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==参考资料 References ==
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== 说明 ==
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{{notelist}}
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== 引用 ==
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{{reflist|refs=
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<ref name="Fragmentation of AI">Pamela {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|p=424}} writes of "the rough shattering of AI in subfields—vision, natural language, decision theory, genetic algorithms, robotics&nbsp;... and these with own sub-subfield—that would hardly have anything to say to each other."</ref>
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<ref name="Problems of AI">This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}} * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004}} * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998}} * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998}}</ref>
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<ref name="General intelligence">General intelligence ([[artificial general intelligence|strong AI]]) is discussed in popular introductions to AI: * {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|1999}} and {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005}}</ref>
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{{reflist|30em|refs=
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<ref name="AI in myth">AI in myth: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=4–5}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=939}}</ref>
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{{reflist|30em|refs=
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<ref name="AI in early science fiction">AI in early science fiction. * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=17–25}}</ref>
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{通货再膨胀 | 30em | 参考文献
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<ref name="Formal reasoning">Formal reasoning: * {{cite book | first = David | last = Berlinski | year = 2000 | title = The Advent of the Algorithm | publisher = Harcourt Books | author-link = David Berlinski | isbn = 978-0-15-601391-8 | oclc = 46890682 | url = https://archive.org/details/adventofalgorith0000berl | access-date = 22 August 2020 | archive-date = 26 July 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200726215744/https://archive.org/details/adventofalgorith0000berl | url-status = live }}</ref>
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<ref name="AI's immediate precursors">AI's immediate precursors: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=51–107}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=27–32}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=15, 940}} * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=3}}</ref>
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<ref name="Dartmouth conference">[[Dartmouth Workshop|Dartmouth conference]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=111–136}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=47–49}}, who writes "the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new science." * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=17}}, who call the conference "the birth of artificial intelligence." * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=200–201}}</ref>
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<ref name="Hegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees">Hegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=17}}, who write "for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and their students." * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=129–130}}</ref>
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<ref name="Golden years of AI">"[[History of AI#The golden years 1956–1974|Golden years]]" of AI (successful symbolic reasoning programs 1956–1973): * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=243–252}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=52–107}} * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=9}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=18–21}} The programs described are [[Arthur Samuel]]'s checkers program for the [[IBM 701]], [[Daniel Bobrow]]'s [[STUDENT (computer program)|STUDENT]], [[Allen Newell|Newell]] and [[Herbert A. Simon|Simon]]'s [[Logic Theorist]] and [[Terry Winograd]]'s [[SHRDLU]].</ref>
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<!-- INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------------------------------>
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<ref name="AI funding in the 60s">[[DARPA]] pours money into undirected pure research into AI during the 1960s: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=131}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=51, 64–65}} * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=204–205}}</ref>
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<!-- INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------------------------------>
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<ref name="AI in England">AI in England: * {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}}</ref>
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<ref name="Optimism of early AI">Optimism of early AI: * [[Herbert A. Simon|Herbert Simon]] quote: {{Harvnb|Simon|1965|p=96}} quoted in {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=109}}. * [[Marvin Minsky]] quote: {{Harvnb|Minsky|1967|p=2}} quoted in {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=109}}.</ref>
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-- 引言——————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
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<ref name="First AI winter">First [[AI Winter]], [[Mansfield Amendment]], [[Lighthill report]] * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=115–117}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=22}} * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=212–213}} * {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}} * {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=189–201}}</ref>
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<ref name="Expert systems">Expert systems: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.1}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=22–24}} * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=227–331}} * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 17.4}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=327–335, 434–435}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=145–62, 197–203}} * {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=155–183}}</ref>
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<ref name="AI in the 80s">Boom of the 1980s: rise of [[expert systems]], [[Fifth generation computer|Fifth Generation Project]], [[Alvey]], [[Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation|MCC]], [[Strategic Computing Initiative|SCI]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=426–441}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=161–162,197–203, 211, 240}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=24}} * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=210–211}} * {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=235–248}}</ref>
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<ref name="Second AI winter">Second [[AI winter]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=430–435}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=209–210}} * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=214–216}} * {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=301–318}}</ref>
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<ref name="Formal methods in AI">Formal methods are now preferred ("Victory of the [[neats vs. scruffies|neats]]"): * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=25–26}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=486–487}}</ref>
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<ref name="Definition of AI">
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<ref name="AI widely used">AI applications widely used behind the scenes: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=28}} * {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005|p=265}} * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=216–222}} * {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=189–201}}</ref>
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<ref name="Definition of AI">
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<ref name="AI in 2000s">AI becomes hugely successful in the early 21st century * {{Harvnb|Clark|2015}}</ref>
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”人工智能的定义”
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<ref name="Reasoning">Problem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|loc=chpt. 3–9}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|loc=chpt. 2,3,7,9}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|loc=chpt. 3,4,6,8}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 7–12}}</ref>
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Definition of AI as the study of [[intelligent agents]]:
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<ref name="Uncertain reasoning">Uncertain reasoning: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=452–644}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=345–395}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=333–381}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 19}}</ref>
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Definition of AI as the study of intelligent agents:
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<ref name="Intractability">[[Intractably|Intractability and efficiency]] and the [[combinatorial explosion]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=9, 21–22}}</ref>
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将人工智能定义为对智能体的研究:
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<ref name="Psychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning">Psychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning: * {{Harvtxt|Wason|Shapiro|1966}} showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive [[social intelligence]], performance dramatically improves. (See [[Wason selection task]]) * {{Harvtxt|Kahneman|Slovic|Tversky|1982}} have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See [[list of cognitive biases]] for several examples). * {{Harvtxt|Lakoff|Núñez|2000}} have controversially argued that even our skills at mathematics depend on knowledge and skills that come from "the body", i.e. sensorimotor and perceptual skills. (See [[Where Mathematics Comes From]])</ref>
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* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|loc=[http://people.cs.ubc.ca/~poole/ci/ch1.pdf p. 1]}}, which provides the version that is used in this article. Note that they use the term "computational intelligence" as a synonym for artificial intelligence.
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<ref name="Knowledge representation">[[Knowledge representation]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.4}}, * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=320–363}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=23–46, 69–81, 169–196, 235–277, 281–298, 319–345}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=227–243}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18}}</ref>
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<ref name="Knowledge engineering">[[Knowledge engineering]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=260–266}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=199–233}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. ≈17.1–17.4}}</ref>
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<ref name="Representing categories and relations">Representing categories and relations: [[Semantic network]]s, [[description logic]]s, [[inheritance (computer science)|inheritance]] (including [[frame (artificial intelligence)|frames]] and [[scripts (artificial intelligence)|scripts]]): * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=349–354}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=174–177}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=248–258}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18.3}}</ref>
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* {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003}} (who prefer the term "rational agent") and write "The whole-agent view is now widely accepted in the field" {{Harv|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=55}}.
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<ref name="Representing time">Representing events and time:[[Situation calculus]], [[event calculus]], [[fluent calculus]] (including solving the [[frame problem]]): * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=328–341}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281–298}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18.2}}</ref>
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<ref name="Representing causation">[[Causality#Causal calculus|Causal calculus]]: * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=335–337}}</ref>
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<ref name="Representing knowledge about knowledge">Representing knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, [[modal logic]]s: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=341–344}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=275–277}}</ref>
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* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998}}
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<ref name="Ontology">[[Ontology (computer science)|Ontology]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=320–328}}</ref>
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<ref name="Qualification problem">[[Qualification problem]]: * {{Harvnb|McCarthy|Hayes|1969}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}}{{Page needed|date=February 2011}}<!-- We really need to know where they say this, because it's kind of wrong --> While McCarthy was primarily concerned with issues in the logical representation of actions, {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}} apply the term to the more general issue of default reasoning in the vast network of assumptions underlying all our commonsense knowledge.</ref>
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<ref name="Default reasoning and non-monotonic logic">Default reasoning and [[default logic]], [[non-monotonic logic]]s, [[circumscription (logic)|circumscription]], [[closed world assumption]], [[abductive reasoning|abduction]] (Poole ''et al.'' places abduction under "default reasoning". Luger ''et al.'' places this under "uncertain reasoning"): * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=354–360}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=248–256, 323–335}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=335–363}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=~18.3.3}}</ref>
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<!--These textbooks are the most widely used in academic AI.-->
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<ref name="Breadth of commonsense knowledge">Breadth of commonsense knowledge: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=21}}, * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=113–114}}, * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=13}}, * {{Harvnb|Lenat|Guha|1989}} (Introduction)</ref>
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<!--These textbooks are the most widely used in academic AI.-->
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<ref name="Intuition">Expert knowledge as [[embodied cognition|embodied]] intuition: * {{Harvnb|Dreyfus|Dreyfus|1986}} ([[Hubert Dreyfus]] is a philosopher and critic of AI who was among the first to argue that most useful human knowledge was encoded sub-symbolically. See [[Dreyfus' critique of AI]]) * {{Harvnb|Gladwell|2005}} (Gladwell's ''[[Blink (book)|Blink]]'' is a popular introduction to sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge.) * {{Harvnb|Hawkins|Blakeslee|2005}} (Hawkins argues that sub-symbolic knowledge should be the primary focus of AI research.)</ref>
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这些教科书是学术上使用最广泛的
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<ref name="Planning">[[automated planning and scheduling|Planning]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.8}}, * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp= 375–459}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281–316}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=314–329}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 10.1–2, 22}}</ref>
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* {{Harvnb|Legg|Hutter|2007}}.
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<ref name="Information value theory">[[Applied information economics|Information value theory]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=600–604}}</ref>
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<ref name="Classical planning">Classical planning: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=375–430}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281–315}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=314–329}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 10.1–2, 22}}</ref>
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<ref name="Non-deterministic planning">Planning and acting in non-deterministic domains: conditional planning, execution monitoring, replanning and continuous planning: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=430–449}}</ref>
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<ref name="Multi-agent planning">Multi-agent planning and emergent behavior: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=449–455}}</ref>
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</ref>
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<ref name="Machine learning">[[machine learning|Learning]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.6}}, * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=649–788}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=397–438}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=385–542}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20}}</ref>
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</ref>
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<ref name="Reinforcement learning">[[Reinforcement learning]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=763–788}} * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=442–449}}</ref>
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/ 参考
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<ref name="Natural language processing">[[Natural language processing]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.7}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=790–831}} * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=91–104}} * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=591–632}}</ref>
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<ref name="Applications of natural language processing">Applications of natural language processing, including [[information retrieval]] (i.e. [[text mining]]) and [[machine translation]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=840–857}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=623–630}}</ref>
