亚里士多德将恩培多克勒早期提出的四种元素---- 土、水、空气和火---- 中的每一种都与四种可感知的性质中的两种相联系，即热、冷、湿和干。在恩佩多克林计划中，所有物质都是由四种元素按不同的比例组成的。亚里士多德的方案增加了天上的以太，天上的球体，恒星和行星的神圣物质。
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
{ | class = “ wikitable”
|+ [[Classical element|Aristotle's elements]]{{sfn|Lloyd|1968|pages=133–39, 166–69}}
|+ Aristotle's elements
| + 亚里士多德的元素
! Element !!{{font color|red|Hot}}/{{font color|blue|Cold}} !!{{font color|green|Wet}}/{{font color|brown|Dry}} !! Motion !! Modern [[State of matter|state<br>of matter]]
! Element !!/ !!/ !! Motion !! Modern state<br>of matter
!元素！!/ !!/ !!动作! ！物质的现代状态
|-
|-
|-
|'''[[Earth (classical element)|Earth]]'''||{{font color|blue|Cold}}||{{font color|brown|Dry}}||Down||[[Solid]]
|Earth||||||Down||Solid
地球固体
|-
|-
|-
|'''[[Water (classical element)|Water]]'''||{{font color|blue|Cold}}||{{font color|green|Wet}}||Down||[[Liquid]]
|Water||||||Down||Liquid
水下液体
|-
|-
|-
|'''[[Air (classical element)|Air]]'''||{{font color|red|Hot}}||{{font color|green|Wet}}||Up||[[Gas]]
|Air||||||Up||Gas
空气上升气体
|-
|-
|-
|'''[[Fire (classical element)|Fire]]'''||{{font color|red|Hot}}||{{font color|brown|Dry}}||Up||[[Plasma (physics)|Plasma]]
|Fire||||||Up||Plasma
启动等离子体
|-
|-
|-
|'''[[Aether (classical element)|Aether]]'''||(divine<br>substance)||—||Circular<br>(in heavens)||—
|Aether||(divine<br>substance)||—||Circular<br>(in heavens)||—
| 乙醚 | | (神圣的物质) | | | ー | | 圆形的 < br > (在天堂) | | | ー
|}
|}
|}
====Motion====
{{see | History of classical mechanics}}
Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the ''Physics'' (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in ''On the Heavens'' (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also; in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,{{sfn| Allain | 2016}}{{efn-ua | Rhett Allain notes that [[Newton's First Law]] is "essentially a direct reply to Aristotle, that the natural state is ''not to change'' motion.{{sfn| Allain | 2016}}}} since Aristotle does not address [[friction]].{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}{{efn-ua | Leonard Susskind comments that Aristotle had clearly never gone [[ice skating]] or he would have seen that it takes force to stop an object.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}}} This would imply the equation{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}
Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also; in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,}} since Aristotle does not address friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.}} This would imply the equation
亚里士多德描述了两种运动: “猛烈的”或“非自然的运动” ，例如物理学中的扔石头(254b10) ，以及“自然运动” ，例如天空中的坠落物(300a20)。在剧烈运动中，一旦施动者停止引起，运动也停止; 换句话说，一个物体的自然状态是静止，}因为亚里士多德没有提到摩擦。基于这种理解，我们可以观察到，正如亚里士多德所说，重物(比如地面上的物体)需要更大的力才能使其移动，而受到更大力推动的物体移动得更快这将意味着等式
:: <math>F=mv</math>,
<math>F=mv</math>,
“数学” = “数学”
incorrect in modern physics.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}
incorrect in modern physics.
在现代物理学中是错误的。
Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,{{efn-ua | For heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon, and stars, the observed motions are "to a very good approximation" circular around the Earth's centre, (for example, the apparent rotation of the sky because of the rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the moon around the Earth) as Aristotle stated.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}}} while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}{{efn-ua | Drabkin quotes numerous passages from ''Physics'' and ''On the Heavens'' (''De Caelo'') which state Aristotle's laws of motion.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}}}
Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,}} while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.}}
自然运动取决于相关元素: 以太自然地围绕天空运动，}而4个 Empedoclean 元素垂直向上(如火，被观察到)或向下(如地球)朝向它们的自然栖息地。}
[[File:Aristotle's laws of motion.svg | thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle's laws of motion. In ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}]]
Physics he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in. This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.]]
物理学上，他认为物体下落的速度与它们的重量成正比，与它们所浸没的液体的密度成反比。这是地球引力场中在空气或水中运动的物体的正确近似值。]
In the ''Physics'' (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,{{efn-ua | Drabkin agrees that density is treated quantitatively in this passage, but without a sharp definition of density as weight per unit volume.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}}} ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}
In the Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,}} ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:
在《物理学》(215a25)中，亚里士多德有效地阐述了一个定量定律，即物体下落的速度 v 与其重量 w 成正比(例如，与常数 c 成正比) ，与其下落的流体密度成反比:
:: <math>v=c\frac{W}{\rho}</math>
<math>v=c\frac{W}{\rho}</math>
[ math > v = c frac { w }{ rho } </math >
Aristotle implies that in a [[vacuum]] the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view"{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative,{{sfn| Carteron | 1923 | pages=1–32 and passim}} but other authors reject this.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}
Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this.
亚里士多德暗示，在真空中，坠落的速度将是无限的，并从这个表面的荒谬得出结论，真空是不可能存在的。关于亚里士多德是否打算陈述定量法则，人们的意见各不相同。亨利 · 卡特龙持有“极端观点” ，认为亚里士多德的力的概念基本上是定性的，但其他作者拒绝这一点。
[[Archimedes]] corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they [[Archimedes' principle|displace enough water]]; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}
Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.
阿基米德纠正了亚里士多德的理论，即物体朝着它们自然休息的地方移动; 金属船只如果置换了足够多的水就能浮起来; 浮起取决于物体的质量和体积，而不是亚里士多德认为的基本构成。
Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the [[Early Modern]] period. [[John Philoponus]] (in the [[Middle Ages]]) and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.{{sfn| Wildberg | 2016}} A contrary opinion is given by [[Carlo Rovelli]], who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the [[Earth]]'s gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}{{efn-ua | Philoponus and Galileo correctly objected that for the transient phase (still increasing in speed) with heavy objects falling a short distance, the law does not apply: Galileo used balls on a short incline to show this. Rovelli notes that "Two heavy balls with the same shape and different weight do fall at different speeds from an aeroplane, confirming Aristotle's theory, not Galileo's."{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}}}
Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.}}
亚里士多德关于运动的著作一直影响到近代早期。约翰 · 菲洛普诺斯(中世纪)和伽利略据说通过实验证明，亚里士多德声称重物比轻物体下落得快的说法是错误的。他认为亚里士多德关于运动的物理学在其有效性的范围内是正确的，即地球引力场中的物体浸没在空气这样的流体中。在这个系统中，稳定下落的重物体确实比轻物体运动得更快(不管摩擦力是否被忽略) ，而且它们在密度更大的介质中下落得更慢。}
Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval [[theory of impetus]].{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}
Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.
牛顿的“强迫”运动相当于亚里士多德的“暴力”运动及其外部因素，但亚里士多德的假设，该因素的影响立即停止它停止行动(例如，球离开投掷者的手)有尴尬的后果: 他必须假设周围的液体有助于推动球沿着，使它继续上升，即使手不再作用于它，导致中世纪的冲力说。
====Four causes====
{{main | Four causes}}
[[File:Aristotle's Four Causes of a Table.svg | thumb | upright=1.6 | Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from [[four causes]]: in the case of a table, the wood used ([[material cause]]), its design ([[formal cause]]), the tools and techniques used ([[efficient cause]]), and its decorative or practical purpose ([[final cause]]).{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=88–90}}]]
Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from [[four causes: in the case of a table, the wood used (material cause), its design (formal cause), the tools and techniques used (efficient cause), and its decorative or practical purpose (final cause).]]
亚里士多德用木制品作类比，认为一件东西的形状来源于[[四个原因: 就桌子而言，使用的木材(材料原因) ，其设计(形式原因) ，使用的工具和技术(有效原因) ，以及其装饰性或实际目的(最终原因)]
Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term ''aitia'' is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}}{{sfn| Hankinson | 1998 | page=159}}
Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.
亚里士多德认为，任何事物产生的原因可以归结为四种不同类型的同时活跃的因素。他的术语 aitia 传统上被翻译为“原因” ，但它并不总是指时间顺序; 它可能更好地翻译为“解释” ，但传统的解释将在这里使用。
* [[Material cause]] describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}}
* The [[formal cause]] is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}}
* The [[efficient cause]] is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}} In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of [[developmental biology|how it develops from the egg]], and [[physiology|how its body functions]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=91–92, 369–73}}
* The [[final cause]] (''telos'') is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}} In the case of living things, it implies [[adaptation]] to a particular way of life.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=91–92, 369–73}}
====Optics====
{{further | History of optics}}
Aristotle describes experiments in [[optics]] using a [[camera obscura]] in ''[[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]]'', book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small [[aperture]] that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.{{sfn| Lahanas}}
Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.
亚里士多德在《问题》第15卷中描述了用暗箱进行光学实验的情况。这个装置包括一个带有小孔的暗室，可以让光线进入。有了它，他发现无论他创造了什么形状的洞，太阳的形象总是保持圆形。他还指出，增加光圈和图像表面之间的距离放大了图像。
====Chance and spontaneity====
{{further | Accident (philosophy)}}
According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of [[Accident (philosophy)|accidental things]], "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.{{sfn| Physics | p=2.6}}{{sfn| Miller | 1973 | pp=204–13}}
According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.
根据亚里士多德的观点，自发性和偶然性是某些事情的原因，与其他类型的原因，如简单的必然性是有区别的。偶然作为一种偶然的原因存在于偶然事物的领域，“来自于自发的”。还有一种特殊的机会，亚里士多德称之为“运气” ，它只适用于人们的道德选择。
===Astronomy===
{{further | History of astronomy}}
In [[astronomy]], Aristotle refuted [[Democritus]]'s claim that the [[Milky Way]] was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."{{sfn| Meteorology | p=1. 8}}
In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."
在天文学领域，亚里士多德驳斥了德谟克利特的观点，即银河系是由“那些被地球遮蔽的恒星，它们不受太阳光线的影响”构成的。亚里士多德正确地指出，如果“太阳的大小大于地球的大小，而恒星与地球的距离比太阳大许多倍，那么... ... 太阳照耀着所有的恒星，而地球却不遮挡任何一颗恒星。”
[[File:DenglerSW-Stromboli-20040928-1230x800.jpg | thumb | Aristotle noted that the ground level of the [[Aeolian islands]] changed before a [[volcanic eruption]].]]
Aristotle noted that the ground level of the [[Aeolian islands changed before a volcanic eruption.]]
亚里士多德注意到[[伊奥利亚群岛在火山喷发类型之前改变了]]的地平面
===Geology===
{{further | History of geology}}
Aristotle was one of the first people to record any [[geology|geological]] observations. He stated that [[Uniformitarianism|geological change]] was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.{{sfn| Moore | 1956 | page=13}}{{sfn| Meteorology | p=Book 1, Part 14}}
Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.
亚里士多德是最早记录地质观测的人之一。他说，地质变化过于缓慢，无法在一个人的一生中观察到。
The geologist [[Charles Lyell]] noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the [[Nile delta]] since the time of [[Homer]], and "the upheaving of one of the [[Aeolian islands]], previous to a [[volcanic eruption]]."'{{sfn| Lyell | 1832 | page=17}}
The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."'
地质学家 Charles Lyell 指出，亚里士多德描述了这种变化，包括“干涸的湖泊”和“被河流灌溉的沙漠” ，举例说明自荷马时代以来尼罗河三角洲的增长，以及“伊奥利亚群岛中的一个岛屿在火山喷发类型之前隆起”
===Biology===
{{main | Aristotle's biology}}
[[File:Tremoctopus violaceus5.jpg | thumb | upright | Among many pioneering zoological observations, Aristotle described the reproductive [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]] of the [[octopus]] (bottom left).]]
hectocotyl arm of the octopus (bottom left).]]
[章鱼的手臂(左下)]
====Empirical research====
Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically,{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=7}} and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of [[Lesbos]] and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=14}}{{sfn| Thompson | 1910 | page=Prefatory Note}} His data in ''[[History of Animals]]'', ''[[Generation of Animals]]'', ''[[Movement of Animals]]'', and ''[[Parts of Animals]]'' are assembled from his own observations,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/darwins-ghosts-by-rebecca-stott-7808310.html|title=Darwin's Ghosts, By Rebecca Stott
Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.
亚里士多德是第一个系统地研究生物学的人，生物学构成了他作品的很大一部分。他花了两年时间观察和描述莱斯博斯岛和周围海域的生态环境，特别是莱斯博斯岛中心的皮拉泻湖。他在《动物史》、《动物的世代》、《动物的运动》和《动物的部分》中的数据是根据他自己的观察、养蜂人和渔民等具有专业知识的人给出的陈述以及来自海外的旅行者提供的不太准确的描述汇编而成的。他明显强调动物而不是植物是一个历史偶然: 他的植物学著作已经遗失，但他的学生 Theophrastus 写的两本植物书却保存了下来。
|website=independent.co.uk|date=2 June 2012
|access-date=19 June 2012}}</ref> statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=196, 248}} His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on [[botany]] have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.{{sfn| Day | 2013 | pp=5805–16}}
Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark.
