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'''Holism''' (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|ὅλος}} ''holos'' "all, whole, entire") is the idea that various [[system]]s (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts.<ref>{{Citation | first = Barry | last = Oshry | title = Seeing Systems: Unlocking the Mysteries of Organizational Life | publisher = Berrett-Koehler | year = 2008}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | first = Sunny Y | last = Auyang | title = Foundations of Complex-system Theories: in Economics, Evolutionary Biology, and Statistical Physics | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1999}}.</ref> The term "holism" was coined by [[Jan Smuts]] in his 1926 book ''[[Holism and Evolution]]''.<ref name=oed>"holism, n." OED Online, [[Oxford University Press]], September 2019, www.oed.com/view/Entry/87726. Accessed 23 October 2019.</ref>

'''Holism''' (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|ὅλος}} ''holos'' "all, whole, entire") is the idea that various [[system]]s (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts.<ref>{{Citation | first = Barry | last = Oshry | title = Seeing Systems: Unlocking the Mysteries of Organizational Life | publisher = Berrett-Koehler | year = 2008}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | first = Sunny Y | last = Auyang | title = Foundations of Complex-system Theories: in Economics, Evolutionary Biology, and Statistical Physics | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1999}}.</ref> The term "holism" was coined by [[Jan Smuts]] in his 1926 book ''[[Holism and Evolution]]''.<ref name=oed>"holism, n." OED Online, [[Oxford University Press]], September 2019, www.oed.com/view/Entry/87726. Accessed 23 October 2019.</ref>

The exact meaning of "holism" depends on context. Smuts originally used "holism" to refer to the tendency in nature to produce wholes from the ordered grouping of unit structures. However, in common usage, "holism" usually refers to the idea that a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In this sense, "holism" may also be spelled "wholism", and it may be contrasted with reductionism or atomism.

The exact meaning of "holism" depends on context. Smuts originally used "holism" to refer to the tendency in nature to produce wholes from the ordered grouping of unit structures. However, in common usage, "holism" usually refers to the idea that a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In this sense, "holism" may also be spelled "wholism", and it may be contrasted with reductionism or atomism.

整体论的确切含义取决于语境。Smuts最初用整体论来指自然界中从单元结构的有序组合中产生整体的倾向。<ref name=oed /> 然而，在整体论的一般用法中，“整体论”通常指整体优于部分之和的观点。<ref name=poynton>J. C. Poynton (1987) SMUTS'S HOLISM AND EVOLUTION SIXTY YEARS ON, Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 46:3, 181-189, DOI:10.1080/00359198709520121</ref>在这个含义下，整体论也被称为<font color="#ff8000">整体主义 wholism </font> ，并与<font color="#ff8000"> 还原论 reductionism</font>或<font color="#ff8000"> 原子论 atomism </font>形成对比。<ref> "wholism, n." OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2019, www.oed.com/view/Entry/228738. Accessed 23 October 2019.</ref>

整体论的确切含义取决于语境。Smuts最初用整体论来指自然界中从单元结构的有序组合中产生整体的倾向。<ref name=oed /> 然而，在整体论的一般用法中，“整体论”通常指整体优于部分之和的观点。<ref name=poynton>J. C. Poynton (1987) SMUTS'S HOLISM AND EVOLUTION SIXTY YEARS ON, Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 46:3, 181-189, DOI:10.1080/00359198709520121</ref>在这个含义下，整体论也被称为<font color="#ff8000">整体主义 wholism </font> ，并与<font color="#ff8000">还原论 reductionism</font>或<font color="#ff8000"> 原子论 atomism </font>形成对比。<ref> "wholism, n." OED Online, Oxford University Press, September 2019, www.oed.com/view/Entry/228738. Accessed 23 October 2019.</ref>

== See also参见 ==

==参见 ==

*[[Antireductionism]]

*[[反还原论 Antireductionism]]

*[[紧急情况论 Emergentism]]

*[[Emergentism]]

*[[Gaia hypothesis]]

*[[Gaia hypothesis]]

盖亚假说

盖亚假说

*[[Holistic education]]

*[[整体教育 Holistic education]]

*[[科学中的整体论 Holism in science]]

*[[Holism in science]]

*[[一元论 Monism]]

*[[有机主义 Organicism]]

* [[Monism]]

*[[协同作用  Synergy]]

*[[Organicism]]

*[[Synergy]]

==References参考==

 

==参考文献==

{{reflist}}

{{reflist}}

== Further reading 拓展阅读==

== 进一步阅读 ==

* Fodor, Jerry, and Ernst Lepore, ''Holism: A Shopper's Guide'' Wiley. New York. 1992

* Fodor, Jerry, and Ernst Lepore, ''Holism: A Shopper's Guide'' Wiley. New York. 1992

[[Category:哲学理论]]

 

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[[Category:Jan Smuts]]

[[Category:Jan Smuts]]