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<ref name="Robotics">[[Robotic]]s: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.9}}, * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=901–942}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=443–460}}</ref>
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<ref name="Configuration space">Moving and [[Configuration space (physics)|configuration space]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=916–932}}</ref>
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<ref name="Robotic mapping">[[Robotic mapping]] (localization, etc): * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=908–915}}</ref>
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<!-- <ref name="Coining of the term AI">
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<ref name="Machine perception">[[Machine perception]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=537–581, 863–898}} * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=~chpt. 6}}</ref>
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<!-- <ref name="Coining of the term AI">
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<ref name="Computer vision">[[Computer vision]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.10}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=863–898}} * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref>
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!-参考名称“ ai”一词的创造力
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<ref name="Speech recognition">[[Speech recognition]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.7}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=568–578}}</ref>
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Although there is some controversy on this point (see {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|p=50}}), [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|McCarthy]] states unequivocally "I came up with the term" in a c|net interview. {{Harv|Skillings|2006}} McCarthy first used the term in the proposal for the Dartmouth conference, which appeared in 1955. {{Harv|McCarthy|Minsky|Rochester|Shannon|1955}}
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<ref name="Object recognition">[[Object recognition]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=885–892}}</ref>
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Although there is some controversy on this point (see ), McCarthy states unequivocally "I came up with the term" in a c|net interview.  McCarthy first used the term in the proposal for the Dartmouth conference, which appeared in 1955.
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<ref name="Emotion and affective computing">Emotion and [[affective computing]]: * {{Harvnb|Minsky|2006}}</ref>
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虽然在这一点上有一些争议(见) ，麦卡锡明确声明“我想出了这个词”在 c | net 采访。麦卡锡在1955年达特茅斯会议的提案中首次使用了这个词。
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<ref name="Brain simulation">[[Artificial brain]] arguments: AI requires a simulation of the operation of the human brain * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=957}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=271 and 279}} A few of the people who make some form of the argument: * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988}} * {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005|p=262}} * {{Harvnb|Hawkins|Blakeslee|2005}} The most extreme form of this argument (the brain replacement scenario) was put forward by [[Clark Glymour]] in the mid-1970s and was touched on by [[Zenon Pylyshyn]] and [[John Searle]] in 1980.</ref>
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</ref> -->
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<ref name="Neats vs. scruffies">[[Neats vs. scruffies]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=421–424, 486–489}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=168}} * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1983|pp=10–11}}</ref>
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</ref> -->
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<ref name="Symbolic vs. sub-symbolic">Symbolic vs. sub-symbolic AI: * {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|p=7}}, who uses the term "sub-symbolic".</ref>
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/ ref --
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<ref name="GOFAI">{{Harvnb|Haugeland|1985|pp=112–117}}</ref>
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<ref name="AI at CMU in the 60s">Cognitive simulation, [[Allen Newell|Newell]] and [[Herbert A. Simon|Simon]], AI at [[Carnegie Mellon University|CMU]] (then called [[Carnegie Tech]]): * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=139–179, 245–250, 322–323 (EPAM)}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=145–149}}</ref>
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<ref name="Soar">[[Soar (cognitive architecture)|Soar]] (history): * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=450–451}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=258–263}}</ref>
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<ref name="AI at Stanford in the 60s">[[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|McCarthy]] and AI research at [[Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory|SAIL]] and [[SRI International]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=251–259}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993}}<!-- Page number needed --></ref>
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<ref name="AI at Edinburgh and France in the 60s">AI research at [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]] and in France, birth of [[Prolog]]: * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=193–196}} * {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}}</ref>
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<ref name="AI at MIT in the 60s">AI at [[MIT]] under [[Marvin Minsky]] in the 1960s : * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=259–305}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=83–102, 163–176}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=19}}</ref>
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<!-- <ref name="McCarthy's definition of AI">
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<ref name="Cyc">[[Cyc]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=489}}, who calls it "a determinedly scruffy enterprise" * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=239–243}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=363−365}} * {{Harvnb|Lenat|Guha|1989}}</ref>
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<!-- <ref name="McCarthy's definition of AI">
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<ref name="Knowledge revolution">Knowledge revolution: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=266–276, 298–300, 314, 421}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=22–23}}</ref>
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!-参考名称“麦卡锡的 ai”的定义
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<ref name="Embodied AI">[[Embodied agent|Embodied]] approaches to AI: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=454–462}} * {{Harvnb|Brooks|1990}} * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988}}</ref>
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[[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|McCarthy]]'s definition of AI:
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<ref name="Revival of connectionism">Revival of [[connectionism]]: * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=214–215}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=25}}</ref>
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McCarthy's definition of AI:
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<ref name="Computational intelligence">[[Computational intelligence]] * [http://www.ieee-cis.org/ IEEE Computational Intelligence Society] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509191840/http://www.ieee-cis.org/ |date=9 May 2008}}</ref>
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麦卡锡对人工智能的定义是:
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<ref name="Intelligent agents">The [[intelligent agent]] paradigm: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=27, 32–58, 968–972}} * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=7–21}} * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=235–240}} * {{Harvnb|Hutter|2005|pp=125–126}} The definition used in this article, in terms of goals, actions, perception and environment, is due to {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003}}. Other definitions also include knowledge and learning as additional criteria.</ref>
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* {{Harvnb|McCarthy|2007}}
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<ref name="Agent architectures">[[Agent architecture]]s, [[hybrid intelligent system]]s: * {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=27, 932, 970–972}} * {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 25}}</ref>
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<ref name="Hierarchical control system">[[Hierarchical control system]]: * {{Harvnb|Albus|2002}}</ref>
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<ref name="Turing test">The [[Turing test]]:<br /> Turing's original publication: * {{Harvnb|Turing|1950}} Historical influence and philosophical implications: * {{Harvnb|Haugeland|1985|pp=6–9}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=24}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=70–71}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=2–3 and 948}}</ref>
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<ref name="Dartmouth proposal">Dartmouth proposal: * {{Harvnb|McCarthy|Minsky|Rochester|Shannon|1955}} (the original proposal) * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=49}} (historical significance)</ref>
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</ref> -->
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<ref name="Physical symbol system hypothesis">The [[physical symbol system]]s hypothesis: * {{Harvnb|Newell|Simon|1976|p=116}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=153}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=18}}</ref>
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</ref> -->
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<ref name="Dreyfus' critique">[[Dreyfus' critique of artificial intelligence]]: * {{Harvnb|Dreyfus|1972}}, {{Harvnb|Dreyfus|Dreyfus|1986}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=120–132}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=211–239}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=950–952}},</ref>
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/ ref --
+
<ref name="Gödel himself">{{Harvnb|Gödel|1951}}: in this lecture, [[Kurt Gödel]] uses the incompleteness theorem to arrive at the following disjunction: (a) the human mind is not a consistent finite machine, or (b) there exist [[Diophantine equations]] for which it cannot decide whether solutions exist. Gödel finds (b) implausible, and thus seems to have believed the human mind was not equivalent to a finite machine, i.e., its power exceeded that of any finite machine. He recognized that this was only a conjecture, since one could never disprove (b). Yet he considered the disjunctive conclusion to be a "certain fact".</ref>
    +
<ref name="The mathematical objection">The Mathematical Objection: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=949}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=448–449}} Making the Mathematical Objection: * {{Harvnb|Lucas|1961}} * {{Harvnb|Penrose|1989}} Refuting Mathematical Objection: * {{Harvnb|Turing|1950}} under "(2) The Mathematical Objection" * {{Harvnb|Hofstadter|1979}} Background: * {{Harvnb|Ref=none|Gödel|1931}}, {{Harvnb|Ref=none|Church|1936}}, {{Harvnb|Ref=none|Kleene|1935}}, {{Harvnb|Ref=none|Turing|1937}}</ref>
    +
<ref name="Chinese room">Searle's [[Chinese room]] argument: * {{Harvnb|Searle|1980}}. Searle's original presentation of the thought experiment. * {{Harvnb|Searle|1999}}. Discussion: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=958–960}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=443–445}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=269–271}}</ref>
    +
<ref name="Robot rights">[[Robot rights]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=964}} * {{Harvnb|''BBC News''|2006}} Prematurity of: * {{Harvnb|Henderson|2007}} In fiction: * {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp=190–25}} discusses ''[[Frankenstein]]'' and identifies the key ethical issues as scientific hubris and the suffering of the monster, i.e. [[robot rights]].</ref>
    +
<ref name="Weizenbaum's critique">[[Joseph Weizenbaum]]'s critique of AI: * {{Harvnb|Weizenbaum|1976}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=132–144}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=356–373}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=961}} Weizenbaum (the AI researcher who developed the first [[chatterbot]] program, [[ELIZA]]) argued in 1976 that the misuse of artificial intelligence has the potential to devalue human life.</ref>
   −
<ref name="McCorduck's thesis">
+
<ref name="Singularity">[[Technological singularity]]: * {{Harvnb|Vinge|1993}} * {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=963}}</ref>
   −
<ref name="McCorduck's thesis">
+
<ref name="recurse">{{Cite conference | last = Omohundro|first= Steve| author-link= Steve Omohundro | year = 2008| title= The Nature of Self-Improving Artificial Intelligence| publisher=presented and distributed at the 2007 Singularity Summit, San Francisco, CA.}}</ref>
   −
「麦考达克的论文」
+
<ref name="Transhumanism">[[Transhumanism]]: * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988}} * {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=963}}</ref>
   −
This is a central idea of [[Pamela McCorduck]]'s ''Machines Who Think''. She writes: "I like to think of artificial intelligence as the scientific apotheosis of a venerable cultural tradition." {{Harv|McCorduck|2004|p=34}} "Artificial intelligence in one form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history, a dream in urgent need of being realized." {{Harv|McCorduck|2004|p=xviii}} "Our history is full of attempts—nutty, eerie, comical, earnest, legendary and real—to make artificial intelligences, to reproduce what is the essential us—bypassing the ordinary means. Back and forth between myth and reality, our imaginations supplying what our workshops couldn't, we have engaged for a long time in this odd form of self-reproduction." {{Harv|McCorduck|2004|p=3}} She traces the desire back to its [[Hellenistic]] roots and calls it the urge to "forge the Gods." {{Harv|McCorduck|2004|pp=340–400}}
+
<ref name="AI as evolution">AI as evolution: * [[Edward Fredkin]] is quoted in {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|p=401}}. * {{Harvnb|Butler|1863}} * {{Harvnb|Dyson|1998}}</ref>
   −
This is a central idea of Pamela McCorduck's Machines Who Think. She writes: "I like to think of artificial intelligence as the scientific apotheosis of a venerable cultural tradition." "Artificial intelligence in one form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history, a dream in urgent need of being realized."  "Our history is full of attempts—nutty, eerie, comical, earnest, legendary and real—to make artificial intelligences, to reproduce what is the essential us—bypassing the ordinary means. Back and forth between myth and reality, our imaginations supplying what our workshops couldn't, we have engaged for a long time in this odd form of self-reproduction."  She traces the desire back to its Hellenistic roots and calls it the urge to "forge the Gods."
+
<ref name="guardian jobs debate">{{cite news|last1=Ford|first1=Martin|last2=Colvin|first2=Geoff|date=6 September 2015|title=Will robots create more jobs than they destroy?|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/sep/06/will-robots-create-destroy-jobs|accessdate=13 January 2018|archive-date=16 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616204119/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/sep/06/will-robots-create-destroy-jobs|url-status=live}}</ref>
   −
这是帕梅拉 · 麦考达克的《会思考的机器》的中心思想。她写道: “我喜欢把人工智能看作是古老文化传统的科学典范。”“以这样或那样的形式出现的人工智能是一个弥漫在西方思想史上的思想，一个急需实现的梦想。”“我们的历史充满了各种各样的尝试——疯狂的、怪诞的、滑稽的、严肃的、传奇的和真实的——创造人工智能，复制本质上的我们，绕过普通的手段。在神话和现实之间来回穿梭，我们的想象力提供了我们的工作室所不能提供的东西，我们长期以来一直致力于这种奇怪的自我复制形式。”她将这种欲望追溯到希腊化的根源，并称之为“锻造上帝”的冲动
+
<ref name="bbc-alphago">{{cite web|url=https://deepmind.com/alpha-go.html|title=AlphaGo – Google DeepMind|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310191926/https://www.deepmind.com/alpha-go.html|archive-date=10 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
   −
</ref>
+
<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-08/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence |title = Why 2015 Was a Breakthrough Year in Artificial Intelligence |last = Clark |first = Jack |website = Bloomberg News |date = 8 December 2015 |access-date = 23 November 2016 |quote = After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than ever. |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161123053855/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-08/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence |archive-date = 23 November 2016 |df = dmy-all}}</ref>
   −
</ref>
+
<ref name="Roberts">{{cite magazine|last1=Roberts|first1=Jacob|title=Thinking Machines: The Search for Artificial Intelligence|magazine=Distillations|date=2016|volume=2|issue=2|pages=14–23|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/thinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence|accessdate=20 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819152455/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/thinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence|archive-date=19 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
   −
/ 参考
+
<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/commission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.pdf|title=White Paper: On Artificial Intelligence - A European approach to excellence and trust|publisher=European Commission|year=2020|location=Brussels|pages=1|access-date=20 February 2020|archive-date=20 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220173419/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/commission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
    +
<ref name="autogenerated1">Michael Anderson and Susan Leigh Anderson (2011), Machine Ethics, Cambridge University Press.</ref>
    +
<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://www.aaai.org/Library/Symposia/Fall/fs05-06 |title=Machine Ethics |work=aaai.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129044821/http://www.aaai.org/Library/Symposia/Fall/fs05-06 |archive-date=29 November 2014}}</ref>
    +
<ref name="HC">{{cite book|last=Russell|first=Stuart|title=Human Compatible: Artificial Intelligence and the Problem of Control|title-link=Human Compatible|date=October 8, 2019|publisher=Viking|isbn=978-0-525-55861-3|location=United States|oclc=1083694322|author-link=Stuart J. Russell}}</ref>
    +
}}
   −
<ref name="Fragmentation of AI">
+
=== 人工智能教科书 ===
−
 
