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第2,112行： − + − + − − <ref name="Fragmentation of AI">Pamela {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|p=424}} writes of "the rough shattering of AI in subfields—vision, natural language, decision theory, genetic algorithms, robotics ... and these with own sub-subfield—that would hardly have anything to say to each other."</ref> − − <ref name="Problems of AI">This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}} * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004}} * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998}} * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998}}</ref> − − <ref name="General intelligence">General intelligence ([[artificial general intelligence|strong AI]]) is discussed in popular introductions to AI: * {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|1999}} and {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005}}</ref> − − <ref name="AI in myth">AI in myth: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=4–5}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=939}}</ref> − − <ref name="AI in early science fiction">AI in early science fiction. * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=17–25}}</ref> − − <ref name="Formal reasoning">Formal reasoning: * {{cite book | first = David | last = Berlinski | year = 2000 | title = The Advent of the Algorithm | publisher = Harcourt Books | author-link = David Berlinski | isbn = 978-0-15-601391-8 | oclc = 46890682 | url = https://archive.org/details/adventofalgorith0000berl | access-date = 22 August 2020 | archive-date = 26 July 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200726215744/https://archive.org/details/adventofalgorith0000berl | url-status = live }}</ref> − − <ref name="AI's immediate precursors">AI's immediate precursors: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=51–107}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=27–32}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=15, 940}} * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=3}}</ref> − − <ref name="Dartmouth conference">[[Dartmouth Workshop|Dartmouth conference]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=111–136}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=47–49}}, who writes "the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new science." * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=17}}, who call the conference "the birth of artificial intelligence." * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=200–201}}</ref> − − <ref name="Hegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees">Hegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=17}}, who write "for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and their students." * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=129–130}}</ref> − − <ref name="Golden years of AI">"[[History of AI#The golden years 1956–1974|Golden years]]" of AI (successful symbolic reasoning programs 1956–1973): * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=243–252}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=52–107}} * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=9}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=18–21}} The programs described are [[Arthur Samuel]]'s checkers program for the [[IBM 701]], [[Daniel Bobrow]]'s [[STUDENT (computer program)|STUDENT]], [[Allen Newell|Newell]] and [[Herbert A. Simon|Simon]]'s [[Logic Theorist]] and [[Terry Winograd]]'s [[SHRDLU]].</ref> − − <ref name="AI funding in the 60s">[[DARPA]] pours money into undirected pure research into AI during the 1960s: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=131}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=51, 64–65}} * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=204–205}}</ref> − − <ref name="AI in England">AI in England: * {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}}</ref> − <ref name="Optimism of early AI">Optimism of early AI: * [[Herbert A. Simon|Herbert Simon]] quote: {{Harvnb|Simon|1965|p=96}} quoted in {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=109}}. * [[Marvin Minsky]] quote: {{Harvnb|Minsky|1967|p=2}} quoted in {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=109}}.</ref> − − <ref name="First AI winter">First [[AI Winter]], [[Mansfield Amendment]], [[Lighthill report]] * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=115–117}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=22}} * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=212–213}} * {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}} * {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=189–201}}</ref> − − <ref name="Expert systems">Expert systems: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.1}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=22–24}} * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=227–331}} * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 17.4}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=327–335, 434–435}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=145–62, 197–203}} * {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=155–183}}</ref> − − <ref name="AI in the 80s">Boom of the 1980s: rise of [[expert systems]], [[Fifth generation computer|Fifth Generation Project]], [[Alvey]], [[Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation|MCC]], [[Strategic