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第85行： − + − − − '''Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann''' ({{IPA-de|ˈluːtvɪg ˈbɔlt͡sman}}; February 20, 1844 – September 5, 1906) was an [[Austria]]n [[physicist]] and [[philosopher]]. His greatest achievements were the development of [[statistical mechanics]], and the statistical explanation of the [[second law of thermodynamics]]. In 1877 he provided the current definition of [[entropy]], <math>S = k_{\rm B} \ln \Omega \!</math>, interpreted as a measure of statistical disorder of a system.<ref name="EncycloBritan">{{cite book − − |last1= Klein − − |first1= Martin − − |year= 1970 − − |orig-year= 1768 − − Boltzmann was born in Erdberg, a suburb of Vienna. His father, Ludwig Georg Boltzmann, was a revenue official. His grandfather, who had moved to Vienna from Berlin, was a clock manufacturer, and Boltzmann's mother, Katharina Pauernfeind, was originally from Salzburg. He received his primary education at the home of his parents. Boltzmann attended high school in Linz, Upper Austria. When Boltzmann was 15, his father died. − − 波尔兹曼出生于维也纳的郊区 Erdberg。他的父亲路德维希 · 格奥尔格 · 波尔兹曼是一名税务官员。他的祖父从柏林搬到了维也纳，是一个钟表制造商，而波尔兹曼的母亲卡塔琳娜•保恩芬德(Katharina Pauernfeind)来自萨尔茨堡。他在父母家接受小学教育。玻尔兹曼在上奥地利的林茨上高中。波尔兹曼15岁时，父亲去世了。 − − |chapter= Boltzmann, Ludwig − − |editor1-last= Preece − − Starting in 1863, Boltzmann studied mathematics and physics at the University of Vienna. He received his doctorate in 1866 and his venia legendi in 1869. Boltzmann worked closely with Josef Stefan, director of the institute of physics. It was Stefan who introduced Boltzmann to Maxwell's work. Boltzmann was appointed full Professor of Mathematical Physics at the University of Graz in the province of Styria. In 1869 he spent several months in Heidelberg working with Robert Bunsen and Leo Königsberger and in 1871 with Gustav Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz in Berlin. In 1873 Boltzmann joined the University of Vienna as Professor of Mathematics and there he stayed until 1876. − − 从1863年开始，玻尔兹曼在维也纳大学学习数学和物理学。他于1866年获得博士学位，于1869年获得法学博士学位。玻尔兹曼与物理研究所所长约瑟夫 · 斯蒂芬密切合作。是斯蒂芬把玻尔兹曼介绍给麦克斯韦尔的工作。被任命为 Styria 卡尔·弗朗岑斯大学数学物理学的正式教授。1869年，他在海德保花了几个月的时间与 Robert Bunsen 和莱奥·柯尼希斯贝格尔一起工作，1871年在柏林与古斯塔夫·基尔霍夫和赫尔曼·冯·亥姆霍兹一起工作。1873年，玻尔兹曼作为数学教授加入了维也纳大学，并在那里一直待到1876年。 − − |editor1-first= Warren E. − − Nernst, Streintz, Arrhenius, Hiecke, (sitting, from the left) Aulinger, Ettingshausen, Boltzmann, Klemenčič, Hausmanninger]] − − Nernst, Streintz, Arrhenius, Hiecke, (sitting, from the left) Aulinger, Ettingshausen, Boltzmann, Klemenčič, Hausmanninger]] − − |title= Encyclopædia Britannica − − In 1872, long before women were admitted to Austrian universities, he met Henriette von Aigentler, an aspiring teacher of mathematics and physics in Graz. She was refused permission to audit lectures unofficially. Boltzmann supported her decision to appeal, which was successful. On July 17, 1876 Ludwig Boltzmann married Henriette; they had three daughters: Henriette (1880), Ida (1884) and Else (1891); and a son, Arthur Ludwig (1881). Boltzmann went back to Graz to take up the chair of Experimental Physics. Among his students in Graz were Svante Arrhenius and Walther Nernst. He spent 14 happy years in Graz and it was there that he developed his statistical concept of nature. − − 1872年，在女性被奥地利大学录取之前很久，他遇到了 Henriette von Aigentler，一位有抱负的格拉茨数学和物理教师。她被拒绝以非正式的方式旁听课程。