+
{{refbegin|30em}}
−
<ref name="Fragmentation of AI">
+
* {{cite book
−
 
+
| last=Hutter |first=Marcus |author-link=Marcus Hutter |year=2005
−
Ai 碎片化运动
+
| title=Universal Artificial Intelligence
−
 
+
| isbn=978-3-540-22139-5
−
Pamela {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|p=424}} writes of "the rough shattering of AI in subfields—vision, natural language, decision theory, genetic algorithms, robotics&nbsp;... and these with own sub-subfield—that would hardly have anything to say to each other."
+
| publisher=Springer
−
 
+
| location=Berlin
−
Pamela  writes of "the rough shattering of AI in subfields—vision, natural language, decision theory, genetic algorithms, robotics&nbsp;... and these with own sub-subfield—that would hardly have anything to say to each other."
+
| title-link=AIXI }}
−
 
+
* {{cite book
−
帕梅拉写道，“人工智能在子领域——视觉、自然语言、决策理论、遗传算法、机器人... ... 以及这些有自己子领域的领域——受到了粗暴的打击，彼此之间几乎没有什么可说的。”
+
|last=Jackson
−
 
+
|first=Philip
−
</ref>
+
|author-link=Philip C. Jackson, Jr.
−
 
+
|year=1985
−
</ref>
+
|title=Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
−
 
+
|isbn=978-0-486-24864-6
−
/ 参考
+
|publisher=Dover
−
 
+
|edition=2nd
−
 
+
|url-access=registration
−
 
+
|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoar1985jack
−
 
+
|access-date=4 March 2020
−
 
+
|archive-date=26 July 2020
−
<ref name="Problems of AI">
+
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131713/https://archive.org/details/introductiontoar1985jack
−
 
+
|url-status=live
−
<ref name="Problems of AI">
+
}}
−
 
+
* {{cite book
−
Ai 的问题
+
|last1=Luger
−
 
+
|first1=George
−
This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including:
+
|author-link=George Luger
−
 
+
|last2=Stubblefield
−
This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including:
+
|first2=William
−
 
+
|author2-link=William Stubblefield
−
这个智能特征列表是基于主要的人工智能教科书所涉及的主题，包括:
+
|year=2004
−
 
+
|title=Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving
−
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}}
+
|publisher=Benjamin/Cummings
−
 
+
|edition=5th
−
 
+
|isbn=978-0-8053-4780-7
−
 
+
|url=https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge
−
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004}}
+
|url-access=registration
−
 
+
|access-date=17 December 2019
−
 
+
|archive-date=26 July 2020
−
 
+
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726220613/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge
−
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998}}
+
|url-status=live
−
 