Computing Initiative|SCI]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=426–441}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=161–162,197–203, 211, 240}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=24}} * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=210–211}} * {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=235–248}}</ref> − − <ref name="Second AI winter">Second [[AI winter]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=430–435}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=209–210}} * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=214–216}} * {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=301–318}}</ref> − − <ref name="Formal methods in AI">Formal methods are now preferred ("Victory of the [[neats vs. scruffies|neats]]"): * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=25–26}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=486–487}}</ref> − − <ref name="AI widely used">AI applications widely used behind the scenes: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=28}} * {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005|p=265}} * {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=216–222}} * {{Harvnb|Newquist|1994|pp=189–201}}</ref> − − <ref name="AI in 2000s">AI becomes hugely successful in the early 21st century * {{Harvnb|Clark|2015}}</ref> − − <ref name="Reasoning">Problem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|loc=chpt. 3–9}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|loc=chpt. 2,3,7,9}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|loc=chpt. 3,4,6,8}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 7–12}}</ref> − − <ref name="Uncertain reasoning">Uncertain reasoning: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=452–644}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=345–395}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=333–381}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 19}}</ref> − − <ref name="Intractability">[[Intractably|Intractability and efficiency]] and the [[combinatorial explosion]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=9, 21–22}}</ref> − − <ref name="Psychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning">Psychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning: * {{Harvtxt|Wason|Shapiro|1966}} showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive [[social intelligence]], performance dramatically improves. (See [[Wason selection task]]) * {{Harvtxt|Kahneman|Slovic|Tversky|1982}} have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See [[list of cognitive biases]] for several examples). * {{Harvtxt|Lakoff|Núñez|2000}} have controversially argued that even our skills at mathematics depend on knowledge and skills that come from "the body", i.e. sensorimotor and perceptual skills. (See [[Where Mathematics Comes From]])</ref> − − <ref name="Knowledge representation">[[Knowledge representation]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.4}}, * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=320–363}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=23–46, 69–81, 169–196, 235–277, 281–298, 319–345}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=227–243}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18}}</ref> − − <ref name="Knowledge engineering">[[Knowledge engineering]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=260–266}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=199–233}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. ≈17.1–17.4}}</ref> − − <ref name="Representing categories and relations">Representing categories and relations: [[Semantic network]]s, [[description logic]]s, [[inheritance (computer science)|inheritance]] (including [[frame (artificial intelligence)|frames]] and [[scripts (artificial intelligence)|scripts]]): * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=349–354}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=174–177}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=248–258}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18.3}}</ref> − − <ref name="Representing time">Representing events and time:[[Situation calculus]], [[event calculus]], [[fluent calculus]] (including solving the [[frame problem]]): * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=328–341}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281–298}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18.2}}</ref> − − <ref name="Representing causation">[[Causality#Causal calculus|Causal calculus]]: * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=335–337}}</ref> − − <ref name="Representing knowledge about knowledge">Representing knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, [[modal logic]]s: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=341–344}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=275–277}}</ref> − − <ref name="Ontology">[[Ontology (computer science)|Ontology]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=320–328}}</ref> − − <ref name="Qualification problem">[[Qualification problem]]: * {{Harvnb|McCarthy|Hayes|1969}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}}{{Page needed|date=February 2011}}<!-- We really need to know where they say this, because it's kind of wrong --> While McCarthy was primarily concerned with issues in the logical representation of actions, {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}} apply the term to the more general issue of default reasoning in the vast network of assumptions underlying all our commonsense knowledge.