亚里士多德通过对莱斯博斯岛的观察和渔民的捕获来描述海洋生物。他详细地描述了鲶鱼、电鳐和蛙鱼，以及章鱼和纸鹦鹉螺等头足类动物。直到19世纪，人们才广泛相信他所描述的头足类动物中的百克/胚轴臂，这一说法在20世纪有性生殖被广泛使用。他准确地描述了反刍动物的四腔前胃和猎鲨的卵胎生胚胎发育。
Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the [[catfish]], [[electric ray]], and [[frogfish]] in detail, as well as [[cephalopod]]s such as the [[octopus]] and [[paper nautilus]]. His description of the [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]] of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=66–74, 137}} He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of [[ruminant]]s,{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=118–19}} and of the [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]] embryological development of the [[hound shark]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=73}}
He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct.
他指出，动物的结构与功能非常匹配，因此，在鸟类中，生活在软泥沼泽、以捕鱼为生的苍鹭，有着长长的脖子和长长的腿，以及锋利的矛状喙，而会游泳的鸭子则有短短的腿和有蹼的脚。达尔文也注意到了相似种类动物之间的这些差异，但不像亚里士多德利用这些数据得出了进化论。在现代读者看来，亚里士多德的著作似乎暗示了进化论，但当亚里士多德意识到新的突变或杂交可能会发生时，他认为这些都是罕见的偶然事件。对于亚里士多德来说，意外事故，就像冬天的热浪一样，必须区别于自然原因。因此，他批评了恩培多克勒的唯物主义理论，即生物及其器官起源于适者生存，并嘲笑意外事故可能导致有序结果的观点。用现代术语来说，他并没有说不同的物种可以有共同的祖先，或者一种可以变成另一种，或者一种可以灭绝。
He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the [[heron]], which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas [[duck]]s that swim have short legs and webbed feet.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=135–36}} [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of [[evolution]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=206}} Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or [[Hybridisation (biology)|hybridizations]] could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results.{{sfn| Sedley | 2007 | page=189}} To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a [[common descent|common ancestor]], or that one kind can [[speciation|change into another]], or that kinds can become [[extinction|extinct]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=273}}
Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that [[brood size decreases with body mass, whereas gestation period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.]]
亚里士多德从他对动物的观察中推断出生长规律，其中包括[繁殖数量随体重减少，而妊娠期增加。他的这些预测是正确的，至少对哺乳动物来说是正确的: 数据显示的是老鼠和大象。]
====Scientific style====
[[File:Two of Aristotle's Growth Laws.svg | thumb | left | upright=1.4 | Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that [[brood size]] decreases with body mass, whereas [[gestation]] period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.]]
Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.
亚里士多德没有做现代意义上的实验。他用古希腊术语 peiramenoi 来表示观察，或者至多是像解剖这样的调查性手术。在《动物世代》一书中，他找到一个受精鸡蛋的适当阶段，打开它，看到胚胎的心脏在里面跳动。
Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense.{{sfn| Taylor | 1922 | page=42}} He used the ancient Greek term ''pepeiramenoi'' to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=361–65}} In ''Generation of Animals'', he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.{{sfn| Leroi | 2011}}{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=197–200}}
Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.
相反，他实践了一种不同的科学风格: 系统地收集数据，发现整个动物群体的共同模式，并从中推断可能的因果解释。这种风格在现代生物学中很常见，当大量数据在一个新的领域(如基因组学)可用时。它没有产生与实验科学相同的确定性，但它提出了可检验的假说，并对观察到的事物建立了叙述性的解释。从这个意义上说，亚里士多德的生物学是科学的。
Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=365–68}}{{sfn| Taylor | 1922 | page=49}} This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as [[genomics]]. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=365–68}}
From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.
从他收集和记录的数据中，亚里士多德推断出许多他所研究的四足动物(陆生胎盘哺乳动物)生活史特征的规律。以下是正确的预测。幼体大小随着(成年)体重的增加而减少，因此大象每窝产下的幼体(通常只有一个)比老鼠少。寿命随着妊娠期和体重的增加而延长，因此大象比老鼠活得更长，妊娠期更长，体重也更重。最后一个例子是，繁殖力随着寿命的延长而减少，所以像大象这样的长寿种类的幼崽总数要少于像老鼠这样的短寿种类。
From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of [[biological rules|rules]] relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. [[Life expectancy|Lifespan]] increases with [[gestation period]], and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, [[fecundity]] decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=408}}{{-}}
====Classification of living things====
Aristotle recorded that the [[embryo of <!--a different species shown-->a dogfish was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.]]
亚里士多德记录到[[另一种鱼的胚胎]角鲨鱼像高等动物一样被一根细绳连接到一种胎盘(卵黄囊)上，这是从最高到最低的线形鳞片的例外]
{{further | Scala naturae}}
[[File:Scyliorhinus retifer embryo.JPG | thumb | Aristotle recorded that the [[embryo]] of [[Mustelus canis|<!--a different species shown-->a dogfish]] was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the [[yolk sac]]), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=72–74}}]]
Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a scala naturae, with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals. see also: He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle,<!--Leroi | p= 113--> is convergent evolution. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.
亚里士多德区分了大约500种动物，将它们按照完美的等级排列在《动物史》一书中---- 一种自然史诗，其中人类居首。他的系统有十一个等级的动物，从最高的潜力到最低的，表现在他们出生的形式: 最高产生活热和潮湿的生物，最低产生寒冷，干燥的矿物质样的蛋。动物高于植物，而植物又高于矿物。另见: 他将现代动物学家所称的脊椎动物归类为更热的“有血动物” ，其次是较冷的无脊椎动物“无血动物”。那些有血的被分为活的(哺乳动物)和产卵的(鸟类，爬行动物，鱼类)。那些没有血液的是昆虫，甲壳动物(非壳头足类和有壳)和硬壳软体动物(双壳类和腹足类)。他认识到动物并不完全符合一个线性尺度，并注意到各种例外，例如鲨鱼有一个像四足动物一样的胎盘。对于一个现代生物学家来说，亚里士多德无法得到的解释是: 趋同演化。他认为，目的性的最终原因指导着所有的自然过程; 这种目的论的观点证明了他的观察数据是形式设计的表达。
Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of [[animal]]s,{{sfn| Bergstrom | Dugatkin | 2012 | page=35}}{{sfn| Rhodes | 1974 | page=7}} arranging these in the ''History of Animals'' in a graded scale of perfection, a ''[[scala naturae]]'', with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave [[viviparity|live birth]] to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above [[plant]]s, and these in turn were above minerals.{{sfn| Mayr | 1982 | pages=201–02}} see also:{{sfn| Lovejoy | 1976}} He grouped what the modern zoologist would call [[vertebrate]]s as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder [[invertebrate]]s as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing ([[mammal]]s), and the egg-laying ([[bird]]s, [[reptile]]s, [[fish]]). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and [[crustacea|shelled]]) and the hard-shelled [[mollusc]]s ([[bivalve]]s and [[gastropod]]s). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a [[placenta]] like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle,<!--Leroi | p= 113--> is [[convergent evolution]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=111–19}} He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this [[teleological]] view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | pp=43–44}}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%;"
{ | class = “ wikitable” style = “ font-size: 80% ; ”
|+ Aristotle's Scala naturae (highest to lowest)
| + 亚里士多德的自然史卡拉(最高到最低)
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%;"
! Group !! Examples<br>(given by Aristotle) !! Blood !! Legs !! Souls<br>(Rational,<br>Sensitive,<br>Vegetative) !! Qualities<br>(–,<br>–)
!集合! ！例子 < br > (由亚里士多德给出) ! ！血! ！腿! ！灵魂(理性，敏感，植物人) ! ！质量 < br > (- ，< br > -)
|+ Aristotle's ''[[Scala naturae]]'' (highest to lowest)
|-
|-
! Group !! Examples<br>(given by Aristotle) !! Blood !! Legs !! Souls<br>(Rational,<br>Sensitive,<br>Vegetative) !! Qualities<br>({{font color|red|Hot}}–{{font color|blue|Cold}},<br>{{font color|green|Wet}}–{{font color|brown|Dry}})
|Man||Man||with blood||2 legs||R, S, V||,
两条腿上有血的男人,
|-
|-
|-
|Man||Man||with blood||2 legs||R, S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}
|Live-bearing tetrapods||Cat, hare||with blood||4 legs||S, V||,
四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足动物四足
|-
|-
|-
|[[Mammal|Live-bearing tetrapods]]||Cat, [[hare]]||with blood||4 legs||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}
|Cetaceans||Dolphin, whale||with blood||none||S, V||,
鲸目动物海豚，鲸鱼，带有血液,
|-
|-
|-
|[[Cetaceans]]||[[Dolphin]], [[whale]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}
|Birds||Bee-eater, nightjar||with blood||2 legs||S, V||, , except eggs
蜂虎鸟，夜鹰，有血的两条腿，除了蛋
|-
|-
|-
|[[Birds]]||[[Bee-eater]], [[nightjar]]||with blood||2 legs||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, except {{font color|brown|Dry}} eggs
|Egg-laying tetrapods||Chameleon, crocodile||with blood||4 legs||S, V||, except scales, eggs
有血的变色龙，鳄鱼，4条腿，除了鳞片，蛋
|-
|-
|-
|[[Reptile|Egg-laying tetrapods]]||[[Chameleon]], [[crocodile]]||with blood||4 legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs
|Snakes||Water snake, Ottoman viper||with blood||none||S, V||, except scales, eggs
蛇水蛇奥斯曼毒蛇无血，只有鳞片和卵
|-
|-
|-
|[[Snakes]]||Water snake, [[Ottoman viper]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs
|Egg-laying fishes||Sea bass, parrotfish||with blood||none||S, V||, , including eggs
产卵鱼产卵鱼产卵鲈鱼，鹦嘴鱼，包括卵
|-
|-
|-
|Egg-laying [[fish]]es||[[Sea bass]], [[Sparisoma cretense|parrotfish]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, including eggs
|(Among the egg-laying fishes):<br>placental selachians||Shark, skate||with blood||none||S, V||, , but placenta like tetrapods
产卵鱼类中的胎盘类，鲨鱼，带血的鳐鱼，但胎盘类四足动物
|-
|-
|-
|(Among the egg-laying fishes):<br>placental [[selachian]]s||[[Shark]], [[Skate (fish)|skate]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, but [[placenta]] like tetrapods
|Crustaceans||Shrimp, crab||without||many legs||S, V||, except shell
甲壳类动物虾，蟹，无多条腿，除外壳
|-
|-
|-
|[[Crustaceans]]||[[Shrimp]], [[crab]]||without||many legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except shell
|Cephalopods||Squid, octopus||without||tentacles||S, V||,
章鱼，没有触须,
|-
|-
|-
|[[Cephalopods]]||[[Squid]], [[octopus]]||without||tentacles||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}
|Hard-shelled animals||Cockle, trumpet snail||without||none||S, V||, (mineral shell)
硬壳动物(矿物外壳)
|-
|-
|-
|[[Mollusc|Hard-shelled animals]]||[[Cockle (bivalve)|Cockle]], [[Charonia variegata|trumpet snail]]||without||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} (mineral shell)
|Larva-bearing insects||Ant, cicada||without||6 legs||S, V||,
蚂蚁，蝉，没有6条腿,
|-
|-
|-
|Larva-bearing insects||[[Ant]], [[cicada]]||without||6 legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}}
|Spontaneously-generating||Sponges, worms||without||none||S, V||, or , from earth
从地球上自发产生的海绵体，蠕虫
|-
|-
|-
|[[Spontaneous generation|Spontaneously-generating]]||[[Sponges]], [[worm]]s||without||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} or {{font color|brown|Dry}}, from earth
|Plants||Fig||without||none||V||,
植物没有无花果,
|-
|-
|-
|[[Plants]]||[[Common fig|Fig]]||without||none||V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}}
|Minerals||Iron||without||none||none||,
没有矿物没有铁，没有铁,
|-
|}
|}
|[[Mineral]]s||Iron||without||none||none||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}}
|}
===Psychology===
====Soul====
structure for souls of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.]]
植物，动物和人类灵魂的结构，使得人类拥有三种灵魂。]
{{further | On the Soul}}
[[File:Aristotelian Soul.png | thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle proposed a three-part [[Soul#Aristotle|structure for souls]] of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.]]
Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psychēs), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and logos (reason).