+
}}
−
 
+
* {{cite book |last1=Neapolitan |first1=Richard |last2=Jiang |first2=Xia |year=2018 |author-link1=Richard Neapolitan |title=Artificial Intelligence: With an Introduction to Machine Learning |publisher=Chapman & Hall/CRC |isbn=978-1-138-50238-3 |url=https://www.crcpress.com/Contemporary-Artificial-Intelligence-Second-Edition/Neapolitan-Jiang/p/book/9781138502383 |access-date=3 January 2018 |archive-date=22 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200822201555/https://www.routledge.com/Contemporary-Artificial-Intelligence-Second-Edition/Neapolitan-Jiang/p/book/9781138502383 |url-status=live }}
−
 
+
* {{cite book
−
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998}}
+
|last=Nilsson
−
 
+
|first=Nils
−
 
+
|author-link=Nils Nilsson (researcher)
−
 
+
|year=1998
−
</ref>
+
|title=Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis
−
 
+
|url=https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000nils
−
</ref>
+
|url-access=registration
−
 
+
|publisher=Morgan Kaufmann
−
/ 参考
+
|isbn=978-1-55860-467-4
−
 
+
|access-date=18 November 2019
−
 
+
|archive-date=26 July 2020
−
 
+
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131654/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000nils
−
 
+
|url-status=live
−
 
+
}}
−
<ref name="General intelligence">
+
* {{Russell Norvig 2003}}.
−
 
+
* {{Cite book
−
<ref name="General intelligence">
+
| first1 = Stuart J.
−
 
+
| last1 = Russell
−
通用情报局
+
| first2 = Peter
−
 
+
| last2 = Norvig
−
General intelligence ([[artificial general intelligence|strong AI]]) is discussed in popular introductions to AI:
+
| title = [[Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach]] <!-- | url = http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/ -->
−
 
+
| year = 2009
−
General intelligence (strong AI) is discussed in popular introductions to AI:
+
| edition = 3rd
−
 
+
| publisher = Prentice Hall
−
一般智能(强人工智能)在人工智能的常见介绍中被讨论:
+
| location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
−
 
+
| isbn = 978-0-13-604259-4
−
* {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|1999}} and {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005}}
+
| author-link=Stuart J. Russell
−
 
+
| author2-link=Peter Norvig
−
 
+
}}.
−
 
+
* {{cite book
−
</ref>
+
|first1      = David
−
 
+
|last1        = Poole
−
</ref>
+
|author-link  = David Poole (researcher)
−
 
+
|first2      = Alan
−
/ 参考
+
|last2        = Mackworth
−
 
+
|author2-link = Alan Mackworth
−
 
+
|first3      = Randy
−
 
+
|last3        = Goebel
−
 
+
|author3-link = Randy Goebel
−
 
+
|year        = 1998
−
<!-- History --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------->
+
|title        = Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach
−
 
+
|publisher    = Oxford University Press
−
<!-- History --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------->
+
|location    = New York
−
 
+
|isbn        = 978-0-19-510270-3
−
-- 历史——————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
+
|url          = https://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool
−
 
+
|access-date  = 22 August 2020
−
 
+
|archive-date = 26 July 2020
−
 
+
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131436/https://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool
−
 
+
|url-status  = live
−
 
+
}}
−
<ref name="AI in myth">
+
* {{cite book | last=Winston | first=Patrick Henry | author-link=Patrick Winston | year=1984 | title=Artificial Intelligence | publisher=Addison-Wesley | location=Reading, MA | isbn=978-0-201-08259-3 | url=https://archive.org/details/artificialintell00wins | access-date=22 August 2020 | archive-date=26 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131500/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell00wins | url-status=live }}
−
 
+
* {{cite book |last=Rich |first=Elaine |author-link=Elaine Rich |year=1983 |title=Artificial Intelligence |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-052261-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ine0000unse |access-date=17 December 2019 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131632/https://archive.org/details/ine0000unse |url-status=live }}
−
<ref name="AI in myth">
+
* {{cite book
−
 
+
| last=Bundy |first=Alan |author-link=Alan Bundy |year=1980
−
神话中的人工智能
+
| title=Artificial Intelligence: An Introductory Course
−
 
+
| publisher = Edinburgh University Press|edition=2nd
−
AI in myth:
+
| isbn=978-0-85224-410-4
−
 
+
}}
−
AI in myth:
+
* {{cite book
−
 
+
|first1=David
−
神话中的人工智能:
+
|last1=Poole
−
 
+
|author-link=David Poole (researcher)
−
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=4–5}}
+
|first2=Alan
−
 
+
|last2=Mackworth
−
 
+
|author2-link=Alan Mackworth
−
 
+
|year=2017
−
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=939}}
+
|title=Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents
−
 
+
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
−
 
+
|edition=2nd
−
 
+
|isbn=978-1-107-19539-4
−
</ref>
+
|url=http://artint.info/index.html
−
 
+
|access-date=6 December 2017
−
</ref>
+
|archive-date=7 December 2017
−
 
+
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207013855/http://artint.info/index.html
−
/ 参考
+
|url-status=live
−
 
+
}}
−
 
+
{{refend}}
−
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI in early science fiction">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI in early science fiction">
  −
 
  −
早期科幻小说中的人工智能
  −
 
  −
AI in early science fiction.
  −
 
  −
AI in early science fiction.
  −
 
  −
早期科幻小说中的人工智能。
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=17–25}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Formal reasoning">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Formal reasoning">
  −
 
  −
”正式推理”
  −
 
  −
Formal reasoning:
  −
 
  −
Formal reasoning:
  −
 
  −
正式推理:
  −
 
  −
* {{cite book | first = David | last = Berlinski | year = 2000 | title = The Advent of the Algorithm | publisher = Harcourt Books | author-link = David Berlinski | isbn = 978-0-15-601391-8 | oclc = 46890682 | url = https://archive.org/details/adventofalgorith0000berl }}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>{{page needed|date=December 2016}}
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI's immediate precursors">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI's immediate precursors">
  −
 
  −
人工智能的直接前兆
  −
 
  −
AI's immediate precursors:
  −
 
  −
AI's immediate precursors:
  −
 
  −
大赦国际的直接前身是:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=51–107}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=27–32}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=15, 940}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=3}}</ref>
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
See also {{slink|History of artificial intelligence|Cybernetics and early neural networks}}. Among the researchers who laid the foundations of AI were [[Alan Turing]], [[John von Neumann]], [[Norbert Wiener]], [[Claude Shannon]], [[Warren McCullough]], [[Walter Pitts]] and [[Donald Hebb]].<ref name="Dartmouth conference">
  −
 
  −
See also . Among the researchers who laid the foundations of AI were Alan Turing, John von Neumann, Norbert Wiener, Claude Shannon, Warren McCullough, Walter Pitts and Donald Hebb.<ref name="Dartmouth conference">
  −
 
  −
参见。在奠定人工智能基础的研究人员中，有 Alan Turing，约翰·冯·诺伊曼，Norbert Wiener，Claude Shannon，Warren McCullough，Walter Pitts 和 Donald Hebb。 达特茅斯会议」
  −
 
  −
[[Dartmouth Workshop|Dartmouth conference]]:
  −
 
  −
Dartmouth conference:
  −
 
  −
返回文章页面达特茅斯大会:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=111–136}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=47–49}}, who writes "the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new science."
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=17}}, who call the conference "the birth of artificial intelligence."
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=200–201}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Hegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Hegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees">
  −
 
  −
达特茅斯会议与会者的霸权
  −
 
  −
Hegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees:
  −
 
  −
Hegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees:
  −
 
  −
达特茅斯大会与会者的霸权:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=17}}, who write "for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and their students."
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=129–130}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Golden years of AI">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Golden years of AI">
  −
 
  −
黄金人工智能时代
  −
 
  −
"[[History of AI#The golden years 1956–1974|Golden years]]" of AI (successful symbolic reasoning programs 1956–1973):
  −
 
  −
"Golden years" of AI (successful symbolic reasoning programs 1956–1973):
  −
 
  −
人工智能的“黄金年代”(1956-1973年成功的符号推理程序) :
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=243–252}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=52–107}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=9}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=18–21}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
The programs described are [[Arthur Samuel]]'s checkers program for the [[IBM 701]], [[Daniel Bobrow]]'s [[STUDENT (computer program)|STUDENT]], [[Allen Newell|Newell]] and [[Herbert A. Simon|Simon]]'s [[Logic Theorist]] and [[Terry Winograd]]'s [[SHRDLU]].
  −
 
  −
The programs described are Arthur Samuel's checkers program for the IBM 701, Daniel Bobrow's STUDENT, Newell and Simon's Logic Theorist and Terry Winograd's SHRDLU.
  −
 
  −
所描述的程序有: Arthur Samuel 为 IBM 701设计的检查程序，Daniel Bobrow 的学生，Newell 和 Simon 的逻辑理论家，以及 Terry Winograd 的 SHRDLU。
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI funding in the 60s">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI funding in the 60s">
  −
 
  −
60年代的人工智能资金
  −
 
  −
[[DARPA]] pours money into undirected pure research into AI during the 1960s:
  −
 
  −
DARPA pours money into undirected pure research into AI during the 1960s:
  −
 
  −
20世纪60年代，美国国防部高级研究计划局(DARPA)将资金投入到对人工智能的无目的的纯粹研究中:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=131}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=51, 64–65}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=204–205}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI in England">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI in England">
  −
 