</ref> − − <ref name="Default reasoning and non-monotonic logic">Default reasoning and [[default logic]], [[non-monotonic logic]]s, [[circumscription (logic)|circumscription]], [[closed world assumption]], [[abductive reasoning|abduction]] (Poole ''et al.'' places abduction under "default reasoning". Luger ''et al.'' places this under "uncertain reasoning"): * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=354–360}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=248–256, 323–335}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=335–363}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=~18.3.3}}</ref> − − <ref name="Breadth of commonsense knowledge">Breadth of commonsense knowledge: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=21}}, * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=113–114}}, * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=13}}, * {{Harvnb|Lenat|Guha|1989}} (Introduction)</ref> − − <ref name="Intuition">Expert knowledge as [[embodied cognition|embodied]] intuition: * {{Harvnb|Dreyfus|Dreyfus|1986}} ([[Hubert Dreyfus]] is a philosopher and critic of AI who was among the first to argue that most useful human knowledge was encoded sub-symbolically. See [[Dreyfus' critique of AI]]) * {{Harvnb|Gladwell|2005}} (Gladwell's ''[[Blink (book)|Blink]]'' is a popular introduction to sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge.) * {{Harvnb|Hawkins|Blakeslee|2005}} (Hawkins argues that sub-symbolic knowledge should be the primary focus of AI research.)</ref> − − <ref name="Planning">[[automated planning and scheduling|Planning]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.8}}, * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp= 375–459}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281–316}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=314–329}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 10.1–2, 22}}</ref> − − <ref name="Information value theory">[[Applied information economics|Information value theory]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=600–604}}</ref> − <ref name="Classical planning">Classical planning: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=375–430}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281–315}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=314–329}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 10.1–2, 22}}</ref> − − <ref name="Non-deterministic planning">Planning and acting in non-deterministic domains: conditional planning, execution monitoring, replanning and continuous planning: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=430–449}}</ref> − − <ref name="Multi-agent planning">Multi-agent planning and emergent behavior: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=449–455}}</ref> − − <ref name="Machine learning">[[machine learning|Learning]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.6}}, * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=649–788}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=397–438}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=385–542}}, * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20}}</ref> − − <ref name="Reinforcement learning">[[Reinforcement learning]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=763–788}} * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=442–449}}</ref> − − <ref name="Natural language processing">[[Natural language processing]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.7}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=790–831}} * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=91–104}} * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=591–632}}</ref> − − <ref name="Applications of natural language processing">Applications of natural language processing, including [[information retrieval]] (i.e. [[text mining]]) and [[machine translation]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=840–857}}, * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=623–630}}</ref> − − <ref name="Robotics">[[Robotic]]s: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.9}}, * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=901–942}}, * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=443–460}}</ref> − − <ref name="Configuration space">Moving and [[Configuration space (physics)|configuration space]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=916–932}}</ref> − − <ref name="Robotic mapping">[[Robotic mapping]] (localization, etc): * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=908–915}}</ref> − − <ref name="Machine perception">[[Machine perception]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=537–581, 863–898}} * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=~chpt. 6}}</ref> − − <ref name="Computer vision">[[Computer vision]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.10}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=863–898}} * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 6}}</ref> − − <ref name="Speech recognition">[[Speech recognition]]: * {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.7}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=568–578}}</ref> − − <ref name="Object recognition">[[Object