波尔兹曼支持她上诉的决定，这个决定很成功。1876年7月17日，路德维希·玻尔兹曼和亨利埃特结婚，他们有3个女儿: 亨利埃特(1880年) ，艾达(1884年)和艾尔斯(1891年) ，和一个儿子，亚瑟路德维希(1881年)。波尔兹曼回到格拉茨担任实验物理学教授。他在格拉茨的学生包括斯万特 · 阿伦尼乌斯和瓦尔特 · 纳恩斯特。他在格拉茨度过了快乐的14年，在那里他发展了自己的自然统计学概念。 − − |type=hard cover − − |language= English − − Boltzmann was appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Munich in Bavaria, Germany in 1890. − − 1890年，玻尔兹曼被任命为德国巴伐利亚慕尼黑大学的理论物理学教授。 − − |volume= 3 − − |edition= Commemorative Edition for Expo 70 − − In 1894, Boltzmann succeeded his teacher Joseph Stefan as Professor of Theoretical Physics at the University of Vienna. − − 1894年，玻尔兹曼接替他的老师约瑟夫 · 斯蒂芬成为维也纳大学的理论物理学教授。 − − |location= Chicago − − |publisher= William Benton − − |publication-date= 1970 − − |page= 893a − − Boltzmann spent a great deal of effort in his final years defending his theories. He did not get along with some of his colleagues in Vienna, particularly Ernst Mach, who became a professor of philosophy and history of sciences in 1895. That same year Georg Helm and Wilhelm Ostwald presented their position on energetics at a meeting in Lübeck. They saw energy, and not matter, as the chief component of the universe. Boltzmann's position carried the day among other physicists who supported his atomic theories in the debate. In 1900, Boltzmann went to the University of Leipzig, on the invitation of Wilhelm Ostwald. Ostwald offered Boltzmann the professorial chair in physics, which became vacant when Gustav Heinrich Wiedemann died. After Mach retired due to bad health, Boltzmann returned to Vienna in 1902. − − 玻尔兹曼在晚年花费了大量的精力来捍卫他的理论。他和他在维也纳的一些同事处不来，特别是恩斯特 · 马赫，后者在1895年成为哲学和科学史教授。同年，乔治•赫尔姆(Georg Helm)和威廉•奥斯特瓦尔德(Wilhelm Ostwald)在吕贝克的一次会议上，阐述了他们在能源学方面的立场。他们认为能量而不是物质是宇宙的主要组成部分。玻尔兹曼的立场在辩论中赢得了其他支持他的原子理论的物理学家的支持。1900年，应 Wilhelm Ostwald 的邀请，Boltzmann 去了莱比锡大学。奥斯特瓦尔德给波尔兹曼提供了一个物理学教授的职位，这个职位在古斯塔夫·海因里希·维德曼去世后就空了下来。由于身体不好，马赫退役后，波尔兹曼于1902年返回维也纳。 − − |isbn= 0852291353 − − }} − − In 1906, Boltzmann's deteriorating mental condition forced him to resign his position, and his symptoms indicate he experienced what would today be diagnosed as bipolar disorder. Four months later he died by suicide on September 5, 1906, by hanging himself while on vacation with his wife and daughter in Duino, near Trieste (then Austria). During the 1890s, Boltzmann attempted to formulate a compromise position which would allow both atomists and anti-atomists to do physics without arguing over atoms. His solution was to use Hertz's theory that atoms were Bilder, that is, models or pictures. Atomists could think the pictures were the real atoms while the anti-atomists could think of the pictures as representing a useful but unreal model, but this did not fully satisfy either group. Furthermore, Ostwald and many defenders of "pure thermodynamics" were trying hard to refute the kinetic theory of gases and statistical mechanics because of Boltzmann's assumptions about atoms and molecules and especially statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics. − − 1906年，Boltzmann 日益恶化的精神状况迫使他辞职，他的症状表明他经历了今天被诊断为躁郁症。四个月后，他于1906年9月5日与妻子和女儿在杜伊诺度假时上吊自杀身亡，当时他们住在的里雅斯特港/特区附近(当时是奥地利)。在19世纪90年代，玻尔兹曼试图阐明一个妥协的立场，允许原子论者和反原子论者在不争论原子的情况下进行物理研究。他的解决方案是使用赫兹的原子是比尔德的理论，即模型或图片。原子论者可以认为这些图片是真正的原子，而反原子论者可以认为这些图片代表了一个有用但不真实的模型，但这并不能完全满足任何一组。此外，Ostwald 和许多“纯热力学”的捍卫者正在努力驳斥分子运动论和统计力学，因为 Boltzmann 对原子和分子的假设，特别是对热力学第二定律的统计解释。 − − </ref> [[Max Planck]] named the constant, {{math|''k''<sub>B</sub>}}, the [[Boltzmann constant]].