  −
在英国的「 ai 」
  −
 
  −
AI in England:
  −
 
  −
AI in England:
  −
 
  −
英国的人工智能:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Optimism of early AI">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Optimism of early AI">
  −
 
  −
早期 ai 的乐观主义
  −
 
  −
Optimism of early AI:
  −
 
  −
Optimism of early AI:
  −
 
  −
早期人工智能的乐观主义:
  −
 
  −
* [[Herbert A. Simon|Herbert Simon]] quote: {{Harvnb|Simon|1965|p=96}} quoted in {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=109}}.
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* [[Marvin Minsky]] quote: {{Harvnb|Minsky|1967|p=2}} quoted in {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=109}}.
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="First AI winter">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="First AI winter">
  −
 
  −
第一 ai 温特”
  −
 
  −
First [[AI Winter]], [[Mansfield Amendment]], [[Lighthill report]]
  −
 
  −
First AI Winter, Mansfield Amendment, Lighthill report
  −
 
  −
第一人工智能冬季，曼斯菲尔德修正案，莱特希尔报告
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=115–117}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=22}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=212–213}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=189–201}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Expert systems">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Expert systems">
  −
 
  −
专家系统”
  −
 
  −
Expert systems:
  −
 
  −
Expert systems:
  −
 
  −
专家系统:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.1}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=22–24}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=227–331}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 17.4}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=327–335, 434–435}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=145–62, 197–203}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=155–183}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI in the 80s">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI in the 80s">
  −
 
  −
80年代的「人工智能」
  −
 
  −
Boom of the 1980s: rise of [[expert systems]], [[Fifth generation computer|Fifth Generation Project]], [[Alvey]], [[Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation|MCC]], [[Strategic Computing Initiative|SCI]]:
  −
 
  −
Boom of the 1980s: rise of expert systems, Fifth Generation Project, Alvey, MCC, SCI:
  −
 
  −
20世纪80年代的繁荣: 专家系统的兴起，第五代计划，Alvey，MCC，SCI:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=426–441}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=161–162,197–203, 211, 240}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=24}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=210–211}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=235–248}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Second AI winter">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Second AI winter">
  −
 
  −
二 ai 温特”
  −
 
  −
Second [[AI winter]]:
  −
 
  −
Second AI winter:
  −
 
  −
第二个 AI 冬天:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=430–435}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=209–210}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=214–216}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=301–318}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Formal methods in AI">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Formal methods in AI">
  −
 
  −
正式的方法在 ai"
  −
 
  −
Formal methods are now preferred ("Victory of the [[neats vs. scruffies|neats]]"):
  −
 
  −
Formal methods are now preferred ("Victory of the neats"):
  −
 
  −
现在更倾向于使用正式的方法(“近亲的胜利”) :
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=25–26}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=486–487}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI widely used">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI widely used">
  −
 
  −
广泛使用的人工智能
  −
 
  −
AI applications widely used behind the scenes:
  −
 
  −
AI applications widely used behind the scenes:
  −
 
  −
在幕后广泛使用的人工智能应用:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=28}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005|p=265}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=216–222}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=189–201}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI in 2000s">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI in 2000s">
  −
 
  −
2000年代的人工智能
  −
 
  −
AI becomes hugely successful in the early 21st century
  −
 
  −
AI becomes hugely successful in the early 21st century
  −
 
  −
人工智能在21世纪初取得了巨大的成功
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Clark|2015}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<!---- PROBLEMS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------>
  −
 
  −
<!---- PROBLEMS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------>
  −
 
  −
! ——问题——————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
  −
 
      +
=== 人工智能的历史 ===
 +
{{refbegin|30em}}
 +
* {{Crevier 1993}}.
 +
* {{McCorduck 2004}}.
 +
* {{cite book
 +
| last=Newquist |first=HP |author-link=HP Newquist |year=1994
 +
| title=The Brain Makers: Genius, Ego, And Greed In The Quest For Machines That Think
 +
| publisher=Macmillan/SAMS |location=New York
 +
| isbn= 978-0-672-30412-5
 +
}}
 +
* {{cite book
 +
| last=Nilsson |first=Nils |author-link=Nils Nilsson (researcher) |year=2009
 +
| title=The Quest for Artificial Intelligence: A History of Ideas and Achievements
 +
| publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York
 +
| isbn=978-0-521-12293-1
 +
}}
 +
{{refend}}
    +
=== 其他资料 ===
 +
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite journal |last1=Asada |first1=M. |last2=Hosoda |first2=K. |last3=Kuniyoshi |first3=Y. |last4=Ishiguro |first4=H. |last5=Inui |first5=T. |last6=Yoshikawa |first6=Y. |last7=Ogino |first7=M. |last8=Yoshida |first8=C. |year=2009 |title=Cognitive developmental robotics: a survey |journal=IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=12–34 |doi=10.1109/tamd.2009.2021702 |s2cid=10168773 }}
 +
* {{cite web
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|ref        = {{harvid|ACM|1998}}
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|publisher  = [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]
 +
|year        = 1998
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|title      = ACM Computing Classification System: Artificial intelligence
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|url        = http://www.acm.org/class/1998/I.2.html
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|accessdate  = 30 August 2007
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|url-status  = dead
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|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20071012025921/http://www.acm.org/class/1998/I.2.html
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|archive-date = 12 October 2007
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|df          = dmy-all
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}}
 +
* {{cite book
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| last1=Goodman
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| first1=Joanna
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| author-link=Joanna Goodman
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| year=2016
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| title=Robots in Law: How Artificial Intelligence is Transforming Legal Services
 +
| publisher=Ark Group
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| edition=1st
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| isbn=978-1-78358-264-8
 +
| url=https://www.ark-group.com/product/robots-law-how-artificial-intelligence-transforming-legal-services
 +
| access-date=7 November 2016
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| archive-date=8 November 2016
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| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108052144/https://www.ark-group.com/product/robots-law-how-artificial-intelligence-transforming-legal-services
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| url-status=live
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}}
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* {{cite encyclopedia
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|last=Albus
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|first=J. S.
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|year=2002
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|pages=11–20
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|title=4-D/RCS: A Reference Model Architecture for Intelligent Unmanned Ground Vehicles
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|editor1-last=Gerhart
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|editor-first=G.
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|editor2-last=Gunderson
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|editor2-first=R.
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|editor3-last=Shoemaker
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|editor3-first=C.
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|encyclopedia=Proceedings of the SPIE AeroSense Session on Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology
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|volume=3693
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|url=http://www.isd.mel.nist.gov/documents/albus/4DRCS.pdf
 +
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040725051856/http://www.isd.mel.nist.gov/documents/albus/4DRCS.pdf
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|url-status=dead
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|archive-date=25 July 2004
 +
|bibcode=2002SPIE.4715..303A
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|doi=10.1117/12.474462
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|citeseerx=10.1.1.15.14
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|series=Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology IV
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|s2cid=63339739
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}}
 +
* {{Cite book
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|last        = Aleksander
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|first      = Igor
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|author-link  = Igor Aleksander
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|year        = 1995
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|title      = Artificial Neuroconsciousness: An Update
 +
|publisher  = IWANN
 +
|url        = http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/research/neural/publications/iwann.html
 +
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/19970302014628/http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/research/neural/publications/iwann.html
 +
|archive-date = 2 March 1997
 +
}} [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/rec/bibtex/conf/iwann/Aleksander95 BibTex] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970302014628/http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/research/neural/publications/iwann.html |date=2 March 1997 }}.
 +
* {{cite encyclopedia  |last=Bach |first=Joscha |year=2008 |pages=63–74 |title=Seven Principles of Synthetic Intelligence |editor1-last=Wang |editor1-first=Pei |editor2-last=Goertzel |editor2-first=Ben |editor3-last=Franklin |editor3-first=Stan |work=Artificial General Intelligence, 2008: Proceedings of the First AGI Conference |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-58603-833-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a_ZR81Z25z0C&pg=PA63 |access-date=16 February 2016 |archive-date=8 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708030627/https://books.google.com/books?id=a_ZR81Z25z0C&pg=PA63 |url-status=live }}
 +
* {{cite news
 +
|ref={{harvid|''BBC News''|2006}}
 +
|date=21 December 2006
 +
|title=Robots could demand legal rights
 +
|work=BBC News
 +
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6200005.stm
 +
|accessdate=3 February 2011
 +
|archive-date=15 October 2019
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015042628/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6200005.stm
 +
|url-status=live
 +
}}
 +
* {{cite journal  | last=Brooks | first=Rodney | author-link=Rodney Brooks | year=1990 | title=Elephants Don't Play Chess | journal=Robotics and Autonomous Systems | volume=6 | issue=1–2 | pages=3–15 | doi=10.1016/S0921-8890(05)80025-9 | url=http://people.csail.mit.edu/brooks/papers/elephants.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809020912/http://people.csail.mit.edu/brooks/papers/elephants.pdf | archive-date=9 August 2007 | url-status=live | citeseerx=10.1.1.588.7539 }}
 +
* {{cite encyclopedia
 +
| last=Brooks |first=R. A. |year=1991 |pages=225–239
 +
| title=How to build complete creatures rather than isolated cognitive simulators
 +
| editor-last=VanLehn |editor-first=K.
 +
| encyclopedia=Architectures for Intelligence |location=Hillsdale, NJ |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
 +
|citeseerx=10.1.1.52.9510}}
 +
* {{cite journal
 +
|last=Buchanan
 +
|first=Bruce G.
 +
|year=2005
 +
|pages=53–60
 +
|title=A (Very) Brief History of Artificial Intelligence
 +
|journal=AI Magazine
 +
|url=http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/assets/PDF/AIMag26-04-016.pdf
 +
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926023314/http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/assets/PDF/AIMag26-04-016.pdf
 +
|archive-date=26 September 2007
 +
|url-status=dead
 +
|df=dmy
 +
}}
 +
* {{cite news
 +
|last=Butler
 +
|first=Samuel
 +
|author-link=Samuel Butler (novelist)
 +
|date=13 June 1863
 +
|title=Darwin among the Machines
 +
|work=[[The Press]]
 +
|location=Christchurch, New Zealand
 +
|department=Letters to the Editor
 +
|url=http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-ButFir-t1-g1-t1-g1-t4-body.html
 +
|accessdate=16 October 2014
 +
|via=Victoria University of Wellington
 +
|archive-date=19 September 2008
 +
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919172551/http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-ButFir-t1-g1-t1-g1-t4-body.html
 +
|url-status=live
 +
}}
 +
* {{cite web
 +
|url        = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-08/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence
 +
|title      = Why 2015 Was a Breakthrough Year in Artificial Intelligence
 +
|last        = Clark
 +
|first      = Jack
 +
|website    = Bloomberg News
 +
|date        = 8 December 2015
 +
|access-date = 23 November 2016
 +
|quote      = After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than ever.
 +
|url-status  = live
 +
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20161123053855/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-08/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence
 +
|archive-date = 23 November 2016
 +
|df          = dmy-all
 +
}}
 +
* {{cite news
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|ref={{harvid|''CNN''|2006}}
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|title=AI set to exceed human brain power
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|work=CNN
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|date=26 July 2006
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|url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/
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|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219001624/http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/
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|archive-date=19 February 2008
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|url-status=live
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}}
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* {{cite book
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| last=Dennett | first=Daniel | author-link=Daniel Dennett
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| year=1991
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| title=Consciousness Explained
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| publisher=The Penguin Press
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| isbn= 978-0-7139-9037-9
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| title-link=Consciousness Explained }}
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<!--* {{cite magazine
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| last=Diamond |first=David |date=December 2003
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| title=The Love Machine; Building computers that care
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| magazine=Wired
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| url=https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.12/love.html
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| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080518185630/http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.12/love.html
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| archivedate=18 May 2008 |url-status=live
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}}
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-->* {{cite book
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|first1=Pedro |last1=Domingos |author-link=Pedro Domingos
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|year=2015
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|title=The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World
 +
|publisher = Basic Books
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|isbn=978-0-465-06192-1
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|title-link=The Master Algorithm }}
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* {{cite book
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}}
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|first        = John
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|author-link  = John Lucas (philosopher)
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}}
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|last=Markoff
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|first=John
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|date=16 February 2011<!-- corrected 24 February 2011-->
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|title=Computer Wins on 'Jeopardy!': Trivial, It's Not
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}}
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* {{cite web
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|title      = What Is Artificial Intelligence?
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|df          = dmy-all
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}}
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* {{cite book
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|last        = Minsky
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|first        = Marvin
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|author-link  = Marvin Minsky
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|year        = 1967
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|title        = Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines
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|url          = https://archive.org/details/computationfinit0000mins
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|url-access  = registration
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|publisher    = Prentice-Hall
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* {{cite book
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| author=NRC (United States National Research Council) | author-link=United States National Research Council
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}}
 +
{{refend}}
   −
 