recognition]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=885–892}}</ref> − − <ref name="Emotion and affective computing">Emotion and [[affective computing]]: * {{Harvnb|Minsky|2006}}</ref> − − <ref name="Brain simulation">[[Artificial brain]] arguments: AI requires a simulation of the operation of the human brain * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=957}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=271 and 279}} A few of the people who make some form of the argument: * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988}} * {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005|p=262}} * {{Harvnb|Hawkins|Blakeslee|2005}} The most extreme form of this argument (the brain replacement scenario) was put forward by [[Clark Glymour]] in the mid-1970s and was touched on by [[Zenon Pylyshyn]] and [[John Searle]] in 1980.</ref> − − <ref name="Neats vs. scruffies">[[Neats vs. scruffies]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=421–424, 486–489}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=168}} * {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1983|pp=10–11}}</ref> − − <ref name="Symbolic vs. sub-symbolic">Symbolic vs. sub-symbolic AI: * {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|p=7}}, who uses the term "sub-symbolic".</ref> − − <ref name="GOFAI">{{Harvnb|Haugeland|1985|pp=112–117}}</ref> − − <ref name="AI at CMU in the 60s">Cognitive simulation, [[Allen Newell|Newell]] and [[Herbert A. Simon|Simon]], AI at [[Carnegie Mellon University|CMU]] (then called [[Carnegie Tech]]): * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=139–179, 245–250, 322–323 (EPAM)}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=145–149}}</ref> − − <ref name="Soar">[[Soar (cognitive architecture)|Soar]] (history): * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=450–451}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=258–263}}</ref> − − <ref name="AI at Stanford in the 60s">[[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|McCarthy]] and AI research at [[Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory|SAIL]] and [[SRI International]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=251–259}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993}}<!-- Page number needed --></ref> − − <ref name="AI at Edinburgh and France in the 60s">AI research at [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]] and in France, birth of [[Prolog]]: * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=193–196}} * {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}}</ref> − <ref name="AI at MIT in the 60s">AI at [[MIT]] under [[Marvin Minsky]] in the 1960s : * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=259–305}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=83–102, 163–176}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=19}}</ref> − − <ref name="Cyc">[[Cyc]]: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=489}}, who calls it "a determinedly scruffy enterprise" * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=239–243}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=363−365}} * {{Harvnb|Lenat|Guha|1989}}</ref> − − <ref name="Knowledge revolution">Knowledge revolution: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=266–276, 298–300, 314, 421}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=22–23}}</ref> − − <ref name="Embodied AI">[[Embodied agent|Embodied]] approaches to AI: * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=454–462}} * {{Harvnb|Brooks|1990}} * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988}}</ref> − − <ref name="Revival of connectionism">Revival of [[connectionism]]: * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=214–215}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=25}}</ref> − − <ref name="Computational intelligence">[[Computational intelligence]] * [http://www.ieee-cis.org/ IEEE Computational Intelligence Society] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509191840/http://www.ieee-cis.org/ |date=9 May 2008}}</ref> − − <ref name="Intelligent agents">The [[intelligent agent]] paradigm: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=27, 32–58, 968–972}} * {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=7–21}} * {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=235–240}} * {{Harvnb|Hutter|2005|pp=125–126}} The definition used in this article, in terms of goals, actions, perception and environment, is due to {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003}}. Other definitions also include knowledge and learning as additional criteria.