亚里士多德的心理学在他的论文《论灵魂》中提出了三种灵魂(“心理”) : 植物人的灵魂、敏感的灵魂和理性的灵魂。人类有理性的灵魂。人类的灵魂吸收了其他种类的力量: 就像植物人的灵魂一样，它可以生长并滋养自己; 就像敏感的灵魂一样，它可以体验感觉并在当地活动。人类理性灵魂的独特之处在于它能够接受其他事物的形式，并用理性(智力)和理性(理性)进行比较。
Aristotle's [[psychology]], given in his treatise ''[[On the Soul]]'' (''peri psychēs''), posits three kinds of [[soul]] ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the ''[[Nous#Aristotle|nous]]'' (intellect) and ''logos'' (reason).{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=156–63}}
For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon.
对亚里士多德来说，灵魂是生命的形式。因为所有的生命都是形式和物质的组合，所以生命的形式就是赋予他们特定于生命的东西。启动运动的能力(或者在植物的情况下，生长和化学转化，亚里士多德认为运动的类型)。与早期的哲学家不同，但是和埃及人一样，他把理性的灵魂放在心里，而不是大脑。值得注意的是亚里士多德对感觉和思想的划分，这通常不同于以前的哲学家的概念，除了 Alcmaeon。
For Aristotle, the soul is the [[Hylomorphism#Body–soul hylomorphism|form]] of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).{{sfn| Shields | 2016}} In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p=45}} Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]].{{sfn| Guthrie | 2010 | p=348}}
====Memory====
According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian 'common sense', and thinking.
根据亚里士多德在《论灵魂》一书中的观点，记忆是一种能够在头脑中持有一种感知的经验，并且能够区分内在的“表象”和过去发生的事情。换句话说，记忆是一种可以恢复的心理图像(幻觉)。亚里士多德认为，为了形成记忆，半流体的身体器官会经历几次变化。当刺激如图像或声音如此复杂，以至于神经系统不能立即接收所有的印象时，记忆就产生了。这些变化与感觉、亚里士多德的“常识”和思维的运作相同。
According to Aristotle in ''On the Soul'', memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.{{sfn| Bloch | 2007 | p=12}} In other words, a memory is a mental picture ([[wikt:phantasm|phantasm]]) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when [[stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian '[[common sense]]', and thinking.{{sfn| Bloch | 2007 | p=61}}{{sfn| Carruthers | 2007 | p=16}}
Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.
亚里士多德使用记忆这个术语来描述可以从感觉发展出来的印象中对经验的实际记忆，以及伴随印象而来的智力焦虑，因为它是在特定的时间形成的，并处理特定的内容。记忆是关于过去的，预测是关于未来的，感觉是关于现在的。印象的提取不能突然进行。我们需要一个过渡性的渠道，这个渠道位于我们过去的经验中，既是为了我们过去的经验，也是为了我们现在的经验。
Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.{{sfn| Bloch | 2007 | p=25}}
Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.
因为亚里士多德认为人们接受各种感官知觉，并把它们看作是印象，所以人们不断地将新的经验印象编织在一起。为了寻找这些印象，人们寻找记忆本身。在记忆中，如果一个经历被提供而不是一个特定的记忆，那个人会拒绝这个经历，直到他们找到他们想要的。当一个被提取的经验自然地跟随着另一个经验时，回忆就产生了。如果需要一连串的“影像” ，一个记忆会刺激下一个。当人们回忆起经历时，他们刺激某些先前的经历，直到他们到达需要的那一个。因此，回忆是对储存在记忆印象中的信息进行检索的自主活动。只有人类才能记住对智力活动的印象，比如数字和单词。具有时间感知能力的动物可以恢复他们过去观察到的记忆。记忆只涉及对所记住的事物和过去的时间的感知。
Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=30}} Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=25}} Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression.{{sfn| Carruthers | 2007 | p=19}} Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=296}}
Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the [[sensorium (the heart), linked by his laws of association (similarity, contrast, and contiguity).]]
亚里士多德心理学中的感官、知觉、记忆、梦境、行为。印象被储存在[感觉中枢(心脏) ，由他的联想法则(相似性、对比度和接触性)联系起来]。]
[[File:Aristotle Senses Perception Memory Dreams Action.svg | thumb | upright=2.3 | Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the [[sensorium]] (the heart), linked by his [[laws of association]] (similarity, contrast, and [[Contiguity (psychology)|contiguity]]).]]
Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.
亚里士多德认为，思维链，即以回忆某些印象为终点的思维链，与他的联想法则所描述的相似性、对比性和接近性等关系有着系统的联系。亚里士多德认为过去的经验隐藏在心灵深处。一股力量运作，唤醒隐藏的材料，带来实际的体验。根据亚里士多德的观点，联想是精神状态中与生俱来的力量，它作用于过去未表达的经验残余，使它们能够上升并被唤起。
Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and [[Contiguity (psychology)|contiguity]], described in his [[laws of association]]. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=259}}{{sfn | Sorabji | 2006 | p=54}}
====Dreams====
{{see | Dream#Classical history}}
Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness. Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary.
亚里士多德在《论睡眠与觉醒》中描述了睡眠。睡眠是由于过度使用感官或消化系统的结果，所以它对身体至关重要。当一个人睡着的时候，包括思考、感知、回忆和记忆在内的重要活动并不像清醒时那样起作用。因为一个人在睡眠中不能感觉到他们不能有欲望，这是感觉的结果。然而，感官能够在睡眠中工作，虽然不同，除非他们是疲倦的。
Aristotle describes sleep in ''On Sleep and Wakefulness''.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} or of digestion,{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} so it is vital to the body.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep,{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} albeit differently,{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} unless they are weary.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}}
Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then look away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature. In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia.
梦实际上并不包括感知刺激。在梦中，感觉仍然存在，只是方式有所改变。亚里士多德解释说，当一个人盯着一个移动的刺激物，比如水体中的波浪，然后看向别处，他们看到的下一个东西似乎是波动的。当一个人感知到一个刺激物，而这个刺激物不再是他们注意力的焦点时，就会留下一个印象。当身体是清醒的，感官功能正常，一个人不断遇到新的刺激，以感知，所以以前感知的刺激印象被忽略。然而，在睡眠过程中，由于没有新的分散注意力的感官体验，全天的印象都会被注意到。所以，梦是由这些持久的印象产生的。由于印象是所有留下的，而不是确切的刺激，梦并不类似于实际的清醒经验。在睡眠中，一个人的精神状态发生了改变。亚里士多德把一个沉睡的人比作一个对刺激有强烈感情的人。例如，一个对某人有着强烈迷恋的人可能会开始认为他们在任何地方都能看到那个人，因为他们被自己的感觉所控制。由于睡眠者处于易受影响的状态，无法做出判断，他们很容易被梦中出现的东西所欺骗，就像痴迷的人一样。这使人相信梦是真实的，即使梦本质上是荒谬的。在《德阿尼玛三世》3中，亚里士多德把创造、储存和回忆图像的能力归因于想象力的缺失---- 幻觉。
Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then look away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience.{{sfn| Modrak | 2009 | pp=169–81}} During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} In ''De Anima'' iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, ''phantasia''.{{sfn| Shields | 2016}}
One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.
亚里士多德关于梦的理论的一个组成部分不同意以前人们持有的观点。他声称梦不是预言，也不是神的旨意。亚里士多德自然地推断，梦与未来事件相似的事例只是巧合。亚里士多德声称，一个人在经历梦境时处于睡眠状态，这一事实首先确立了梦的存在。如果一个人在醒来后有一个画面出现了一会儿，或者如果他们在黑暗中看到了什么东西，那么这个画面就不被认为是一个梦，因为它发生时他们是醒着的。其次，当一个人睡着时所感知到的任何感官体验都不属于梦的一部分。例如，当一个人睡觉时，一扇门关上了，在他们的梦中他们听到一扇门关上了，这种感官体验不是梦的一部分。最后，梦境的图像必须是清醒时感官体验的持久印象的结果。
One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences.{{sfn| Webb | 1990 | pages=174–84}} Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.{{sfn| Modrak | 2009 | pp=169–81}}
==Practical philosophy==
Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.
亚里士多德的实践哲学涵盖了伦理学、政治学、经济学和修辞学等领域。
Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.{{sfn| Wildberg | 2016}}
{| class="wikitable floatright" align=right style="font-size: 80%;"
{ | class = “ wikitable floatright” align = right style = “ font-size: 80% ;
|+ Virtues and their accompanying vices
| + 美德及其相伴的恶习
{| class="wikitable floatright" align=right style="font-size: 80%;"
! Too little !! Virtuous mean !! Too much
!太少了！有德行的卑鄙！太多了
|+ Virtues and their accompanying vices{{sfn|Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}}
|-
|-
! Too little !! Virtuous mean !! Too much
|Humbleness||High-mindedness||Vainglory
|Humbleness||High-mindedness||Vainglory
|-
|-
|-
|Humbleness||High-mindedness||Vainglory
|Lack of purpose||Right ambition||Over-ambition
缺乏目标正确的雄心过于雄心勃勃
|-
|-
|-
|Lack of purpose||Right ambition||Over-ambition
|Spiritlessness||Good temper||Irascibility
无精打采脾气好脾气暴躁
|-
|-
|-
|Spiritlessness||Good temper||Irascibility
|Rudeness||Civility||Obsequiousness
粗鲁，礼貌，谄媚
|-
|-
|-
|Rudeness||Civility||Obsequiousness
|Cowardice||Courage||Rashness
懦弱，勇气，鲁莽
|-
|-
|-
|Cowardice||Courage||Rashness
|Insensibility||Self-control||Intemperance
不敏感 | | 自我控制 | | 放纵
|-
|-
|-
|Insensibility||Self-control||Intemperance
|Sarcasm||Sincerity||Boastfulness
真诚自夸
|-
|-
|-
|Sarcasm||Sincerity||Boastfulness
|Boorishness||Wit||Buffoonery
|Boorishness||Wit||Buffoonery
|-
|-
|-
|Boorishness||Wit||Buffoonery
|Shamelessness||Modesty||Shyness
羞耻，羞怯
|-
|-
|-
|Shamelessness||Modesty||Shyness
|Callousness||Just resentment||Spitefulness
冷漠，怨恨，恶意
|-
|-
|-
|Callousness||Just resentment||Spitefulness
|Pettiness||Generosity||Vulgarity
琐碎慷慨粗俗
|-
|-
|-
|Pettiness||Generosity||Vulgarity
|Meanness||Liberality||Wastefulness
吝啬自由浪费
|-
|}
|}
|Meanness||Liberality||Wastefulness
|}
Aristotelian just war theory is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "natural slavery" would undermine civic freedom. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks'".
亚里士多德的正义战争理论在当今并不受到重视，尤其是他认为战争是奴役“天生的奴隶”的观点。在亚里士多德的哲学中，他认为“自然奴隶制”的废除会破坏公民自由。追求自由与追求对”那些应当成为奴隶的人”的控制是分不开的。根据《亚里士多德政治学的剑桥指南》 ，这场侵略战争的目标是非希腊人，注意到亚里士多德的观点，即“我们的诗人说‘希腊人统治非希腊人是适当的”’。
===Just war theory===
Aristotelian [[just war theory]] is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "[[natural slavery]]" would undermine civic [[freedom]]. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to ''The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics'' the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks'".{{sfn|Deslauriers|Destrée|2013|pp=157-162}}
Aristotle generally has a favourable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defense. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).
亚里士多德通常对战争持赞成态度，称赞战争是美德的契机，并写道，“随着和平而来的闲暇”往往使人们变得“傲慢”。“避免成为他人的奴隶”的战争被认为是正当防卫。他写道，战争“迫使人们变得公正和温和” ，然而，为了公正，“必须为了和平而选择战争”(上面讨论的侵略战争除外)。
Aristotle generally has a favourable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for [[virtue]] and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defense. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).{{sfn|Deslauriers|Destrée|2013|pp=157-162}}
===Ethics===
{{main | Aristotelian ethics}}
Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics.
亚里士多德认为伦理学是一门实践性而非理论性的研究，也就是说，一门旨在变得善良和行善的学科，而不是仅仅为了知道而知道。他写了几篇关于伦理学的论文，其中最著名的是《尼各马可伦理学。
Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''.{{sfn| Kraut | 2001}}
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.
亚里士多德教导说，美德与事物的正确功能(ergon)有关。一只眼睛只有在它能看到的范围内才是一只好眼睛，因为眼睛的正常功能是视觉。亚里士多德认为，人类必须具有一种特定于人类的功能，而这种功能必须是一种与理性(逻各斯)相一致的灵魂活动。亚里士多德认为，人类所有深思熟虑的行为——幸福——的目的，都是为了实现心灵的这种最佳活动(在与之相伴的过度或不足的恶习之间的良性平衡) ，通常被翻译为“幸福”或有时“幸福”。要以这种方式拥有永远幸福的潜力，就必须要有一个好的品格(thik aret) ，通常被翻译为道德或伦理上的美德或卓越。
Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (''ergon'') of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the ''[[De Anima|psuchē]]'' (''soul'') in accordance with reason (''[[logos]]''). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency{{sfn| Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}}) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, ''[[eudaimonia]]'', generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (''ēthikē'' ''[[arete (moral virtue)|aretē]]''), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.{{sfn| Nicomachean Ethics | ps= Book I. See for example chapter 7.}}
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.