+
== Further reading ==
−
<ref name="Reasoning">
+
{{refbegin|30em}}
−
 
+
* DH Author, 'Why Are There Still
−
<ref name="Reasoning">
  −
 
  −
推理推理
  −
 
  −
Problem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction:
  −
 
  −
Problem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction:
  −
 
  −
解决问题，解决难题，玩游戏和演绎:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|loc=chpt. 3–9}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|loc=chpt. 2,3,7,9}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|loc=chpt. 3,4,6,8}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 7–12}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Uncertain reasoning">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Uncertain reasoning">
  −
 
  −
不确定推理“
  −
 
  −
Uncertain reasoning:
  −
 
  −
Uncertain reasoning:
  −
 
  −
不确定的推理:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=452–644}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=345–395}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=333–381}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 19}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Intractability">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Intractability">
  −
 
  −
反对者名字“棘手”
  −
 
  −
[[Intractably|Intractability and efficiency]] and the [[combinatorial explosion]]:
  −
 
  −
Intractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion:
  −
 
  −
难以驾驭的效率和组合爆炸:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=9, 21–22}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Psychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Psychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning">
  −
 
  −
亚符号推理的心理学证据”
  −
 
  −
Psychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning:
  −
 
  −
Psychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning:
  −
 
  −
子符号推理的心理学证据:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvtxt|Wason|Shapiro|1966}} showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive [[social intelligence]], performance dramatically improves. (See [[Wason selection task]])
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvtxt|Kahneman|Slovic|Tversky|1982}} have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See [[list of cognitive biases]] for several examples).
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvtxt|Lakoff|Núñez|2000}} have controversially argued that even our skills at mathematics depend on knowledge and skills that come from "the body", i.e. sensorimotor and perceptual skills. (See [[Where Mathematics Comes From]])
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Knowledge representation">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Knowledge representation">
  −
 
  −
知识表达"
  −
 
  −
[[Knowledge representation]]:
  −
 
  −
Knowledge representation:
  −
 
  −
知识表示:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.4}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=320–363}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=23–46, 69–81, 169–196, 235–277, 281–298, 319–345}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=227–243}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Knowledge engineering">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Knowledge engineering">
  −
 
  −
知识工程学
  −
 
  −
[[Knowledge engineering]]:
  −
 
  −
Knowledge engineering:
  −
 
  −
知识工程:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=260–266}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=199–233}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. ≈17.1–17.4}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Representing categories and relations">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Representing categories and relations">
  −
 
  −
代表类别和关系"
  −
 
  −
Representing categories and relations: [[Semantic network]]s, [[description logic]]s, [[inheritance (computer science)|inheritance]] (including [[frame (artificial intelligence)|frames]] and [[scripts (artificial intelligence)|scripts]]):
  −
 
  −
Representing categories and relations: Semantic networks, description logics, inheritance (including frames and scripts):
  −
 
  −
表示类别和关系: 语义网络，描述逻辑，继承(包括框架和脚本) :
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=349–354}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=174–177}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=248–258}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18.3}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Representing time">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Representing time">
  −
 
  −
代表时间”
  −
 
  −
Representing events and time:[[Situation calculus]], [[event calculus]], [[fluent calculus]] (including solving the [[frame problem]]):
  −
 
  −
Representing events and time:Situation calculus, event calculus, fluent calculus (including solving the frame problem):
  −
 
  −
表示事件和时间: 情境演算、事件演算、流演算(包括解决框架问题) :
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=328–341}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281–298}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18.2}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Representing causation">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Representing causation">
  −
 
  −
代表因果关系”
  −
 
  −
[[Causality#Causal calculus|Causal calculus]]:
  −
 
  −
Causal calculus:
  −
 
  −
因果演算:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=335–337}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Representing knowledge about knowledge">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Representing knowledge about knowledge">
  −
 
  −
代表知识的知识”
  −
 
  −
Representing knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, [[modal logic]]s:
  −
 
  −
Representing knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, modal logics:
  −
 
  −
代表知识的知识: 信念演算，模态逻辑:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=341–344}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=275–277}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Ontology">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Ontology">
  −
 
  −
Ref name"ontology"
  −
 
  −
[[Ontology (computer science)|Ontology]]:
  −
 
  −
Ontology:
  −
 
  −
本体论:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=320–328}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Qualification problem">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Qualification problem">
  −
 
  −
资格问题
  −
 
  −
[[Qualification problem]]:
  −
 
  −
Qualification problem:
  −
 
  −
资格问题:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCarthy|Hayes|1969}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}}{{Page needed|date=February 2011}}<!-- We really need to know where they say this, because it's kind of wrong -->
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
While McCarthy was primarily concerned with issues in the logical representation of actions, {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}} apply the term to the more general issue of default reasoning in the vast network of assumptions underlying all our commonsense knowledge.
  −
 
  −
While McCarthy was primarily concerned with issues in the logical representation of actions,  apply the term to the more general issue of default reasoning in the vast network of assumptions underlying all our commonsense knowledge.
  −
 
  −
麦卡锡主要关注的是行为的逻辑表达问题，而把这个术语应用到我们所有常识知识背后庞大的假设网络中更为普遍的缺省推理问题上。
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Default reasoning and non-monotonic logic">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Default reasoning and non-monotonic logic">
  −
 
  −
违约推理和非单调逻辑"
  −
 
  −
Default reasoning and [[default logic]], [[non-monotonic logic]]s, [[circumscription (logic)|circumscription]], [[closed world assumption]], [[abductive reasoning|abduction]] (Poole ''et al.'' places abduction under "default reasoning". Luger ''et al.'' places this under "uncertain reasoning"):
  −
 