</ref> − − <ref name="Agent architectures">[[Agent architecture]]s, [[hybrid intelligent system]]s: * {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=27, 932, 970–972}} * {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 25}}</ref> − <ref name="Hierarchical control system">[[Hierarchical control system]]: * {{Harvnb|Albus|2002}}</ref> − − <ref name="Turing test">The [[Turing test]]:<br /> Turing's original publication: * {{Harvnb|Turing|1950}} Historical influence and philosophical implications: * {{Harvnb|Haugeland|1985|pp=6–9}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=24}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=70–71}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=2–3 and 948}}</ref> − − <ref name="Dartmouth proposal">Dartmouth proposal: * {{Harvnb|McCarthy|Minsky|Rochester|Shannon|1955}} (the original proposal) * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=49}} (historical significance)</ref> − − <ref name="Physical symbol system hypothesis">The [[physical symbol system]]s hypothesis: * {{Harvnb|Newell|Simon|1976|p=116}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=153}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=18}}</ref> − − <ref name="Dreyfus' critique">[[Dreyfus' critique of artificial intelligence]]: * {{Harvnb|Dreyfus|1972}}, {{Harvnb|Dreyfus|Dreyfus|1986}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=120–132}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=211–239}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=950–952}},</ref> − − <ref name="Gödel himself">{{Harvnb|Gödel|1951}}: in this lecture, [[Kurt Gödel]] uses the incompleteness theorem to arrive at the following disjunction: (a) the human mind is not a consistent finite machine, or (b) there exist [[Diophantine equations]] for which it cannot decide whether solutions exist. Gödel finds (b) implausible, and thus seems to have believed the human mind was not equivalent to a finite machine, i.e., its power exceeded that of any finite machine. He recognized that this was only a conjecture, since one could never disprove (b). Yet he considered the disjunctive conclusion to be a "certain fact".</ref> − − <ref name="The mathematical objection">The Mathematical Objection: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=949}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=448–449}} Making the Mathematical Objection: * {{Harvnb|Lucas|1961}} * {{Harvnb|Penrose|1989}} Refuting Mathematical Objection: * {{Harvnb|Turing|1950}} under "(2) The Mathematical Objection" * {{Harvnb|Hofstadter|1979}} Background: * {{Harvnb|Ref=none|Gödel|1931}}, {{Harvnb|Ref=none|Church|1936}}, {{Harvnb|Ref=none|Kleene|1935}}, {{Harvnb|Ref=none|Turing|1937}}</ref> − − <ref name="Chinese room">Searle's [[Chinese room]] argument: * {{Harvnb|Searle|1980}}. Searle's original presentation of the thought experiment. * {{Harvnb|Searle|1999}}. Discussion: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=958–960}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=443–445}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=269–271}}</ref> − − <ref name="Robot rights">[[Robot rights]]: * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=964}} * {{Harvnb|''BBC News''|2006}} Prematurity of: * {{Harvnb|Henderson|2007}} In fiction: * {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp=190–25}} discusses ''[[Frankenstein]]'' and identifies the key ethical issues as scientific hubris and the suffering of the monster, i.e. [[robot rights]].</ref> − − <ref name="Weizenbaum's critique">[[Joseph Weizenbaum]]'s critique of AI: * {{Harvnb|Weizenbaum|1976}} * {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=132–144}} * {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=356–373}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=961}} Weizenbaum (the AI researcher who developed the first [[chatterbot]] program, [[ELIZA]]) argued in 1976 that the misuse of artificial intelligence has the potential to devalue human life.</ref> − − <ref name="Singularity">[[Technological singularity]]: * {{Harvnb|Vinge|1993}} * {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=963}}</ref> − − <ref name="recurse">{{Cite conference | last = Omohundro|first= Steve| author-link= Steve Omohundro | year = 2008| title= The Nature of Self-Improving Artificial Intelligence| publisher=presented and distributed at the 2007 Singularity Summit, San Francisco, CA.}}</ref> − − <ref name="Transhumanism">[[Transhumanism]]: * {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988}} * {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005}} * {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=963}}</ref> − − <ref name="AI as evolution">AI as evolution: * [[Edward Fredkin]] is quoted in {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|p=401}}. * {{Harvnb|Butler|1863}} * {{Harvnb|Dyson|1998}}</ref> − − <ref name="guardian jobs debate">{{cite news|last1=Ford|first1=Martin|last2=Colvin|first2=Geoff|date=6 September 2015|title=Will robots create more jobs than they destroy?|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/sep/06/will-robots-create-destroy-jobs|accessdate=13 January 2018|archive-date=16 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180616204119/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/sep/06/will-robots-create-destroy-jobs|url-status=live}}</ref> − − <ref name="bbc-alphago">{{cite web|url=https://deepmind.com/alpha-go.html|title=AlphaGo – Google DeepMind|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310191926/https://www.deepmind.com/alpha-go.html|archive-date=10 March 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> − − <ref name=":0">{{cite web |url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-08/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence |title = Why 2015 Was a Breakthrough Year in Artificial Intelligence |last = Clark |first = Jack |website = Bloomberg News |date = 8 December 2015 |access-date = 23 November 2016 |quote = After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than ever. |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161123053855/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-08/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence |archive-date = 23 November 2016 |df = dmy-all}}</ref> − − <ref name="Roberts">{{cite magazine|last1=Roberts|first1=Jacob|title=Thinking Machines: The Search for Artificial Intelligence|magazine=Distillations|date=2016|volume=2|issue=2|pages=14–23|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/thinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence|accessdate=20 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819152455/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/thinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence|archive-date=19 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> − − <ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/commission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.pdf|title=White Paper: On Artificial Intelligence - A European approach to excellence and trust|publisher=European Commission|year=2020|location=Brussels|pages=1|access-date=20 February 2020|archive-date=20 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220173419/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/commission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> − − <ref name="autogenerated1">Michael Anderson and Susan Leigh Anderson (2011), Machine Ethics, Cambridge University Press.</ref> − − <ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://www.aaai.org/Library/Symposia/Fall/fs05-06 |title=Machine Ethics |work=aaai.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129044821/http://www.aaai.org/Library/Symposia/Fall/fs05-06 |archive-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> − − <ref name="HC">{{cite book|last=Russell|first=Stuart|title=Human Compatible: Artificial Intelligence and the Problem of Control|title-link=Human Compatible|date=October 8, 2019|publisher=Viking|isbn=978-0-525-55861-3|location=United States|oclc=1083694322|author-link=Stuart J. Russell}}</ref> − − }} − − === 人工智能教科书 === − {{refbegin|30em}} − * {{cite book − | last=Hutter |first=Marcus |author-link=Marcus Hutter |year=2005 − | title=Universal Artificial Intelligence − | isbn=978-3-540-22139-5 − | publisher=Springer − | location=Berlin − | title-link=AIXI }} − * {{cite book − |last=Jackson − |first=Philip − |author-link=Philip C. Jackson, Jr. − |year=1985 − |title=Introduction to Artificial Intelligence − |isbn=978-0-486-24864-6 − |publisher=Dover − |edition=2nd − |url-access=registration − |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoar1985jack − |access-date=4 March 2020 − |archive-date=26 July 2020 − |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131713/https://archive.org/details/introductiontoar1985jack − |url-status=live − }} − * {{cite book − |last1=Luger − |first1=George − |author-link=George Luger − |last2=Stubblefield − |first2=William − |author2-link=William Stubblefield − |year=2004 − |title=Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving − |publisher=Benjamin/Cummings − |edition=5th − |isbn=978-0-8053-4780-7 − |url=https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge − |url-access=registration − |access-date=17 December 2019 − |archive-date=26 July 2020 − |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726220613/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge − |url-status=live − }} − * {{cite book |last1=Neapolitan |first1=Richard |last2=Jiang |first2=Xia |year=2018 |author-link1=Richard Neapolitan |title=Artificial Intelligence: With an Introduction to Machine Learning |publisher=Chapman & Hall/CRC |isbn=978-1-138-50238-3 |url=https://www.crcpress.com/Contemporary-Artificial-Intelligence-Second-Edition/Neapolitan-Jiang/p/book/9781138502383 |access-date=3 January 2018 |archive-date=22 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200822201555/https://www.routledge.com/Contemporary-Artificial-Intelligence-Second-Edition/Neapolitan-Jiang/p/book/9781138502383 |url-status=live }} − * {{cite book − |last=Nilsson − |first=Nils − |author-link=Nils Nilsson (researcher) − |year=1998 − |title=Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis − |url=https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000nils − |url-access=registration − |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann − |isbn=978-1-55860-467-4 − |access-date=18 November 2019 − |archive-date=26 July 2020 − |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131654/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000nils − |url-status=live − }} − * {{Russell Norvig 2003}}. − * {{Cite book − | first1 = Stuart J. − | last1 = Russell − | first2 = Peter − | last2 = Norvig − | title = [[Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach]] <!