亚里士多德告诉我们，要想拥有一个美德和潜在的幸福品质，需要一个第一阶段的幸运，不是刻意去习惯，而是由老师和经验，导致一个人有意识地选择做最好的事情的后期阶段。当最优秀的人以这种方式生活时，他们的实践智慧(实践智慧)和理性智慧(理性智慧)可以相互发展，朝着人类最高可能的美德、成就卓著的理论或思辨思想家的智慧，或者换句话说，哲学家的智慧发展。
Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (''[[phronesis]]'') and their intellect (''[[nous]]'') can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.{{sfn| Nicomachean Ethics | p= Book VI}}
===Politics===
{{main | Politics (Aristotle)}}
In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part". He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.
除了他关于伦理学的著作，涉及到个人，亚里士多德在他的著作《政治》中也涉及到城市。亚里士多德认为城市是一个自然的社区。此外，他认为城市对家庭的重要性优先于个人，”因为整体必须优先于部分”。他有句名言: “人天生就是一种政治动物” ，并认为在动物王国中，人类的决定性因素是其合理性。亚里士多德认为政治是一个有机体，而不是一个机器，是一个部件的集合，没有其他部件就不能存在。亚里士多德的城市概念是有机的，他被认为是最早以这种方式构思城市的人之一。
In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".{{sfn| Politics | pp=1253a19–24}} He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality.{{sfn| Aristotle | 2009 | pages=320–21}} Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.{{sfn| Ebenstein | Ebenstein | 2002 | page=59}}
Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions
亚里士多德对政治宪法的分类
[[File:Aristotle's constitutions.svg | thumb|upright=1.7 | Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions]]
The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia)<!-- (1252a1) -->. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability<!-- (1280b29–31) -->, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together<!-- (1281a1–3) -->." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."
现代人对政治共同体作为一个现代国家的共同理解，与亚里士多德的理解大相径庭。尽管他意识到更大帝国的存在和潜力，但是根据亚里士多德的理论，自然共同体是城市(城邦) ，其功能是作为一个政治“共同体”或“伙伴关系”(koin nia)。这座城市的目的不仅仅是避免不公正或者维持经济稳定，而是至少让一些公民有机会过上好日子，做出美好的行为: “因此，必须把政治伙伴关系看作是为了高尚的行为，而不是为了共同生活。”这不同于现代方法，从社会契约理论开始，根据这种理论，个人离开自然状态是因为”害怕暴力死亡”或其”不便”
The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (''[[polis]]'') which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (''koinōnia'')<!-- (1252a1) -->. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability<!-- (1280b29–31) -->, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together<!-- (1281a1–3) -->." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with [[social contract]] theory, according to which individuals leave the [[state of nature]] because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."{{efn-ua | For a different reading of social and economic processes in the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' and ''Politics'' see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in ''Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi'' ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115.}}
In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states:
在《 Protrepticus 》中，亚里士多德这样写道:
In ''[[Protrepticus (Aristotle)|Protrepticus]]'', the character 'Aristotle' states:{{sfn| Hutchinson | Johnson | 2015 | p=22}}
{{quote | For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.{{sfn| Hutchinson | Johnson | 2015 | p=22}}}}
===Economics===
{{main | Politics (Aristotle)}}
Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver.
亚里士多德对经济学思想，尤其是中世纪的经济学思想做出了重大贡献。在《政治学》一书中，亚里士多德论述了城市、财产和贸易。在莱昂内尔 · 罗宾斯看来，他对私有财产批评的回应，预示了后来哲学家和经济学家中私有财产的支持者，因为它关系到社会安排的整体效用。亚里士多德认为，尽管公共安排似乎对社会有益，尽管私有财产常常被指责为社会冲突的罪魁祸首，但这些罪恶实际上来自人性。在《政治学》一书中，亚里士多德提出了关于货币起源的最早的解释之一。货币的使用是因为人们变得相互依赖，进口他们需要的东西，输出剩余。为了方便起见，人们随后同意交易本质上有用且易于使用的东西，比如铁或银。
Aristotle made substantial contributions to [[economics|economic thought]], especially to thought in the Middle Ages.{{sfn| Robbins | 2000 | pages=20–24}} In ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', Aristotle addresses the city, [[property]], and [[trade]]. His response to criticisms of [[private property]], in [[Lionel Robbins]]'s view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall [[utility]] of social arrangements.{{sfn| Robbins | 2000 | pages=20–24}} Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from [[human nature]]. In ''Politics'', Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of [[money]].{{sfn| Robbins | 2000 | pages=20–24}} Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or [[silver]].{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}}
Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.
亚里士多德关于零售和利息的讨论对中世纪的经济思想产生了重大影响。他不看好零售业，认为零售业不是用钱来购买管理家庭所需要的东西，而是谋求利润。因此，它使用商品作为达到目的的手段，而不是作为自身的目的。他认为零售业这样做是不自然的。类似地，亚里士多德认为通过非自然的兴趣来获利，因为它从货币本身而不是从货币的使用中获利。
Aristotle's discussions on [[retail]] and [[interest]] was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a [[profit (economics)|profit]]. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}}
Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".
亚里士多德总结了货币的功能，对于他那个时代来说，这个概念可能是非常早熟的。他写道，因为不可能通过计算每件商品的价值来确定每件商品的价值，所以必须要有一个单一的通用计量标准。因此，货币允许不同商品之间的联系，并使它们“可以通约”。他接着说，货币对于未来交换也很有用，使之成为一种安全保障。也就是说，“如果我们现在不需要一样东西，那么当我们确实需要它的时候，我们就能够得到它”。
Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable".{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}} He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}}
The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) by [[Bénigne Gagneraux. In his Poetics, Aristotle uses the tragedy Oedipus Tyrannus by Sophocles as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some hamartia (fault).]]
失明的俄狄浦斯将自己的孩子推荐给上帝(1784)作者: [班尼涅·加哥诺斯。在《诗学》一书中，亚里士多德以索福克勒斯的悲剧《俄狄浦斯王》为例，说明完美的悲剧应该是怎样构建的，一个通常很好的主人公开始了戏剧的繁荣，但是因为一些缺陷而失去了一切
===Rhetoric and poetics===
[[File:Bénigne Gagneraux, The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods.jpg | thumb | upright=1.3 | ''The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods'' (1784) by [[Bénigne Gagneraux]]. In his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'', Aristotle uses the tragedy ''[[Oedipus Rex|Oedipus Tyrannus]]'' by [[Sophocles]] as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some ''[[hamartia]]'' (fault).{{sfn| Kaufmann | 1968 | pages=56–60}}]]
{{main | Rhetoric (Aristotle) | Poetics (Aristotle)}}
Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example).
亚里士多德的修辞学提出，一个演讲者可以使用三种基本的诉求来说服他的听众: 民族精神(诉诸于演讲者的性格) ，感伤(诉诸于听众的情感)和理性(诉诸于逻辑推理)。他还将修辞分为三种类型: 富于词藻的(处理赞扬或指责的仪式性演讲)、法医性演讲(关于有罪或无辜的司法性演讲)和审议性演讲(呼吁听众就一个问题做出决定的演讲)。亚里士多德还概述了两种修辞上的证明: 推理论证(通过三段论证明)和并列证明(通过例证证明)。
Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ''[[ethos]]'' (an appeal to the speaker's character), ''[[pathos]]'' (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and ''[[logos]]'' (an appeal to logical reasoning).{{sfn| Garver | 1994 | pages=109–10}} He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: [[epideictic]] (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), [[Forensic rhetoric|forensic]] (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and [[Deliberative rhetoric|deliberative]] (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue).{{sfn| Rorty | 1996 | pages=3–7}} Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical [[Proof (truth)|proofs]]: ''[[enthymeme]]'' (proof by [[syllogism]]) and ''[[paradeigma]]'' (proof by example).{{sfn| Grimaldi | 1998 | p=71}}
Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.
亚里士多德在他的《诗学》中写道，史诗、悲剧、喜剧、酒神诗歌、绘画、雕塑、音乐和舞蹈从根本上说都是模仿的行为(“模仿”) ，每一种都因媒介、对象和方式的不同而不同。他认为，观众对模仿的实现对于理解作品本身至关重要。亚里士多德指出，模仿是人类区别于动物的一种自然本能，所有人类的艺术“遵循自然的模式”。正因为如此，亚里士多德相信，每一种模仿艺术都拥有斯蒂芬 · 哈利维尔所说的“达到目的的高度结构化的程序”例如，音乐模仿节奏和和谐的媒介，而舞蹈模仿节奏，诗歌模仿语言。各种形式的模仿对象也各不相同。例如，喜剧是对比一般人差的男人的戏剧性模仿; 而悲剧模仿的男人比一般人好一点。最后，形式的模仿方式不同——通过叙事或人物，通过改变或不改变，通过戏剧或不戏剧。
Aristotle writes in his ''Poetics'' that [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]], painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of ''[[mimesis]]'' ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}}{{sfn| Poetics | p= I 1447a}} He applies the term ''mimesis'' both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} and contends that the audience's realisation of the ''mimesis'' is vital to understanding the work itself.{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} Aristotle states that ''mimesis'' is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}}{{sfn| Poetics | p= IV}} and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature".{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what [[Stephen Halliwell (academic)|Stephen Halliwell]] calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes."{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.{{sfn| Poetics | p=III}}
While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop.
虽然人们认为亚里士多德的《诗学》最初包括两本书——一本是关于喜剧的，一本是关于悲剧的——但是只有关于悲剧的部分保存了下来。亚里士多德认为悲剧由六个要素组成: 情节结构、人物、风格、思想、景观和抒情诗。悲剧中的人物只不过是推动故事发展的一种手段; 悲剧的主要焦点是情节，而不是人物。悲剧是对引起怜悯和恐惧的行为的模仿，是为了宣泄同样的情感。亚里士多德在《诗学》的结尾部分讨论了哪一个更好: 史诗还是悲剧模仿。他认为，由于悲剧具有史诗的所有属性，可能具有诸如景观和音乐等附加属性，更加统一，并在较短的范围内实现了模仿的目的，因此可以认为悲剧优于史诗。亚里士多德热衷于系统地收集谜语、民间传说和谚语; 他和他的学派对特尔菲神谕的谜语特别感兴趣，并研究伊索寓言。
While it is believed that Aristotle's ''Poetics'' originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.{{sfn| Poetics | p=VI}} The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the [[catharsis]] of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes ''Poetics'' with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.{{sfn| Poetics | p=XXVI}} Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].{{sfn| Aesop | 1998 | pages=Introduction, xi–xii}}
===Views on women===
{{main | Aristotle's views on women}}
{{further | Aristotle's biology#Inheritance}}
Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.}}
亚里士多德对生育的分析描述了一种主动的、赋予灵魂的男性元素，将生命赋予一种惰性的、被动的女性元素。基于这个理由，女权主义形而上学的支持者指责亚里士多德厌恶女性和性别歧视。然而，亚里士多德对女人的幸福和对男人的幸福给予了同等的重视，并在他的修辞学中评论说，通向幸福的东西需要男人和女人一样
Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of [[feminist metaphysics]] have accused Aristotle of [[misogyny]]{{sfn| Freeland | 1998}} and [[sexism]].{{sfn| Morsink | 1979 | pp=83–112}} However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his ''Rhetoric'' that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.{{efn-ua | "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt."{{sfn| Rhetoric | p=Book I, Chapter 5}}}}
==Influence==
{{see | List of writers influenced by Aristotle}}
More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,<!----> pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".
在亚里士多德去世2300多年后，他仍然是有史以来最有影响力的人物之一。他对当时存在的人类知识的几乎每一个领域都做出了贡献，他还是许多新领域的创始人。根据哲学家布莱恩 · 马吉(Bryan Magee)的说法，“是否有人像他一样知道这么多是值得怀疑的。”。在无数的成就中，亚里士多德是形式逻辑的创始人，他是动物学研究的先驱，他对科学方法的贡献让每一个未来的科学家和哲学家都感激不尽。Taneli Kukkonen 在《古典传统》一书中写道，他在创立两门科学方面的成就是无与伦比的，他影响“知识事业的每一个分支” ，包括西方伦理和政治理论、神学、修辞学和文学分析的影响也同样长久。因此，Kukkonen 认为，今天对现实的任何分析“几乎肯定会带有亚里士多德的暗示... ... 证明思维异常强大。”乔纳森•巴恩斯(Jonathan Barnes)写道: “对亚里士多德的智力来世的描述，与欧洲思想史无异。”。
More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | p=8}}{{sfn| Aristotle's Influence | 2018}} He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher [[Bryan Magee]], "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".{{sfn| Magee | 2010 | page=34}} Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of [[formal logic]],{{sfn| Guthrie | 1990 | page=156}}<!--{{sfn| Case | p=518}}--> pioneered the study of [[zoology]], and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.{{sfn| Aristotle (Greek philosopher)}}{{sfn| Durant | 2006 | page=92}}{{sfn| Kukkonen | 2010 | pages=70–77}} Taneli Kukkonen, writing in ''The Classical Tradition'', observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind."{{sfn| Kukkonen | 2010 | pages=70–77}} [[Jonathan Barnes]] wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".{{sfn| Barnes | 1982 | page=86}}
===On his successor, Theophrastus===
Frontispiece to a 1644 version of Theophrastus's Historia Plantarum, originally written around 300 BC]]
1644年版本的忒奥弗拉斯特斯植物史，最初写于公元前300年]
{{main | Theophrastus | Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)}}
[[File:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg | thumb | upright | [[Book frontispiece|Frontispiece]] to a 1644 version of [[Theophrastus]]'s ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]'', originally written around 300 BC]]
Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber.