  −
Default reasoning and default logic, non-monotonic logics, circumscription, closed world assumption, abduction (Poole et al. places abduction under "default reasoning". Luger et al. places this under "uncertain reasoning"):
  −
 
  −
缺省推理和缺省逻辑，非单调逻辑，界限，封闭世界假设，溯因(Poole 等。把绑架放在”缺省推理”下。鲁格尔等人。将其归类为“不确定推理”) :
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=354–360}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=248–256, 323–335}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=335–363}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=~18.3.3}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Breadth of commonsense knowledge">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Breadth of commonsense knowledge">
  −
 
  −
常识的广度知识”
  −
 
  −
Breadth of commonsense knowledge:
  −
 
  −
Breadth of commonsense knowledge:
  −
 
  −
常识知识的广度:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=21}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=113–114}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=13}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Lenat|Guha|1989}} (Introduction)
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Intuition">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Intuition">
  −
 
  −
直觉
  −
 
  −
Expert knowledge as [[embodied cognition|embodied]] intuition:
  −
 
  −
Expert knowledge as embodied intuition:
  −
 
  −
体现直觉的专业知识:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Dreyfus|Dreyfus|1986}} ([[Hubert Dreyfus]] is a philosopher and critic of AI who was among the first to argue that most useful human knowledge was encoded sub-symbolically. See [[Dreyfus' critique of AI]])
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Gladwell|2005}} (Gladwell's ''[[Blink (book)|Blink]]'' is a popular introduction to sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge.)
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Hawkins|Blakeslee|2005}} (Hawkins argues that sub-symbolic knowledge should be the primary focus of AI research.)
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Planning">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Planning">
  −
 
  −
”计划”组织
  −
 
  −
[[automated planning and scheduling|Planning]]:
  −
 
  −
Planning:
  −
 
  −
规划:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.8}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp= 375–459}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281–316}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=314–329}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 10.1–2, 22}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Information value theory">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Information value theory">
  −
 
  −
信息价值理论”
  −
 
  −
[[Applied information economics|Information value theory]]:
  −
 
  −
Information value theory:
  −
 
  −
信息价值理论:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=600–604}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Classical planning">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Classical planning">
  −
 
  −
”古典计划”
  −
 
  −
Classical planning:
  −
 
  −
Classical planning:
  −
 
  −
经典的规划:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=375–430}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281–315}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=314–329}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 10.1–2, 22}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Non-deterministic planning">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Non-deterministic planning">
  −
 
  −
非确定性计划”
  −
 
  −
Planning and acting in non-deterministic domains: conditional planning, execution monitoring, replanning and continuous planning:
  −
 
  −
Planning and acting in non-deterministic domains: conditional planning, execution monitoring, replanning and continuous planning:
  −
 
  −
计划和行动在非确定性领域: 有条件的计划，执行监控，重新计划和持续计划:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=430–449}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Multi-agent planning">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Multi-agent planning">
  −
 
  −
多智能体计划
  −
 
  −
Multi-agent planning and emergent behavior:
  −
 
  −
Multi-agent planning and emergent behavior:
  −
 
  −
多智能体计划与应急行为:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=449–455}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Machine learning">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Machine learning">
  −
 
  −
机器学习“
  −
 
  −
[[machine learning|Learning]]:
  −
 
  −
Learning:
  −
 
  −
学习:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.6}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=649–788}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=397–438}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=385–542}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Reinforcement learning">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Reinforcement learning">
  −
 
  −
强化学习
  −
 
  −
[[Reinforcement learning]]:
  −
 
  −
Reinforcement learning:
  −
 
  −
强化学习
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=763–788}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=442–449}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Natural language processing">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Natural language processing">
  −
 
  −
自然语言处理"
  −
 
  −
[[Natural language processing]]:
  −
 
  −
Natural language processing:
  −
 
  −
自然语言处理:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.7}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=790–831}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=91–104}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=591–632}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Applications of natural language processing">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Applications of natural language processing">
  −
 
  −
自然语言处理应用程序”
  −
 
  −
Applications of natural language processing, including [[information retrieval]] (i.e. [[text mining]]) and [[machine translation]]:
  −
 
  −
Applications of natural language processing, including information retrieval (i.e. text mining) and machine translation:
  −
 
  −
自然语言处理的应用，包括信息检索(即。文本挖掘和机器翻译:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=840–857}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=623–630}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Robotics">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Robotics">
  −
 
  −
机器人公司”
  −
 
  −
[[Robotic]]s:
  −
 
  −
Robotics:
  −
 
  −
Robotics:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.9}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=901–942}},
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=443–460}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Configuration space">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Configuration space">
  −
 
  −
配置空间”
  −
 
  −
Moving and [[Configuration space (physics)|configuration space]]:
  −
 
  −
Moving and configuration space:
  −
 
  −
移动和位形空间:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=916–932}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Robotic mapping">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Robotic mapping">
  −
 
  −
机器人测绘网
  −
 
  −
[[Robotic mapping]] (localization, etc):
  −
 
  −
Robotic mapping (localization, etc):
  −
 
  −
机器人绘图(本地化等) :
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=908–915}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Machine perception">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Machine perception">
  −
 
  −
”机器感知”
  −
 
  −
[[Machine perception]]:
  −
 
  −
Machine perception:
  −
 
  −
机器感知:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=537–581, 863–898}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=~chpt. 6}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Computer vision">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Computer vision">
  −
 
  −
”计算机视觉”
  −
 
  −
[[Computer vision]]:
  −
 
  −
Computer vision:
  −
 
  −
电脑视觉:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.10}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=863–898}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 6}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Speech recognition">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Speech recognition">
  −
 
  −
”语音识别”
  −
 
  −
[[Speech recognition]]:
  −
 
  −
Speech recognition:
  −
 
  −
语音识别:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.7}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=568–578}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Object recognition">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Object recognition">
  −
 
  −
对象识别”
  −
 
  −
[[Object recognition]]:
  −
 
  −
Object recognition:
  −
 
  −
物体识别:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=885–892}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Emotion and affective computing">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Emotion and affective computing">
  −
 
  −
情感与情感计算”
  −
 
  −
Emotion and [[affective computing]]:
  −
 
  −
Emotion and affective computing:
  −
 
  −
情感与情感计算:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Minsky|2006}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<!--<ref name="Artificial consciousness">
  −
 
  −
<!--<ref name="Artificial consciousness">
  −
 
  −
!-参考名称“人工意识”
  −
 
  −
[[Gerald Edelman]], [[Igor Aleksander]] and others have argued that [[artificial consciousness]] is required for strong AI. ({{Harvnb|Aleksander|1995}}; {{Harvnb|Edelman|2007}})
  −
 
  −
Gerald Edelman, Igor Aleksander and others have argued that artificial consciousness is required for strong AI. (; )
  −
 
  −
杰拉尔德埃德尔曼，伊戈尔亚历山大和其他人认为，人工意识是强大的人工智能所必需的。(; )
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
--><ref name="Brain simulation">
  −
 
  −
--><ref name="Brain simulation">
  −
 
  −
”大脑模拟”
  −
 
  −
[[Artificial brain]] arguments: AI requires a simulation of the operation of the human brain
  −
 
  −
Artificial brain arguments: AI requires a simulation of the operation of the human brain
  −
 
  −
人工大脑的论点: 人工智能需要模拟人脑的运作
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=957}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=271 and 279}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
A few of the people who make some form of the argument:
  −
 
  −
A few of the people who make some form of the argument:
  −
 
  −
一些提出某种论点的人:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005|p=262}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Hawkins|Blakeslee|2005}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
The most extreme form of this argument (the brain replacement scenario) was put forward by [[Clark Glymour]] in the mid-1970s and was touched on by [[Zenon Pylyshyn]] and [[John Searle]] in 1980.
  −
 
  −
The most extreme form of this argument (the brain replacement scenario) was put forward by Clark Glymour in the mid-1970s and was touched on by Zenon Pylyshyn and John Searle in 1980.
  −
 
  −
这种观点(大脑替代情景)最极端的形式是克拉克•格莱莫尔(Clark Glymour)在上世纪70年代中期提出的，泽农•派利辛(Zenon Pylyshyn)和约翰•塞尔(John Searle)在1980年提出了这一观点。
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<!-- unused ref<ref name="AI complete">
  −
 
  −
<!-- unused ref<ref name="AI complete">
  −
 
  −
! -- 未使用的 ref name"ai complete"
  −
 
  −
[[AI complete]]: {{Harvnb|Shapiro|1992|p=9}}
  −
 
  −
AI complete:
  −
 
  −
人工智能完成:
  −
 
  −
</ref>-->
  −
 
  −
</ref>-->
  −
 
  −
/ ref --
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<!---- APPROACHES ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------->
  −
 
  −
<!---- APPROACHES ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------->
  −
 
  −
——方法—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————— --
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Biological intelligence vs. intelligence in general">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Biological intelligence vs. intelligence in general">
  −
 