-- | url = http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/ --> − | year = 2009 − | edition = 3rd − | publisher = Prentice Hall − | location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey − | isbn = 978-0-13-604259-4 − | author-link=Stuart J. Russell − | author2-link=Peter Norvig − }}. − * {{cite book − |first1 = David − |last1 = Poole − |author-link = David Poole (researcher) − |first2 = Alan − |last2 = Mackworth − |author2-link = Alan Mackworth − |first3 = Randy − |last3 = Goebel − |author3-link = Randy Goebel − |year = 1998 − |title = Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach − |publisher = Oxford University Press − |location = New York − |isbn = 978-0-19-510270-3 − |url = https://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool − |access-date = 22 August 2020 − |archive-date = 26 July 2020 − |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131436/https://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool − |url-status = live − }} − * {{cite book | last=Winston | first=Patrick Henry | author-link=Patrick Winston | year=1984 | title=Artificial Intelligence | publisher=Addison-Wesley | location=Reading, MA | isbn=978-0-201-08259-3 | url=https://archive.org/details/artificialintell00wins | access-date=22 August 2020 | archive-date=26 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131500/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell00wins | url-status=live }} − * {{cite book |last=Rich |first=Elaine |author-link=Elaine Rich |year=1983 |title=Artificial Intelligence |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-052261-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ine0000unse |access-date=17 December 2019 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131632/https://archive.org/details/ine0000unse |url-status=live }} − * {{cite book − | last=Bundy |first=Alan |author-link=Alan Bundy |year=1980 − | title=Artificial Intelligence: An Introductory Course − | publisher = Edinburgh University Press|edition=2nd − | isbn=978-0-85224-410-4 − }} − * {{cite book − |first1=David − |last1=Poole − |author-link=David Poole (researcher) − |first2=Alan − |last2=Mackworth − |author2-link=Alan Mackworth − |year=2017 − |title=Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents − |publisher=Cambridge University Press − |edition=2nd − |isbn=978-1-107-19539-4 − |url=http://artint.info/index.html − |access-date=6 December 2017 − |archive-date=7 December 2017 − |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207013855/http://artint.info/index.html − |url-status=live − }} − {{refend}} − − === 人工智能的历史 === − {{refbegin|30em}} − * {{Crevier 1993}}. − * {{McCorduck 2004}}. − * {{cite book − | last=Newquist |first=HP |author-link=HP Newquist |year=1994 − | title=The Brain Makers: Genius, Ego, And Greed In The Quest For Machines That Think − | publisher=Macmillan/SAMS |location=New York − | isbn= 978-0-672-30412-5 − }} − * {{cite book − | last=Nilsson |first=Nils |author-link=Nils Nilsson (researcher) |year=2009 − | title=The Quest for Artificial Intelligence: A History of Ideas and Achievements − | publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York − | isbn=978-0-521-12293-1 − }} − {{refend}} − − === 其他资料 === − {{refbegin|30em}} − * {{cite journal |last1=Asada |first1=M. |last2=Hosoda |first2=K. |last3=Kuniyoshi |first3=Y. |last4=Ishiguro |first4=H. |last5=Inui |first5=T. |last6=Yoshikawa |first6=Y. |last7=Ogino |first7=M. |last8=Yoshida |first8=C. |year=2009 |title=Cognitive developmental robotics: a survey |journal=IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=12–34 |doi=10.1109/tamd.2009.2021702 |s2cid=10168773 }} − * {{cite web − |ref = {{harvid|ACM|1998}} − |publisher = [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] − |year = 1998 − |title = ACM Computing Classification System: Artificial intelligence − |url = http://www.acm.org/class/1998/I.2.html − |accessdate = 30 August 2007 − |url-status = dead − |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071012025921/http://www.acm.org/class/1998/I.2.html − |archive-date = 12 October 2007 − |df = dmy-all − }} − * {{cite book − | last1=Goodman − | first1=Joanna − | author-link=Joanna Goodman − | year=2016 − | title=Robots in Law: How Artificial Intelligence is Transforming Legal Services − | publisher=Ark Group − | edition=1st − | isbn=978-1-78358-264-8 − | url=https://www.ark-group.com/product/robots-law-how-artificial-intelligence-transforming-legal-services − | access-date=7 November 2016 − | archive-date=8 November 2016 − | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108052144/https://www.ark-group.com/product/robots-law-how-artificial-intelligence-transforming-legal-services − | url-status=live − }} − * {{cite encyclopedia − |last=Albus − |first=J. S. − |year=2002 − |pages=11–20 − |title=4-D/RCS: A Reference Model Architecture for Intelligent Unmanned Ground Vehicles − |editor1-last=Gerhart − |editor-first=G. − |editor2-last=Gunderson − |editor2-first=R. − |editor3-last=Shoemaker − |editor3-first=C. − |encyclopedia=Proceedings of the SPIE AeroSense Session on Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology − |volume=3693 − |url=http://www.isd.mel.nist.gov/documents/albus/4DRCS.pdf − |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040725051856/http://www.isd.mel.nist.gov/documents/albus/4DRCS.pdf − |url-status=dead − |archive-date=25 July 2004 − |bibcode=2002SPIE.4715..303A − |doi=10.1117/12.474462 − |citeseerx=10.1.1.15.14 − |series=Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology IV − |s2cid=63339739 − }} − * {{Cite book − |last = Aleksander − |first = Igor − |author-link = Igor Aleksander − |year = 1995 − |title = Artificial Neuroconsciousness: An Update − |publisher = IWANN − |url = http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/research/neural/publications/iwann.html − |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/19970302014628/http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/research/neural/publications/iwann.html − |archive-date = 2 March 1997 − }} [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/rec/bibtex/conf/iwann/Aleksander95 