亚里士多德的学生和继承者泰奥弗拉斯特斯写了植物学史，这是一部植物学的开创性著作。他的一些技术术语仍然在使用，如心皮从心皮，水果，和果皮，从外皮，种子室。
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.
与亚里士多德相比，泰奥弗拉斯特斯对形式原因的关注要少得多，而是实用地描述了植物是如何运作的。
Aristotle's pupil and successor, [[Theophrastus]], wrote the ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|History of Plants]]'', a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as [[carpel]] from ''carpos'', fruit, and [[pericarp]], from ''pericarpion'', seed chamber.{{sfn| Hooker | 1831 | page=219}}
Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.{{sfn| Mayr | 1982 | pp= 90–91}}{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p= 46}}
===On later Greek philosophers===
{{further | Peripatetic school}}
The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"
当 Lyceum 发展成为逍遥学派时，亚里士多德的作品立即产生了影响。亚里士多德著名的学生包括亚里士多德、狄卡伊尔库斯、法勒鲁姆的德米特里、罗得岛的尤德莫斯、哈帕卢斯、 Hephaestion、 Phocis 的姆纳松、尼各马库斯和泰奥弗拉斯特斯。亚里士多德对亚历山大大帝的影响可以从后者带来的大批动物学家、植物学家和研究人员看出。他还从他的老师那里学到了很多关于波斯习俗和传统的知识。尽管他对亚里士多德的尊敬因为他的旅行清楚地表明，亚里士多德的许多地理学理论显然是错误的而有所减弱，但当这位老哲学家向公众发表他的作品时，亚历山大抱怨道: “你没有很好地发表你的精神学说，因为如果我所接受的那些学说是所有人的共同财产，那么我还能在什么方面超越其他人呢? ”
The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the [[Peripatetic school]]. Aristotle's notable students included [[Aristoxenus]], [[Dicaearchus]], [[Demetrius of Phalerum]], [[Eudemos of Rhodes]], [[Harpalus]], [[Hephaestion]], [[Mnason of Phocis]], [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"{{sfn| Plutarch | 1919 | p= Part 1, 7:7}}
===On Hellenistic science===
{{details | Ancient Greek medicine}}
After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found.
在泰奥弗拉斯特斯之后，Lyceum 未能创作出任何原创作品。尽管人们对亚里士多德思想的兴趣依然存在，但他们通常毫无疑问地接受了这些思想。直到托勒密统治下的亚历山大时代，生物学的进步才得以重见天日。
After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.{{sfn| Annas | 2001 | page=252}} It is not until the age of [[Alexandria]] under the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemies]] that advances in biology can be again found.
The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."
亚历山大的第一位医学教师，来自卡尔西登的赫罗菲勒斯，纠正了亚里士多德的错误，将智慧植入大脑，并将神经系统与运动和感觉联系起来。赫罗菲勒斯还区分了静脉和动脉，注意到后者是脉搏，而前者不是。尽管一些古代原子论者，如 Lucretius，挑战了亚里士多德关于生命的目的论观点，目的论(以及基督教兴起后的自然神学)在本质上仍然是生物学思想的核心，直到18和19世纪。恩斯特 · 迈尔说，“在卢克莱修和加伦之后，直到文艺复兴之前，生物学上没有任何实质性的结果。”
The first medical teacher at Alexandria, [[Herophilos|Herophilus of Chalcedon]], corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between [[vein]]s and [[artery|arteries]], noting that the latter [[pulse]] while the former do not.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p= 56}} Though a few ancient [[atomism|atomists]] such as [[Lucretius]] challenged the [[teleology|teleological]] viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, [[natural theology]]) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. [[Ernst Mayr]] states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."{{sfn| Mayr | 1985 | pp=90–94}}
===On Byzantine scholars===
{{see also | Commentaries on Aristotle | Byzantine Aristotelianism}}
Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations.
希腊基督教抄写员抄写了所有现存的希腊语手稿，对保存亚里士多德起到了至关重要的作用。第一个广泛评论亚里士多德的希腊基督徒是六世纪的菲罗波诺斯、以利亚和大卫，以及七世纪早期的亚历山大的司提反。约翰 · 菲罗帕诺斯因试图从根本上批判亚里士多德关于世界、运动和其他亚里士多德思想的永恒性的观点而脱颖而出。菲洛普诺斯质疑亚里士多德的物理教学，指出其缺陷，并介绍了冲力说来解释他的观察。
Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and [[Stephen of Alexandria]] in the early seventh century.{{sfn| Sorabji | 1990 | pages=20, 28, 35–36}} [[John Philoponus]] stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.{{sfn| Sorabji | 1990 | pages=233–74}} Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the [[theory of impetus]] to explain his observations.{{sfn|Lindberg|1992|p=162}}
After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena.
在中断了几个世纪之后，以弗所的 Eustratius 和 Michael 的正式注释在11世纪末和12世纪初重新出现，显然是由 Anna Comnena 发起的。
After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and [[Michael of Ephesus]] reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by [[Anna Comnena]].{{sfn|Sorabji|1990|pp=20–21, 28–29, 393–406, 407–08}}
===On the medieval Islamic world===
Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220
伊斯兰对亚里士多德的描绘，约1220年
{{further|Logic in Islamic philosophy|Transmission of the Greek Classics}}
[[File:Arabic aristotle.jpg | thumb|upright | Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220]]
Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.
亚里士多德是早期伊斯兰教神学派别最受尊敬的西方思想家之一。大多数现存的亚里士多德的著作，以及一些原始的希腊评论，被翻译成阿拉伯语，并由穆斯林哲学家，科学家和学者研究。阿维罗伊斯、阿维森纳和阿尔法拉比乌斯对亚里士多德的著述颇有深度，他们也影响了托马斯 · 阿奎那和其他西方基督教经院哲学家。阿尔金杜斯非常欣赏亚里士多德的哲学，阿韦罗斯称亚里士多德是未来哲学家的“典范”。中世纪的穆斯林学者经常称亚里士多德为“第一导师”。“老师”这个头衔最初是由穆斯林学者赋予亚里士多德的，后来被受到伊斯兰哲学传统影响的西方哲学家使用(如但丁的著名诗歌)。
Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early [[Islamic theology]]. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,{{sfn|Kennedy-Day|1998}} as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. [[Averroes]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Alpharabius]], who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced [[Thomas Aquinas]] and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. [[Alkindus]] greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy,{{sfn|Staley|1989}} and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.{{sfn|Averroes|1953|p=III, 2, 43}} Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".{{sfn|Kennedy-Day|1998}} The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]) who were influenced by the tradition of [[Islamic philosophy]].{{sfn|Nasr|1996|pp=59–60}}
===On medieval Europe===
Aristotle ridden by Phyllis by Hans Baldung, 1515]]
亚里士多德骑着菲利斯，汉斯 · 巴尔顿，1515]
{{anchor|Phyllis}}
[[File:Aristotle and Phyllis.jpg | thumb | upright | left | Woodcut of [[The tale of Phyllis and Aristotle|Aristotle ridden by Phyllis]] by [[Hans Baldung]], 1515{{sfn|Phyllis and Aristotle}}]]
{{further|Aristotelianism|Syllogism#Medieval}}
With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa Theologica, working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.
随着中世纪早期拉丁文西方对古希腊文的研究的缺失，亚里士多德在公元600年到公元1100年期间几乎不为人所知，除了通过波伊提乌斯对《奥加农手稿》的拉丁文翻译。在12世纪和13世纪，人们对亚里士多德的兴趣复兴了，拉丁基督徒也有译本，既有阿拉伯译本，如克雷莫纳的杰拉德，也有原希腊译本，如威尼斯的雅各和莫尔比克的威廉。在经院哲学家托马斯 · 阿奎那根据莫尔贝克的译本写了《神学大全后，人们对亚里士多德作品的需求增加了，希腊的手稿也回到了西方，刺激了欧洲亚里士多德主义的复兴，并一直延续到文艺复兴时期。这些思想家将亚里士多德哲学与基督教融合在一起，将古希腊思想带入中世纪。波伊提乌、彼得 · 阿贝拉尔和约翰 · 布里丹等学者致力于亚里士多德逻辑学。
With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early [[medieval]] Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the ''Organon'' made by [[Boethius]]. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by [[Gerard of Cremona]],{{sfn| Hasse | 2014}} and from the original Greek, such as those by [[James of Venice]] and [[William of Moerbeke]]. After the [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] Thomas Aquinas wrote his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher",{{sfn|Aquinas|2013}} the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the [[Renaissance]].{{sfn| Kuhn | 2018}} These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, [[Peter Abelard]], and [[John Buridan]] worked on Aristotelian logic.{{sfn| Lagerlund}}
The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having
中世纪英国诗人乔叟这样描述他的学生: 因为拥有一个孩子而感到快乐
The medieval English poet [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] describes his student as being happy by having
{{quote | <poem>at his beddes heed
{引用 | < 诗歌 > 在他的床边
Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,
二十个赌徒穿着布莱克或者芦苇,
{{quote | <poem>at his beddes heed
Of aristotle and his philosophie,</poem>}}
亚里士多德和他的哲学家
Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,
Of aristotle and his philosophie,{{sfn| Allen|Fisher|2011|p=17}}</poem>}}
A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.
一个警示性的中世纪故事说，亚里士多德建议他的学生亚历山大避开国王诱人的情妇菲利斯，但是他自己却被她迷住了，并允许她骑在他身上。菲利斯秘密地告诉亚历山大该期待什么，而他目睹了菲利斯证明女人的魅力甚至可以战胜最伟大的哲学家的男性智慧。艺术家如汉斯 · 巴尔顿创作了一系列流行主题的插图。
A [[The tale of Phyllis and Aristotle|cautionary medieval tale]] held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as [[Hans Baldung]] produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.{{sfn| Aristotle Phyllis}}{{sfn|Phyllis and Aristotle}}
The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in The Divine Comedy:
意大利诗人但丁在《神曲这样评价亚里士多德:
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 85%;"
{ | class = “ wikable” style = “ font-size: 85% ; ”
The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'':
|+
|+
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 85%;"
! Dante<br>L'Inferno, Canto IV. 131–135 !! Translation<br>Hell
!但丁《地狱篇》 ，第四章。131–135 !!地狱
|+
|-
|-
! [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]<br>''L'Inferno'', Canto IV. 131–135 !! Translation<br>''Hell''
|<poem>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno
|<poem>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno
|-
seder tra filosofica famiglia.
[咒语]。
|<poem>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:
seder tra filosofica famiglia.
quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone
quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:
che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;</poem>||<poem>I saw the Master there of those who know,
我在那里见到了那些知道的大师,
quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone
Amid the philosophic family,
在哲学家族中,
che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;</poem>||<poem>I saw the Master there of those who know,
By all admired, and by all reverenced;
受到所有人的敬仰和崇敬;
Amid the philosophic family,
There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,
在那里我也看到了柏拉图和苏格拉底,
By all admired, and by all reverenced;
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.
站在他身边的人比其他人都近。
There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,
</poem>
</诗歌 >
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.
|}
|}
</poem>
|}
[[William Harvey's De Motu Cordis, 1628, showed that the blood circulated, contrary to classical era thinking.]]
[威廉 · 哈维(William Harvey)的《德 · 莫图 · 科迪斯》(De Motu Cordis，1628)表明，血液循环与古典时代的思想相反。]
===On Early Modern scientists===
[[File:William Harvey ( 1578-1657) Venenbild.jpg | thumb | [[William Harvey]]'s ''[[Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus|De Motu Cordis]]'', 1628, showed that the [[circulation of the blood|blood circulated]], contrary to classical era thinking.]]
In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.
在近代早期，英国的威廉 · 哈维和意大利的伽利略 · 伽利略等科学家反对亚里士多德和其他古典时代思想家如加伦的理论，建立了一定程度上以观察和实验为基础的新理论。哈维证明了血液的循环，证明了心脏作为一个泵的功能，而不是像亚里士多德认为的那样，是灵魂的所在地和身体热量的控制器。伽利略使用了更多值得怀疑的论点来取代亚里士多德的物理学，他提出物体不论重量大小都以相同的速度下落。
In the [[Early Modern]] period, scientists such as [[William Harvey]] in England and [[Galileo Galilei]] in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like [[Galen]], establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the [[circulation of the blood]], establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought.{{sfn| Aird | 2011 | pp=118–29}} Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.{{sfn| Machamer | 2017}}
===On 19th-century thinkers===
The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.