<ref>{{Citation − − | last = Partington − − Around the turn of the century, Boltzmann's science was being threatened by another philosophical objection. Some physicists, including Mach's student, Gustav Jaumann, interpreted Hertz to mean that all electromagnetic behavior is continuous, as if there were no atoms and molecules, and likewise as if all physical behavior were ultimately electromagnetic. This movement around 1900 deeply depressed Boltzmann since it could mean the end of his kinetic theory and statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics. − − 在世纪之交，玻尔兹曼的科学受到另一种哲学反对意见的威胁。一些物理学家，包括马赫的学生古斯塔夫 · 乔曼，将赫兹解释为所有的电磁行为都是连续的，就好像没有原子和分子，同样，所有的物理行为最终都是电磁行为。1900年前后的这一运动使玻尔兹曼深感沮丧，因为它可能意味着他的动力学理论和热力学第二定律的统计解释的终结。 − − | first = J.R. − − | author-link = J.R. Partington − − After Mach's resignation in Vienna in 1901, Boltzmann returned there and decided to become a philosopher himself to refute philosophical objections to his physics, but he soon became discouraged again. In 1904 at a physics conference in St. Louis most physicists seemed to reject atoms and he was not even invited to the physics section. Rather, he was stuck in a section called "applied mathematics", he violently attacked philosophy, especially on allegedly Darwinian grounds but actually in terms of Lamarck's theory of the inheritance of acquired characteristics that people inherited bad philosophy from the past and that it was hard for scientists to overcome such inheritance. − − 1901年马赫在维也纳辞职后，波尔兹曼回到那里，决定自己成为一名哲学家，驳斥哲学界对他的物理学的反对意见，但他很快又变得灰心丧气。1904年在圣路易斯举行的一次物理学会议上，大多数物理学家似乎都排斥原子，甚至没有邀请他参加物理课。相反，他被困在一个叫做“应用数学”的部分，他猛烈抨击哲学，特别是据称基于达尔文的理由，但实际上是根据拉马克的获得性状遗传理论，人们从过去继承了糟糕的哲学，科学家很难克服这种继承。 − − | title = An Advanced Treatise on Physical Chemistry − − | volume = volume 1, ''Fundamental Principles'', ''The Properties of Gases'' − − In 1905 Boltzmann corresponded extensively with the Austro-German philosopher Franz Brentano with the hope of gaining a better mastery of philosophy, apparently, so that he could better refute its relevancy in science, but he became discouraged about this approach as well. − − 1905年，波尔兹曼与德国哲学家弗朗茨 · 布伦塔诺有着广泛的通信往来，显然是希望能够更好地掌握哲学，以便更好地驳斥哲学与科学的关联性，但他也对这种方法感到气馁。 − − | place = London − − | publisher = [[Longman|Longmans, Green and Co.]] − − | series = − − Boltzmann's most important scientific contributions were in kinetic theory, including for motivating the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution as a description of molecular speeds in a gas. Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics and the Boltzmann distribution remain central in the foundations of classical statistical mechanics. They are also applicable to other phenomena that do not require quantum statistics and provide insight into the meaning of temperature. − − 玻尔兹曼最重要的科学贡献是在动力学理论，包括激发麦克斯韦-波兹曼分布，作为一种描述分子在气体中的速度。麦克斯韦-玻耳兹曼统计学和波兹曼分布理论仍然是经典统计力学理论基础的核心。它们也适用于其他不需要量子统计的现象，并提供了对温度含义的深入了解。 − − | origyear = − − | year = 1949 − − Boltzmann's 1898 I<sub>2</sub> molecule diagram showing atomic "sensitive region" (α, β) overlap. − − 玻耳兹曼1898 i < 亚 > 2 </亚 > 分子图显示原子“敏感区”(α，β)重叠。 − − | page = 300}}</ref> − − − − Most chemists, since the discoveries of John Dalton in 1808, and James Clerk Maxwell in Scotland and Josiah Willard Gibbs in the United States, shared Boltzmann's belief in atoms and molecules, but much of the physics establishment did not share this belief until decades later. Boltzmann had a long-running dispute with the editor of the preeminent German physics journal of his day, who refused to let Boltzmann refer to atoms and molecules as anything other than convenient theoretical constructs. Only a couple of years after Boltzmann's death, Perrin's studies of colloidal suspensions (1908–1909), based on Einstein's theoretical studies of 1905, confirmed the values of Avogadro's number and Boltzmann's constant, convincing the world that the tiny particles really exist. − − 自从1808年 John Dalton，苏格兰的詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦和美国的约西亚·威拉德·吉布斯发现以来，大多数化学家都认同 Boltzmann 的原子和分子理论，但是大多数物理学家直到几十年后才认同这一理论。玻尔兹曼与他那个时代卓越的德国物理学期刊的编辑有一个长期的争论，他拒绝让玻尔兹曼把原子和分子称为除了方便的理论构造以外的任何东西。玻尔兹曼死后仅仅几年，佩兰对胶体悬浮的研究(1908-1909年) ，以爱因斯坦1905年的理论研究为基础，证实了阿伏加德罗常数和波尔兹曼常数的价值，使世界相信微小粒子确实存在。 − − Statistical mechanics is one of the pillars of modern [[physics]]. It describes how macroscopic observations (such as [[temperature]] and [[pressure]]) are related to microscopic parameters that fluctuate around an average. It connects thermodynamic quantities (such as [[heat capacity]]) to microscopic behavior, whereas, in [[classical thermodynamics]], the only available option would be to measure and tabulate such quantities for various materials.<ref name="gibbs">{{cite book |last=Gibbs |first=Josiah Willard |author-link=Josiah Willard Gibbs |title=Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics |year=1902 |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |location=New York |title-link=Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics }}</ref> − − − − To quote Planck, "The logarithmic connection between entropy and probability was first stated by L. Boltzmann in his kinetic theory of gases". This famous formula for entropy S is − − 引用普朗克的话，“熵和概率之间的对数关系最早是由 l. Boltzmann 在他的分子运动论中提出的”。这个著名的熵公式是 − −
无编辑摘要
| page = 300}}</ref>
| page = 300}}</ref>
Statistical mechanics is one of the pillars of modern [[physics]]. It describes how macroscopic observations (such as [[temperature]] and [[pressure]]) are related to microscopic parameters that fluctuate around an average. It connects thermodynamic quantities (such as [[heat capacity]]) to microscopic behavior, whereas, in [[classical thermodynamics]], the only available option would be to measure and tabulate such quantities for various materials.<ref name="gibbs">{{cite book |last=Gibbs |first=Josiah Willard |author-link=Josiah Willard Gibbs |title=Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics |year=1902 |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |location=New York |title-link=Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics }}</ref>
Statistical mechanics is one of the pillars of modern physics. It describes how macroscopic observations (such as temperature and pressure) are related to microscopic parameters that fluctuate around an average. It connects thermodynamic quantities (such as heat capacity) to microscopic behavior, whereas, in classical thermodynamics, the only available option would be to measure and tabulate such quantities for various materials.
统计力学是现代物理学的支柱之一。它描述了宏观观察(如温度和压力)如何与围绕平均值波动的微观参数相关。它将热力学量(比如热容)与微观行为联系起来，而在经典热力学中，唯一可行的选择就是测量和列表各种材料的热力学量。
统计力学是现代物理学的支柱之一。它描述了宏观观察(如温度和压力)如何与围绕平均值波动的微观参数相关。它将热力学量(比如热容)与微观行为联系起来，而在经典热力学中，唯一可行的选择就是测量和列表各种材料的热力学量。
==Biography==
==Biography==
<math> S = k_B \ln W </math>
<math> S = k_B \ln W </math>