BibTex] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970302014628/http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/research/neural/publications/iwann.html |date=2 March 1997 }}. − * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Bach |first=Joscha |year=2008 |pages=63–74 |title=Seven Principles of Synthetic Intelligence |editor1-last=Wang |editor1-first=Pei |editor2-last=Goertzel |editor2-first=Ben |editor3-last=Franklin |editor3-first=Stan |work=Artificial General Intelligence, 2008: Proceedings of the First AGI Conference |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-58603-833-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a_ZR81Z25z0C&pg=PA63 |access-date=16 February 2016 |archive-date=8 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708030627/https://books.google.com/books?id=a_ZR81Z25z0C&pg=PA63 |url-status=live }} − * {{cite news − |ref={{harvid|''BBC News''|2006}} − |date=21 December 2006 − |title=Robots could demand legal rights − |work=BBC News − |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6200005.stm − |accessdate=3 February 2011 − |archive-date=15 October 2019 − |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015042628/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6200005.stm − |url-status=live − }} − * {{cite journal | last=Brooks | first=Rodney | author-link=Rodney Brooks | year=1990 | title=Elephants Don't Play Chess | journal=Robotics and Autonomous Systems | volume=6 | issue=1–2 | pages=3–15 | doi=10.1016/S0921-8890(05)80025-9 | url=http://people.csail.mit.edu/brooks/papers/elephants.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809020912/http://people.csail.mit.edu/brooks/papers/elephants.pdf | archive-date=9 August 2007 | url-status=live | citeseerx=10.1.1.588.7539 }} − * {{cite encyclopedia − | last=Brooks |first=R. A. |year=1991 |pages=225–239 − | title=How to build complete creatures rather than isolated cognitive simulators − | editor-last=VanLehn |editor-first=K. − | encyclopedia=Architectures for Intelligence |location=Hillsdale, NJ |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates − |citeseerx=10.1.1.52.9510}} − * {{cite journal − |last=Buchanan − |first=Bruce G. − |year=2005 − |pages=53–60 − |title=A (Very) Brief History of Artificial Intelligence − |journal=AI Magazine − |url=http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/assets/PDF/AIMag26-04-016.pdf − |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926023314/http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/assets/PDF/AIMag26-04-016.pdf − |archive-date=26 September 2007 − |url-status=dead − |df=dmy − }} − * {{cite news − |last=Butler − |first=Samuel − |author-link=Samuel Butler (novelist) − |date=13 June 1863 − |title=Darwin among the Machines − |work=[[The Press]] − |location=Christchurch, New Zealand − |department=Letters to the Editor − |url=http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-ButFir-t1-g1-t1-g1-t4-body.html − |accessdate=16 October 2014 − |via=Victoria University of Wellington − |archive-date=19 September 2008 − |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919172551/http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-ButFir-t1-g1-t1-g1-t4-body.html − |url-status=live − }} − * {{cite web − |url = https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-08/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence − |title = Why 2015 Was a Breakthrough Year in Artificial Intelligence − |last = Clark − |first = Jack − |website = Bloomberg News − |date = 8 December 2015 − |access-date = 23 November 2016 − |quote = After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than ever. − |url-status = live − |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161123053855/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-08/why-2015-was-a-breakthrough-year-in-artificial-intelligence − |archive-date = 23 November 2016 − |df = dmy-all − }} − * {{cite news − |ref={{harvid|''CNN''|2006}} − |title=AI set to exceed human brain power − |work=CNN − |date=26 July 2006 − |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/ − |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219001624/http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/ − |archive-date=19 February 2008 − |url-status=live − }} − * {{cite book − | last=Dennett | first=Daniel | author-link=Daniel Dennett − | year=1991 − | title=Consciousness Explained − | publisher=The Penguin Press − | isbn= 978-0-7139-9037-9 − | title-link=Consciousness Explained }} − <!--* {{cite magazine − | last=Diamond |first=David |date=December 2003 − | title=The Love Machine; Building computers that care − | magazine=Wired − | url=https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.12/love.html − | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080518185630/http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.12/love.html − | archivedate=18 May 2008 |url-status=live − }} − -->* {{cite book − |first1=Pedro |last1=Domingos |author-link=Pedro Domingos − |year=2015 − |title=The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World − |publisher = Basic Books − |isbn=978-0-465-06192-1 − |title-link=The Master Algorithm }} − * {{cite journal |last1=Dowe |first1=D. L. |last2=Hajek |first2=A. 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== 引用 ==
==引用==
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== Further reading ==
== Further reading ==