据说19世纪德国哲学家弗里德里希·尼采的政治哲学几乎全部来自于亚里士多德。亚里士多德严格地将行动与生产分离开来，并主张某些人(“自然奴隶”)应得的服从，而另一些人的自然优越性(美德，受到尊重)。是马丁·海德格尔而不是尼采阐述了对亚里士多德的新解释，旨在保证他对学术和哲学传统的解构。
The 19th-century German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.{{sfn| Durant | 2006 | p=86}} Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, ''arete'') of others. It was [[Martin Heidegger]], not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.{{sfn| Sikka | 1997 | page=265}}
The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.
英国数学家乔治 · 布尔完全接受亚里士多德的逻辑，但在他1854年出版的《思想的法则》一书中，他决定用他的代数逻辑系统“超越、超越”亚里士多德的逻辑。这给逻辑以方程式的数学基础，使它能够解决方程式和检查有效性，并允许它处理更广泛的问题，通过扩大命题的任意数量的项，而不只是两个。
The English mathematician [[George Boole]] fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of [[Boolean algebra|algebraic logic]] in his 1854 book ''[[The Laws of Thought]]''. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check [[Validity (logic)|validity]], and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.{{sfn| Boole | 2003}}
"That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander". Illustration by , 1866
“最经久不衰的浪漫画面，是亚里士多德辅导未来的征服者亚历山大”。插图: 1866
===Modern rejection and rehabilitation===
[[File:Alexander and Aristotle.jpg | thumb|upright=1.2 | left | "That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander".{{sfn|Kukkonen|2010|pages=70–77}} Illustration by {{interlanguage link|Charles Laplante|fr}}, 1866]]
During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russell
在20世纪，亚里士多德的著作受到广泛的批评。哲学家伯特兰·罗素
argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.
他认为，“几乎每一个重大的知识进步都必须从攻击亚里士多德的某些学说开始”。罗素称亚里士多德的伦理学“令人厌恶” ，并称他的逻辑“绝对像托勒密的天文学一样陈旧”。罗素指出，这些错误使得亚里士多德很难做到历史公正，直到有人记得，他取得了什么进步，他所有的前任。
During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]]
argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.{{sfn|Russell|1972}}
The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".
荷兰科学历史学家 Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis 写道，亚里士多德和他的前辈们在有限的感官证据基础上“如此轻易地构建一个如此普遍的理论” ，显示了科学的困难。1985年，生物学家彼得 · 梅达瓦仍然可以用“纯粹的17世纪”的语调说，亚里士多德已经组装了“一个奇怪的、一般来说相当令人厌烦的胡扯的传闻、不完善的观察、一厢情愿的想法和相当于彻头彻尾的轻信”。
The Dutch historian of science [[Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis]] wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses.{{sfn|Dijksterhuis|1969|p=72}} In 1985, the biologist [[Peter Medawar]] could still state in "pure seventeenth century"{{sfn|Leroi|2015|p=353}} tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".{{sfn|Leroi|2015|p=353}}{{sfn|Medawar|Medawar|1984|p=28}}
By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the Poetics in Hollywood.
然而，到了21世纪初，亚里士多德受到了更严肃的对待: 库科宁指出: “在20世纪最好的学术研究中，亚里士多德是一个与希腊哲学传统的全部重量角力的思想家。”阿拉斯代尔·麦金泰尔试图以一种反精英主义的方式改革他所称的亚里士多德传统，并且能够驳斥自由主义者和尼采主义者的主张。Kukkonen 还指出，“亚里士多德对未来的征服者亚历山大的指导，是最经久不衰的浪漫主义形象” ，正如2004年的电影《亚历山大》一样，而亚里士多德戏剧理论的“坚定规则”确保了《诗学》在好莱坞的地位。
By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition."{{sfn|Kukkonen|2010|pp=70–77}} [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.{{sfn|Knight|2007|pp=''passim''}} Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film ''[[Alexander (2004 film)|Alexander]]'', while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the ''Poetics'' in [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]].{{sfn|Kukkonen|2010|pp=70–77}}
Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny.
生物学家继续对亚里士多德的思想感兴趣。阿曼德 · 玛丽 · 莱罗伊重建了亚里士多德的生物学，而尼科 · 廷伯根根据亚里士多德的四个原因提出的四个问题，被用来分析动物行为; 他们研究功能、系统发育、机制和个体发育。
Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. [[Armand Marie Leroi]] has reconstructed Aristotle's biology,{{sfn|Leroi|2015}} while [[Tinbergen's four questions|Niko Tinbergen's four questions]], based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse [[animal behaviour]]; they examine [[function (biology)|function]], [[phylogeny]], [[mechanism (biology)|mechanism]], and [[ontogeny]].{{sfn|MacDougall-Shackleton|2011|pp=2076–85}}{{sfn|Hladký|Havlíček|2013}}
==Surviving works==
===Corpus Aristotelicum===
First page of a 1566 edition of the [[Nicomachean Ethics in Greek and Latin]]
1566年版本[希腊语和拉丁语的尼各马可伦理学]的第一页
{{main | Corpus Aristotelicum}}
[[File:Aristotelis De Moribus ad Nicomachum.jpg | thumb | upright | First page of a 1566 edition of the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in Greek and Latin]]
The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.
亚里士多德的著作是通过中世纪手稿传播而从古代流传下来的，现收藏在亚里士多德语料库中。这些文本，相对于亚里士多德失传的著作，是来自亚里士多德学派的技术哲学论文。参考他们是根据伊曼纽尔贝克的普鲁士皇家学院版(亚里士多德的歌剧编辑委员会学术区，柏林，1831-1870年) ，这是基于古代分类的这些作品。
The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of [[Immanuel Bekker]]'s Royal Prussian Academy edition (''Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica'', Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.{{sfn| Aristotelis Opera}}
===Loss and preservation===
{{see | Recovery of Aristotle}}
Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.}} His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school. Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.}} A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.
亚里士多德的作品是写在纸莎草卷轴上的，纸莎草卷轴是那个时代常用的书写工具他的著作可分为两类: 面向公众的“通俗”著作，以及在吕森学派内部使用的“深奥”著作。亚里士多德的《迷失》作品在20世纪90年代角色塑造与现存的亚里士多德语料库大相径庭。虽然这些遗失的作品看起来是为了以后的出版而写的，但现存的作品大多类似于不打算出版的课堂讲稿。西塞罗将亚里士多德的文学风格描述为“黄金之河” ，这一定适用于已出版的作品，而不是现存的笔记。}亚里士多德著作史上的一个主要问题是，那些开放的作品是如何丢失的，以及我们现在拥有的作品是如何来到我们面前的。人们一致认为，罗德的尼克斯收集了亚里士多德学派的深奥作品，这些作品以较小的、独立的作品的形式存在，将它们与泰奥弗拉斯特斯和其他周期学派的作品区分开来，对它们进行编辑，最后将它们汇编成更具凝聚力的、更大的作品，就像今天所知道的那样。
Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.{{efn-ua | "When the Roman dictator Sulla invaded Athens in 86 BC, he brought back to Rome a fantastic prize – Aristotle's library. Books then were papyrus rolls, from 10 to 20 feet long, and since Aristotle's death in 322 BC, worms and damp had done their worst. The rolls needed repairing, and the texts clarifying and copying on to new papyrus (imported from Egypt – Moses' bulrushes). The man in Rome who put Aristotle's library in order was a Greek scholar, Tyrannio."{{sfn| When libraries were | 2001}}}} His writings are divisible into two groups: the "[[exoteric]]", intended for the public, and the "[[esoteric]]", for use within the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] school.{{sfn| Barnes | 1995 | p=12}}{{efn-ua | 1=Aristotle: ''Nicomachean Ethics'' 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of ''exōterikoi logoi'', see [[W.D. Ross]], ''Aristotle's Metaphysics'' (1953), vol. 2 pp= 408–10. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the [[Peripatetic school]]", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.}}{{sfn| House | 1956 | page=35}} Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication.{{sfn| Irwin | Fine | 1996 | pp= xi–xii }}{{sfn| Barnes | 1995 | p=12}} [[Cicero]]'s description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.{{efn-ua | "''veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles''", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence").{{sfn| Cicero | 1874}}}} A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us.{{sfn| Barnes | Griffin | 1999 | pages=1–69}} The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.{{sfn| Anagnostopoulos | 2013 | page=16}}{{sfn| Barnes | 1995 | pp=10–15}}
==Legacy==
Paintings
绘画
===Depictions===
;Paintings
Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best known is Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."
在过去的几个世纪里，亚里士多德的形象被许多主要的艺术家所描绘，包括老卢卡斯·克拉纳赫，Justus van Gent，Raphael，Paolo Veronese，胡塞佩·德·里贝拉，Rembrandt，和 Francesco Hayez。其中最著名的是拉斐尔的壁画《雅典学校》 ，位于梵蒂冈的使徒宫，在那里柏拉图和亚里士多德的人物是图像的中心，在建筑的消失点，反映了他们的重要性。伦勃朗(Rembrandt)的《亚里士多德与荷马半身像》(Aristotle with a Bust of Homer)也是一部著名的作品，展示了知识渊博的哲学家和更早时代的盲人荷马: 正如艺术评论家乔纳森 · 琼斯(Jonathan Jones)所写的，“这幅画仍将是世界上最伟大、最神秘的画作之一，它发霉、发光、漆黑、对时间的了解令我们难以置信。”
Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]],{{sfn| Lucas Cranach the Elder}} [[Justus van Gent]], [[Raphael]], [[Paolo Veronese]], [[Jusepe de Ribera]],{{sfn| Lee | Robinson | 2005}} [[Rembrandt]],{{sfn| Aristotle with Bust | 2002}} and [[Francesco Hayez]] over the centuries. Among the best known is Raphael's [[fresco]] ''[[The School of Athens]]'', in the [[Apostolic Palace|Vatican's Apostolic Palace]], where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural [[vanishing point]], reflecting their importance.{{sfn| Phelan | 2002}} Rembrandt's ''[[Aristotle with a Bust of Homer]]'', too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic [[Jonathan Jones (journalist)|Jonathan Jones]] writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."{{sfn| Held | 1969}}{{sfn| Jones | 2002}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170px">
“ packed" heights = " 170px" >
File:Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg | Nuremberg Chronicle anachronistically shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493
文件: 亚里士多德在纽伦堡编年史中的纽伦堡编年史。1493年，纸上的油墨和水彩
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170px">
File:Gent, Justus van - Aristotle - c. 1476.jpg | Aristotle by Justus van Gent. Oil on panel, c. 1476
文件: Gent，Justus van-Aristotle-c. 1476. jpg | Aristotle by Justus van Gent。面板上的油，c. 1476
File:Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg | ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' [[anachronism|anachronistically]] shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493
File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Phyllis und Aristotle (1530).jpg | Phyllis and Aristotle by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Oil on panel, 1530
File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä.- Phyllis und Aristotle (1530) . jpg | Phyllis and aristostotle by 老卢卡斯·克拉纳赫。面板上的油，1530
File:Gent, Justus van - Aristotle - c. 1476.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Justus van Gent]]. Oil on panel, c. 1476
File:Biblioteka Marciana, Aristotel.jpg | Aristotle by Paolo Veronese, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s
文件: Biblioteka Marciana，aristottel.jpg | Aristotle by Paolo Veronese，Biblioteka Marciana。帆布油画，16世纪60年代
File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Phyllis und Aristotle (1530).jpg | ''Phyllis and Aristotle'' by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]. Oil on panel, 1530
File:Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG | Aristotle and Campaspe, Alessandro Turchi (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713
档案: Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG | Aristotle and Campaspe，Alessandro Turchi (限定词)帆布油画，1713年
File:Biblioteka Marciana, Aristotel.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Paolo Veronese]], Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s
File:Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg | Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera. Oil on canvas, 1637
文件来源: Aristotle by Jusepe de ribera. jpg | Aristotle by 胡塞佩·德·里贝拉。帆布油画，1637年
File:Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG | ''Aristotle and [[Campaspe]]'',{{efn-ua | Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.}} [[Alessandro Turchi]] (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713
File:Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg | Aristotle with a Bust of Homer by Rembrandt. Oil on canvas, 1653
文件: 伦勃朗-亚里士多德与荷马半身像 -wga19232. jpg | 亚里士多德与伦勃朗荷马半身像。帆布油画，1653年
File:Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg | ''[[Aristotle (Ribera painting)|Aristotle]]'' by [[Jusepe de Ribera]]. Oil on canvas, 1637
File:Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg | Aristotle by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder. Oil on canvas, by 1813
File:Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg | Aristotle by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder.帆布油画，1813年
File:Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg | ''Aristotle with a Bust of [[Homer]]'' by [[Rembrandt]]. Oil on canvas, 1653
File:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg | Aristotle by Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1811
文件: Francesco Hayez 001. jpg | Aristotle by Francesco Hayez。帆布油画，1811年
File:Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder]]. Oil on canvas, by 1813
</gallery>
</gallery >
File:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Francesco Hayez]]. Oil on canvas, 1811
</gallery>
Sculptures
雕塑
;Sculptures
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170px">
“ packed" heights = " 170px" >
File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by Lysippos. Louvre Museum
文件: Aristoteles Louvre.jpg | 1或2世纪的罗马复制品，出自 Lysippos 的青铜原件。卢浮宫博物馆
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File:DSC00218 - Aristotele - Copia romana del 117-138 dC. - Foto di G. Dall'Orto.jpg|Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum
档案: DSC00218-Aristotele-Copia romana del 117-138 dC。- Foto di g. Dall‘ Orto.jpg | 公元117-138年希腊原版的罗马复制品。巴勒莫地区考古博物馆
File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by [[Lysippos]]. [[Louvre Museum]]
File:Formella 21, platone e aristotele o la filosofia, luca della robbia, 1437-1439.JPG|Relief of Aristotle and Plato by Luca della Robbia, Florence Cathedral, 1437-1439
档案: Formella 21，platone e aristotele o la filosofia，卢卡·德拉·罗比亚，1437-1439。亚里士多德和柏拉图的卢卡·德拉·罗比亚，圣母百花圣殿，1437-1439
File:DSC00218 - Aristotele - Copia romana del 117-138 dC. - Foto di G. Dall'Orto.jpg|Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum
File:Formella 21, platone e aristotele o la filosofia, luca della robbia, 1437-1439.JPG|Relief of Aristotle and Plato by [[Luca della Robbia]], [[Florence Cathedral]], 1437-1439
File:Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone's Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG|Stone statue in niche, Gladstone's Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899
File:Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone's Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG|Stone statue in niche, Gladstone's Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899
File:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|Bronze statue, University of Freiburg, Germany, 1915
文件: Uni Freiburg-Philosophen 4. jpg | 青铜雕像，弗赖堡大学，德国，1915年
File:Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone's Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG|Stone statue in niche, [[Gladstone's Library]], [[Hawarden]], Wales, 1899
</gallery>
</gallery >
File:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|Bronze statue, [[University of Freiburg]], Germany, 1915
</gallery>
===Eponyms===
The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it Antarctica. Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.