  −
生物智能对抗一般智能
  −
 
  −
Biological intelligence vs. intelligence in general:
  −
 
  −
Biological intelligence vs. intelligence in general:
  −
 
  −
生物智能 vs 一般智能:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=2–3}}, who make the analogy with [[aeronautical engineering]].
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=100–101}}, who writes that there are "two major branches of artificial intelligence: one aimed at producing intelligent behavior regardless of how it was accomplished, and the other aimed at modeling intelligent processes found in nature, particularly human ones."
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Kolata|1982}}, a paper in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', which describes [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|McCarthy's]] indifference to biological models. Kolata quotes McCarthy as writing: "This is AI, so we don't care if it's psychologically real"{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PEkqAAAAMAAJ|title=Science|date=August 1982}}. McCarthy recently reiterated his position at the [[AI@50]] conference where he said "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence" {{Harv|Maker|2006}}.
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Neats vs. scruffies">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Neats vs. scruffies">
  −
 
  −
裁判名称“ neats vs. scruffies”
  −
 
  −
[[Neats vs. scruffies]]:
  −
 
  −
Neats vs. scruffies:
  −
 
  −
Neats vs. scruffies:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=421–424, 486–489}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=168}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1983|pp=10–11}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Symbolic vs. sub-symbolic">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Symbolic vs. sub-symbolic">
  −
 
  −
”象征对抗子象征”
  −
 
  −
Symbolic vs. sub-symbolic AI:
  −
 
  −
Symbolic vs. sub-symbolic AI:
  −
 
  −
符号人工智能 vs 子符号人工智能:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|p=7}}, who uses the term "sub-symbolic".
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="GOFAI">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="GOFAI">
  −
 
  −
反对者名字「 gofai 」
  −
 
  −
{{Harvnb|Haugeland|1985|pp=112–117}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI at CMU in the 60s">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI at CMU in the 60s">
  −
 
  −
60年代，卡内基梅隆大学的人工智能
  −
 
  −
Cognitive simulation, [[Allen Newell|Newell]] and [[Herbert A. Simon|Simon]], AI at [[Carnegie Mellon University|CMU]] (then called [[Carnegie Tech]]):
  −
 
  −
Cognitive simulation, Newell and Simon, AI at CMU (then called Carnegie Tech):
  −
 
  −
认知模拟，纽威尔和西蒙，卡内基大学(当时称为卡内基技术学院)的人工智能:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=139–179, 245–250, 322–323 (EPAM)}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=145–149}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Soar">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Soar">
  −
 
  −
反战组织「翱翔」
  −
 
  −
[[Soar (cognitive architecture)|Soar]] (history):
  −
 
  −
Soar (history):
  −
 
  −
翱翔(历史) :
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=450–451}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=258–263}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI at Stanford in the 60s">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI at Stanford in the 60s">
  −
 
  −
60年代斯坦福大学的人工智能研究
  −
 
  −
[[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|McCarthy]] and AI research at [[Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory|SAIL]] and [[SRI International]]:
  −
 
  −
McCarthy and AI research at SAIL and SRI International:
  −
 
  −
麦卡锡和人工智能研究机构 SAIL 和 SRI International:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=251–259}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993}}<!-- Page number needed -->
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI at Edinburgh and France in the 60s">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI at Edinburgh and France in the 60s">
  −
 
  −
在60年代的爱丁堡和法国
  −
 
  −
AI research at [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]] and in France, birth of [[Prolog]]:
  −
 
  −
AI research at Edinburgh and in France, birth of Prolog:
  −
 
  −
爱丁堡和法国的人工智能研究，Prolog 的诞生:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=193–196}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI at MIT in the 60s">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="AI at MIT in the 60s">
  −
 
  −
60年代麻省理工学院的人工智能
  −
 
  −
AI at [[MIT]] under [[Marvin Minsky]] in the 1960s :
  −
 
  −
AI at MIT under Marvin Minsky in the 1960s :
  −
 
  −
上世纪60年代，马文•明斯基(Marvin Minsky)领导下的麻省理工学院(MIT)人工智能课程:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=259–305}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=83–102, 163–176}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=19}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Cyc">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Cyc">
  −
 
  −
他们的名字叫“ cyc”
  −
 
  −
[[Cyc]]:
  −
 
  −
Cyc:
  −
 
  −
Cyc:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=489}}, who calls it "a determinedly scruffy enterprise"
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=239–243}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=363−365}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Lenat|Guha|1989}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Knowledge revolution">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Knowledge revolution">
  −
 
  −
知识革命
  −
 
  −
Knowledge revolution:
  −
 
  −
Knowledge revolution:
  −
 
  −
返回文章页面知识革命:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=266–276, 298–300, 314, 421}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=22–23}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Embodied AI">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Embodied AI">
  −
 
  −
反对者名字“ empressive ai”
  −
 
  −
[[Embodied agent|Embodied]] approaches to AI:
  −
 
  −
Embodied approaches to AI:
  −
 
  −
人工智能的具身化方法:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=454–462}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Brooks|1990}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Revival of connectionism">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Revival of connectionism">
  −
 
  −
联结主义的复兴
  −
 
  −
Revival of [[connectionism]]:
  −
 
  −
Revival of connectionism:
  −
 
  −
返回文章页面连接主义的复兴:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=214–215}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=25}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Computational intelligence">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Computational intelligence">
  −
 
  −
计算机情报网
  −
 
  −
[[Computational intelligence]]
  −
 
  −
Computational intelligence
  −
 
  −
计算智能
  −
 
  −
* [http://www.ieee-cis.org/ IEEE Computational Intelligence Society] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509191840/http://www.ieee-cis.org/ |date=9 May 2008 }}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Intelligent agents">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Intelligent agents">
  −
 
  −
智能特工组织
  −
 
  −
The [[intelligent agent]] paradigm:
  −
 
  −
The intelligent agent paradigm:
  −
 
  −
智能代理范式:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=27, 32–58, 968–972}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=7–21}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=235–240}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Hutter|2005|pp=125–126}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
The definition used in this article, in terms of goals, actions, perception and environment, is due to {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003}}. Other definitions also include knowledge and learning as additional criteria.
  −
 
  −
The definition used in this article, in terms of goals, actions, perception and environment, is due to . Other definitions also include knowledge and learning as additional criteria.
  −
 
  −
本文使用的定义，在目标，行动，感知和环境方面，是由于。其他定义还包括知识和学习作为附加标准。
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Agent architectures">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Agent architectures">
  −
 
  −
引用名称"代理建筑"
  −
 
  −
[[Agent architecture]]s, [[hybrid intelligent system]]s:
  −
 
  −
Agent architectures, hybrid intelligent systems:
  −
 
  −
代理体系结构，混合智能系统:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=27, 932, 970–972}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 25}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Hierarchical control system">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Hierarchical control system">
  −
 
  −
分级控制系统"
  −
 
  −
[[Hierarchical control system]]:
  −
 
  −
Hierarchical control system:
  −
 
  −
分层控制系统:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Albus|2002}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<!---- TOOLS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------->
  −
 
  −
<!---- TOOLS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------->
  −
 
  −
——工具———————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————— --
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Search">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Search">
  −
 
  −
搜索引擎
  −
 
  −
[[Search algorithm]]s:
  −
 
  −
Search algorithms:
  −
 
  −
搜索算法:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=59–189}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=113–163}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=79–164, 193–219}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 7–12}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Logic as search">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Logic as search">
  −
 
  −
推理作为搜索”
  −
 
  −
[[Forward chaining]], [[backward chaining]], [[Horn clause]]s, and logical deduction as search:
  −
 
  −
Forward chaining, backward chaining, Horn clauses, and logical deduction as search:
  −
 
  −
正向链接、反向链接、 Horn 子句和逻辑推理作为搜索:
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=217–225, 280–294}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=~46–52}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=62–73}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 4.2, 7.2}}
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
</ref>
  −
 
  −
/ 参考
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Planning as search">
  −
 
  −
<ref name="Planning as search">
  −
 
  −
计划作为搜索”
  −
 
   
}}
 
}}
−
 
+
* [[Adam Tooze|Tooze, Adam]], "Democracy and Its Discontents", ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVI, no. 10 (6 June 2019), pp.&nbsp;52–53, 56–57. "Democracy has no clear answer for the mindless operation of [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] and [[technology|technological power]]. We may indeed be witnessing its extension in the form of artificial intelligence and robotics. Likewise, after decades of dire warning, the [[environmentalism|environmental problem]] remains fundamentally unaddressed.... Bureaucratic overreach and environmental catastrophe are precisely the kinds of slow-moving existential challenges that democracies deal with very badly.... Finally, there is the threat du jour:  [[corporation]]s and the technologies they promote."  (pp.&nbsp;56–57.)
−
* {{cite web |ref=harv
  −
 
  −
 
  −
 
  −
|url=http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai/node3.html
  −
 
  −
|url=http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai/node3.html
  −
 
  −
Http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai/node3.html
  −
 
  −
|title=Applications of AI
  −
 
  −
|title=Applications of AI
  −
 
  −
| 人工智能的应用
  −
 
  −
|website=www-formal.stanford.edu
  −
 
  −
|website=www-formal.stanford.edu
  −
 
  −
网站 www-formal.stanford.edu
  −
 
  −
|access-date=25 September 2016}}
  −
 
  −
|access-date=25 September 2016}}
  −
 
  −
| access-date 25 September 2016}
  −
 
   
{{refend}}
 
{{refend}}
−
  −
  −
  −
  −
  −
      
==扩展阅读 Further reading ==
 
==扩展阅读 Further reading ==
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