南极洲的亚里斯多德山脉以亚里士多德的名字命名。他是第一个已知的猜想，在他的书《气象学》 ，在南部高纬度地区的一块大陆的存在，并称之为南极洲。亚里士多德是月球上的一个陨石坑，是亚里士多德名字的经典形式。
The [[Aristotle Mountains]] in [[Antarctica]] are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]'', the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it ''Antarctica''.{{sfn| Aristotle Mountains}} [[Aristoteles (crater)|Aristoteles]] is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.{{sfn| Aristoteles}}
==See also==
* [[Aristotelian Society]]
* [[Conimbricenses]]
* [[Perfectionism (philosophy)|Perfectionism]]
==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist-ua | 30em}}
===Citations===
{{Reflist | colwidth=25em}}
===Sources===
{{refbegin|36em}}
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* {{cite book |last=Freeland |first=Cynthia A. |title=Feminist Interpretations of Aristotle |date=1998 |publisher=Penn State University Press |isbn=978-0-271-01730-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Garver |first1=Eugene |title=Aristotle's Rhetoric: An Art of Character |date=1994 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-28425-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2ldWwIQhHwC&q=Aristotle+ethos+pathos+logos}}
* {{cite book |last=Gigon |first=Olof |title=Vita Aristotelis Marciana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a3ldDwAAQBAJ |date=2017 | orig-year=1965 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-082017-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Green |first=Peter |title=Alexander of Macedon |url=https://archive.org/details/alexanderofmaced0000gree |url-access=registration |date=1991 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-27586-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Grimaldi |first=William M. A. |chapter=Studies in the Philosophy of Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' |title=Landmark Essays on Aristotelian Rhetoric |date=1998 |page=71 |series=Landmark Essays |volume=14 | editor1-last=Enos | editor1-first=Richard Leo | editor2-last=Agnew | editor2-first=Lois Peters |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=978-1-880393-32-1 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMihW5GdDzoC&q=Aristotle+paradeigma+and+enthymeme&pg=PA71}}
* {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy Vol. 1 |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-29420-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W.K.C. |title=A history of Greek philosophy |volume=6: Aristotle: An Encounter |date=1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8EG0yV0cGoEC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-38760-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Haase |first=Wolfgang |title=Philosophie, Wissenschaften, Technik. Philosophie (Doxographica [Forts. ]) |year=1992 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ifqGuiHo6eQC&pg=PA3862 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-013699-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Edith |title=Aristotle's Way: How Ancient Wisdom Can Change Your Life |date=2018 |publisher=[[The Bodley Head]] |isbn=978-1-84792-407-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Halliwell |first1=Stephen |chapter=Inside and Outside the Work of Art |title=The Aesthetics of Mimesis: Ancient Texts and Modern Problems |date=2002 |pages=152–59 |author-link=Stephen Halliwell (academic) |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-09258-4 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R8wctGFg12MC&q=Aristotle+mimesis}}
* {{cite book |last=Hankinson |first=R.J. |title=Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-823745-7 |doi=10.1093/0199246564.001.0001}}
* {{cite SEP |last=Hasse |first=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |date=2014 | url-id=arabic-islamic-influence}}
* {{cite book |last=Held |first=Julius |title=Rembrandt's Aristotle and Other Rembrandt Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/rembrandtsaristo0000held | url-access=registration |year=1969 |author-link=Julius S. Held |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hladký |first1=V. |last2=Havlíček |first2=J |year=2013 |url=http://ishe.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/HEB_2013_28_4_3-11.pdf |title=Was Tinbergen an Aristotelian? Comparison of Tinbergen's Four Whys and Aristotle's Four Causes |journal=Human Ethology Bulletin |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=3–11}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Holowchak |first1=Mark |title=Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out |date=1996 |pages=405–23 |journal=Ancient Philosophy |volume=16 |issue=2 |url=http://www.pdcnet.org/ancientphil/Ancient-Philosophy |doi=10.5840/ancientphil199616244}}
* {{cite book |last=Hooker |first=Sir William Jackson |author-link=William Jackson Hooker |title=The British Flora: Comprising the Phaenogamous, Or Flowering Plants, and the Ferns |year=1831 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-IYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219 |publisher=Longman |oclc=17317293}}
* {{cite book |last=House |first=Humphry |title=Aristotle's Poetics |date=1956 |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotlespoetic032945mbp |publisher=Rupert Hart-Davis}}
* {{cite web |last1=Hutchinson |first1=D. S. |last2=Johnson |first2=Monte Ransome |title=Exhortation to Philosophy |date=2015 |page=22 |url=http://www.protrepticus.info/protr2017x20.pdf |website=Protrepticus}}
* {{cite book |title=Aristotle: Introductory Readings | editor-first1=Terence | editor-last1=Irwin | editor-first2=Gail | editor-last2=Fine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tx8zjmHZ2NMC |year=1996 |publisher=Hackett Pub. |isbn=978-0-87220-339-6}}
* {{cite news |last1=Jones |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, Rembrandt (1653) |date=27 July 2002 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2002/jul/27/art.homer |access-date=23 March 2018 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=W. T. |title=The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy |date=1980 |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |isbn=978-0-15-538312-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Kant |first=Immanuel |author-link=Immanuel Kant |title=Critique of Pure Reason |date=1787 |edition=Second |oclc=2323615}}
* {{cite book |last=Kantor |first=J. R. |title=The Scientific Evolution of Psychology, Volume I |year=1963 |publisher=Principia Press |isbn=978-0-911188-25-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter Arnold |title=Tragedy and Philosophy |date=1968 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-02005-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NTk9-180NbsC&q=Aristotle+Oedipus+the+King}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kennedy-Day |first1=Kiki |chapter=Aristotelianism in Islamic philosophy |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1998 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-H002-1 |isbn=978-0-415-25069-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Knight |first=Kelvin |title=Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics & Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre |date=2007 |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-0-7456-1977-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Kraut |first1=Richard |title=Aristotle's Ethics |date=1 May 2001 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |accessdate=19 March 2018}}
* {{cite SEP |last=Kuhn |first=Heinrich |title=Aristotelianism in the Renaissance |date=2018 | url-id=aristotelianism-renaissance}}
* {{cite book |last=Kukkonen |first=Taneli |title=The classical tradition |year=2010 | editor-last=Grafton | editor-first=Anthony | display-editors=etal |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-03572-0}}
* {{cite SEP |last=Lagerlund |first=Henrik |title=Medieval Theories of the Syllogism |date=2016 | url-id=medieval-syllogism}}
* {{cite SEP |last=Lagerlund |first=Henrik |title=Medieval Theories of the Syllogism | url-id=medieval-syllogism}}
* {{cite web |last=Lahanas |first=Michael |title=Optics and ancient Greeks |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |website=Mlahanas.de |access-date=26 April 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411051535/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |archivedate=11 April 2009 | url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Ellen Wardwell |last2=Robinson |first2=Anne |title=Indianapolis Museum of Art: Highlights of the Collection |year=2005 |publisher=[[Indianapolis Museum of Art]] |isbn=978-0-936260-77-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |date=2015 |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |titlelink=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4}}
* {{cite web |last1=Leroi |first1=Armand Marie (Presenter) |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |title=Aristotle's Lagoon: Embryo Inside a Chicken's Egg |date=3 May 2011 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00gqlyy |publisher=BBC |access-date=17 November 2016}}
* {{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David |title=The Beginnings of Western Science |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest00lind | url-access=registration |date=1992 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=G. E. R. |title=The critic of Plato |date=1968 |author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd |work=Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09456-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=G. E. R. |title=Causes and correlations |date=1996 | author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd |work=Adversaries and Authorities: Investigations into ancient Greek and Chinese science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-55695-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Lovejoy |first=Arthur O. |title=The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea |date=31 January 1976 |author-link=Arthur O. Lovejoy |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36153-9}}
* {{cite web |title=Lucas Cranach the Elder{{!}} Phyllis and Aristotle | url=http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2008/important-old-master-paintings-including-european-works-of-art-n08404/lot.78.html | publisher=[[Sotheby's]] | access-date=23 March 2018 | date=2008 | ref=CITEREFLucas Cranach the Elder}}
* {{cite book |last=Lyell |first=Charles |title=Principles of Geology |date=1832 |author-link=Charles Lyell |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesgeolo01unkngoog |oclc=609586345|publisher=J. Murray, 1832}}
* {{cite journal |last=MacDougall-Shackleton |first=Scott A. |title=The levels of analysis revisited |date=27 July 2011 |pages=2076–85 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=366 |issue=1574 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0363 |pmc=3130367 |pmid=21690126}}
* {{cite SEP |last=Machamer |first=Peter |title=Galileo Galilei |date=2017 | url-id=galileo}}
* {{cite book |last=Magee |first=Bryan |title=The Story of Philosophy |date=2010 |author-link=Bryan Magee |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-0-241-24126-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Mason |first=Stephen F. |title=A History of the Sciences |date=1979 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PLlMAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Collier Books |isbn=978-0-02-093400-4 |oclc=924760574}}
* {{cite web |last1=Mayhew |first1=Robert |title=Aristotle For Objectivists |url=https://estore.aynrand.org/p/692/aristotle-for-objectivists-mp3-download |publisher=The Ayn Rand Institute |access-date=29 March 2018}}
* {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/growthofbiologic00mayr | url-access=registration |date=1982 |publisher=Belknap Press |isbn=978-0-674-36446-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |date=1985 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36446-2}}
* {{cite book |last=McLeisch |first=Kenneth Cole |title=Aristotle: The Great Philosophers |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-92392-7|url=https://archive.org/details/aristotle00mcle}}
* {{cite book |title=Aristotle to Zoos: a philosophical dictionary of biology |year=1984 |last1=Medawar |first1=Peter B. |author-link=Peter Medawar |last2=Medawar |first2=J. S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-283043-2}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Willard M. |title=Aristotle on Necessity, Chance, and Spontaneity |year=1973 |pages=204–13 |journal=New Scholasticism |volume=47 |issue=2 |doi=10.5840/newscholas197347237}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Modrak |first1=Deborah |title=Dreams and Method in Aristotle |date=2009 |pages=169–81 |journal=Skepsis: A Journal for Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Research |volume=20}}
* {{cite book |last=Moore |first=Ruth |title=The Earth We Live On |url=https://archive.org/details/earthweliveonsto00moor | url-access=registration |year=1956 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |oclc=1024467091}}
* {{cite journal |last=Morsink |first=Johannes |title=Was Aristotle's Biology Sexist? |date=Spring 1979 |pages=83–112 |jstor=4330727 |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=12 |issue=1 |doi=10.1007/bf00128136 |pmid=11615776 |s2cid=6090923}}
* {{cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |title=The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia |date=1996 |publisher=Curzon Press |isbn=978-0-7007-0314-2}}
* {{cite web |last1=Phelan |first1=Joseph |title=The Philosopher as Hero: Raphael's The School of Athens |date=September 2002 |url=http://www.artcyclopedia.com/feature-2002-09.html |publisher=ArtCyclopedia |access-date=23 March 2018}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/phyllis-and-aristotle |title=Phyllis and Aristotle |date=1 February 2019 |via=Musee du Louvre |ref=CITEREFPhyllis and Aristotle}}
* {{cite book |last=Pickover |first=Clifford A. |title=The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA52 |publisher=Sterling |isbn=978-1-4027-5796-9}}
* {{cite web |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/alexander*/3.html |title=Plutarch – Life of Alexander (Part 1 of 7) |date=1919 |publisher=Loeb Classical Library |website=penelope.uchicago.edu |access-date=31 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPlutarch1919}}
* {{cite web |title=Predicate Logic |url=https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~schrum2/cs301k/lec/topic04-predicateLogic.pdf |publisher=University of Texas |access-date=29 March 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329221535/https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~schrum2/cs301k/lec/topic04-predicateLogic.pdf |archivedate=29 March 2018 | url-status=live |ref=CITEREFPredicate Logic}}
* {{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Frank Harold Trevor |title=Evolution |date=1974 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWGt0bff8agC |publisher=Golden Press |isbn=978-0-307-64360-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Robbins |first=Lionel |title=A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures |date=2000 |editor1=Medema, Steven G. |editor2=Samuels, Warren J. |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rorty |first1=Amélie Oksenberg |chapter=Structuring Rhetoric |date=1996 |title=Essays on Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' | editor-last=Rorty | editor-first=Amélie Oksenberg |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20227-6 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vd7fEb1wOmYC&q=Aristotle+deliberative+forensic+and+epideictic&pg=PA6| url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/essaysonaristotl0000unse}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rovelli |first1=Carlo |author-link=Carlo Rovelli |title=Aristotle's Physics: A Physicist's Look |year=2015 |pages=23–40 |journal=Journal of the American Philosophical Association |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.1017/apa.2014.11 |arxiv=1312.4057 |s2cid=44193681}}
* {{cite book |last=Russell |first=Bertrand |title=A history of western philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RZc3AAAAIAAJ |year=1972 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-31400-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Sedley |first=David |title=Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgRuJEfzUG8C |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25364-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Shields |first=Christopher |title=The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTVsrl0mnH4C |date=2012 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-518748-9}}
* {{cite SEP |last=Shields |first=Christopher |title=Aristotle's Psychology |date=2016 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/aristotle/ |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | editor-last=Zalta | editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Winter 2016}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shute |first1=Clarence |title=The Psychology of Aristotle: An Analysis of the Living Being |date=1941 |publisher=Columbia University Press |oclc=936606202}}
* {{cite book |last=Sikka |first=Sonya |title=Forms of Transcendence: Heidegger and Medieval Mystical Theology |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNYIDrA0zrYC&pg=PA265 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3345-4}}
* {{cite SEP |last=Smith |first=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |date=2017 | url-id=aristotle-logic}}
* {{cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/dictionarygreek09smitgoog |title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology |last=Smith |first=William George | orig-year=1869 |year=2007 |publisher=J. Walton |access-date=30 January 2019 |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sorabji |first1=R. |title=Aristotle on Memory |date=2006 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=54 |edition=2nd |quote=And this is exactly why we hunt for the successor, starting in our thoughts from the present or from something else, and from something similar, or opposite, or neighbouring. By this means recollection occurs...}}
* {{cite book |last=Sorabji |first=Richard |title=Aristotle Transformed |date=1990 |author-link=Richard Sorabji |publisher=Duckworth |isbn=978-0-7156-2254-4}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Staley |first1=Kevin |title=Al-Kindi on Creation: Aristotle's Challenge to Islam |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1989 |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=355–370 |jstor=2709566|doi=10.2307/2709566}}
* {{cite web |last1=Susskind |first1=Leonard |title=Classical Mechanics, Lectures 2, 3 |date=3 October 2011 |authorlink1=Leonard Susskind |url=http://theoreticalminimum.com/courses/classical-mechanics/2011/fall/lecture-2 |website=The Theoretical Minimum |access-date=11 May 2018}}
* {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Henry Osborn |chapter=Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology |title=Greek Biology and Medicine |date=1922 |author-link=Henry Osborn Taylor |archivedate=27 March 2006 | chapter-url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html | url-status=dead |access-date=3 January 2017}}
* {{cite web |title=The School of Athens by Raphael |url=http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/famous-paintings/school-of-athens.htm |publisher=Visual Arts Cork |access-date=22 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFSchool of Athens}}
* {{cite web |last=Stewart |first=Jessica |title=The Story Behind Raphael's Masterpiece 'The School of Athens' |url=https://mymodernmet.com/school-of-athens-raphael/ |quote=Plato's gesture toward the sky is thought to indicate his Theory of Forms. ... Conversely, Aristotle's hand is a visual representation of his belief that knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism, as it is known, theorizes that humans must have concrete evidence to support their ideas |website=My Modern Met |year=2019 |access-date=29 March 2019}}
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=D'Arcy |author-link=D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson |title=Historia animalium |date=1910 |work=The works of Aristotle translated into English |editor1=Ross, W. D. |editor2=Smith, J. A. |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/history/index.html |oclc=39273217}}
* {{cite book |last=Warren |first=Howard C. |title=A History of the Association of Psychology |date=1921 |author-link=Howard C. Warren |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&q=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology&pg=PA3 |oclc=21010604 <!--dlc-->}}
* {{cite book |last1=Webb |first1=Wilse |title=Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night |date=1990 |publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher |isbn=978-0-87477-594-5|url=https://archive.org/details/dreamtimedreamwo00kriprich}}
* {{cite news |title=When libraries were on a roll |date=19 May 2001 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4723624/When-libraries-were-on-a-roll.html |publisher=Telegraph Media Group |access-date=29 June 2017 |ref=CITEREFWhen libraries were2001}}
* {{cite SEP |last=Wildberg | first Christian |title=John Philoponus |date=2016 | url-id=philoponus}}
* {{cite SEP |title=Aristotle's Influence |date=2018 | url-id=aristotle-influence |edition=Spring 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle's Influence2018}}
{{refend}}
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.
关于亚里士多德的二手文献很多。以下只是一小部分选择。
==Further reading==
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.
{{refbegin | 30em}}
* [[J. L. Ackrill|Ackrill, J. L.]] (1997). ''Essays on Plato and Aristotle'', Oxford University Press.
*{{cite book |last=Ackrill |first=J.L. |title=Aristotle the Philosopher |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1981}}
*{{Cite book |last=Adler |first=Mortimer J. |author-link=Mortimer Adler |title=Aristotle for Everybody |publisher=Macmillan |date=1978 | title-link=Aristotle for Everybody}}
*{{cite book |last=Ammonius | editor1-last=Cohen | editor1-first=S. Marc | editor2-last=Matthews | editor2-first=Gareth B |title=On Aristotle's Categories |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1991 |isbn=978-0-8014-2688-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |date=1908–1952}} These translations are available in several places online; see External links.
* Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). ''Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments'', Trafford Publishing{{ISBN | 978-1412048439}}
*{{Cite book |last=Bocheński |first=I. M. |title=Ancient Formal Logic |publisher=North-Holland |date=1951}}
* Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
* [[Myles Burnyeat|Burnyeat, Myles F.]] ''et al.'' (1979). ''Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.
*{{cite book | editor1-last=Cantor | editor1-first=Norman F. | editor2-first=Peter L. | editor2-last=Klein |title=Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle |volume=1 |series=Monuments of Western Thought |publisher=Blaisdell |date=1969}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Chappell |first1=V. |year=1973 |title=Aristotle's Conception of Matter |url= |journal=Journal of Philosophy |volume=70 |issue=19 |pages=679–96 |doi=10.2307/2025076 |jstor=2025076}}
* Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.
*{{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=John |title=Aristotle |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotle0000ferg |url-access=registration |publisher=Twayne Publishers |date=1972 }}
* De Groot, Jean (2014). ''Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC'', Parmenides Publishing,{{ISBN | 978-1930972834}}
* Frede, Michael (1987). ''Essays in Ancient Philosophy''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
*{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=B.A.G. |author-link=Benjamin_Apthorp_Gould_Fuller |series=History of Greek Philosophy |volume=3 |title=Aristotle |publisher=Cape |date=1923}}
* [[Eugene Gendlin|Gendlin, Eugene T.]] (2012). ''[http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327012857/http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ |date=27 March 2017 }}'', Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.
* Gill, Mary Louise (1989). ''Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity''. Princeton University Press.
*{{Cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W.K.C. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy |volume=6 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1981}}
* Halper, Edward C. (2009). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta'', Parmenides Publishing,{{ISBN | 978-1930972216}}.
* Halper, Edward C. (2005). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books'', Parmenides Publishing,{{ISBN | 978-1930972056}}.
* [[Terence Irwin|Irwin, Terence H.]] (1988). [http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotle%27s%20first%20principles.pdf ''Aristotle's First Principles'']. Oxford: Clarendon Press,{{ISBN | 0198242905}}.
*{{cite book |last=Jaeger |first=Werner |title=Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development | editor-first=Richard | editor-last=Robinson |edition=2nd |publisher=Clarendon Press |date=1948}}
* [[Alberto Jori|Jori, Alberto]] (2003). ''Aristotele'', Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "[[International Academy of the History of Science]]"){{ISBN | 978-8842497370}}.
*{{cite book | editor-last=Kiernan | editor-first=Thomas P. |title=Aristotle Dictionary |publisher=Philosophical Library |date=1962}}
* Knight, Kelvin (2007). ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'', Polity Press.
* Lewis, Frank A. (1991). ''Substance and Predication in Aristotle''. Cambridge University Press.
* Lord, Carnes (1984). ''Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle''. Chicago University Press.
* Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
* Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) ''Reading Aristotle: Physics'' VII. 3: ''What is Alteration?'' ''Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference'', Parmenides Publishing.{{ISBN | 978-1930972735}}
*{{cite book |last=McKeon |first=Richard |title=Introduction to Aristotle |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=1973}}
*{{cite journal |last=Owen |first=G. E. L. |year=1965c |title=The Platonism of Aristotle |journal=Proceedings of the British Academy |volume=50 |pages=125–50}} [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). ''Articles on Aristotle'' Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]
* {{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511498282 |title=Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship |year=2002 |last1=Pangle |first1=Lorraine Smith |isbn=9780511498282}}
*{{cite book |last=Plato |author-link=Plato |title=The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle | editor1-first=Harold Joseph | editor1-last=Allen | editor2-first=James B | editor2-last=Wilbur |publisher=Prometheus Books |date=1979}}
* Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). ''Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Hackett.
*{{Cite book |last=Rose |first=Lynn E. |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic |publisher=Charles C Thomas |date=1968}}
*{{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Sir David |author-link=W. D. Ross |title=Aristotle |publisher=Routledge |edition=6th |date=1995}}
* Scaltsas, T. (1994). ''Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Cornell University Press.
* Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's ''Politics''", in ''The City and Man'', Rand McNally.
*{{Cite book |last=Swanson |first=Judith |title=The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/publicprivateina00swan |url-access=registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1992 }}
*{{Cite book |last=Veatch |first=Henry B. |author-link=Henry Babcock Veatch |title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation |publisher=Indiana University Press |date=1974}}
*{{cite book |last=Woods |first=M. J. |year=1991b |chapter=Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics |series=[[Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy]] |title=Aristotle and the Later Tradition |volume=Suppl |pages=41–56}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Sister project links | b=no | n=no | s=Author:Aristotle}}
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*{{Britannica |id=34560}}
*{{PhilPapers|category|aristotle}}
*{{InPho | thinker | 2553}}
* At the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]:
*:{{hlist | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/ Aristotle (general article)] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/ Biology] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/ Ethics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ Logic] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/ Metaphysics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ Motion and its Place in Nature] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/ Poetics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/ Politics]}}
* At the [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index.html Internet Classics Archive]
* From the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]:
*:{{hlist | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle Aristotle (general article)] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/ Aristotle in the Renaissance] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/ Biology] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/ Causality] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/ Commentators on Aristotle] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Ethics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ Logic] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/ Mathematics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ Metaphysics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/ Natural philosophy] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/ Non-contradiction] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/ Political theory] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ Psychology] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ Rhetoric]}}
*{{cite CE1913 | first=William | last=Turner | wstitle=Aristotle | volume=1 | short=x}}
*{{cite LotEP |chapter=Aristotle}}
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* At [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology]
*{{Gutenberg author | id=2747}}
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*{{Librivox author | id=602}}
*{{OL author | OL22105A}}
*{{in lang|en|el}} [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle Perseus Project] at [[Tufts University]]
* At the [https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ University of Adelaide]
*{{in lang|el|fr}} [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm P. Remacle]
* The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ([http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ PDF]{{dot}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20050816192647/http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/ DJVU])
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<noinclude>
<small>This page was moved from [[wikipedia:en:Aristotle]]. Its edit history can be viewed at [[亚里士多德/edithistory]]</small></noinclude>
[[Category:待整理页面]]