更改

此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，翻译字数共688，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。

此词条暂由彩云小译翻译，翻译字数共688，未经人工整理和审校，带来阅读不便，请见谅。

{{short description|The hypothesis that, in the course of evolution, some entirely new properties, such as mind and consciousness, appear at certain critical points}}

{{short description|The hypothesis that, in the course of evolution, some entirely new properties, such as mind and consciousness, appear at certain critical points}}

Emergent evolution was the hypothesis that, in the course of evolution, some entirely new properties, such as mind and consciousness, appear at certain critical points, usually because of an unpredictable rearrangement of the already existing entities. The term was originated by the psychologist C. Lloyd Morgan in 1922 in his Gifford Lectures at St. Andrews, which would later be published as the 1923 book Emergent Evolution.

Emergent evolution was the hypothesis that, in the course of evolution, some entirely new properties, such as mind and consciousness, appear at certain critical points, usually because of an unpredictable rearrangement of the already existing entities. The term was originated by the psychologist C. Lloyd Morgan in 1922 in his Gifford Lectures at St. Andrews, which would later be published as the 1923 book Emergent Evolution.

The hypothesis was widely criticized for providing no mechanism to how entirely new properties emerge, and for its historical roots in [[teleology]].

 

<ref name="Bowler 2001"/>

 

<ref>McLaughlin, Brian P. (1992). ''The Rise and Fall of British Emergentism''. In A. Beckerman, H. Flohr, and J. Kim, eds., ''Emergence or Reduction? Essays on the Prospects of Nonreductive Physicalism''. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 49–93. {{ISBN|3-11-012880-2}}</ref>

 

<ref>Baylis, Charles A. (1929). ''The Philosophic Functions of Emergence''. ''[[The Philosophical Review]]''. Vol. 38, No. 4. pp. 372-384.</ref>

The hypothesis was widely criticized for providing no mechanism to how entirely new properties emerge, and for its historical roots in [[teleology]].<ref name="Bowler 2001"/><ref>McLaughlin, Brian P. (1992). ''The Rise and Fall of British Emergentism''. In A. Beckerman, H. Flohr, and J. Kim, eds., ''Emergence or Reduction? Essays on the Prospects of Nonreductive Physicalism''. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 49–93. {{ISBN|3-11-012880-2}}</ref><ref>Baylis, Charles A. (1929). ''The Philosophic Functions of Emergence''. ''[[The Philosophical Review]]''. Vol. 38, No. 4. pp. 372-384.</ref>

The hypothesis was widely criticized for providing no mechanism to how entirely new properties emerge, and for its historical roots in teleology.

The hypothesis was widely criticized for providing no mechanism to how entirely new properties emerge, and for its historical roots in teleology.

==Historical context==

==Historical context==

The term ''[[emergence|emergent]]'' was first used to describe the concept by [[George Lewes]] in volume two of his 1875 book ''Problems of Life and Mind'' (p.&nbsp;412).  [[Henri Bergson]] covered similar themes in his popular 1907 book ''[[Creative Evolution (book)|Creative Evolution]]'' on the [[Élan vital]].  Emergence was further developed by [[Samuel Alexander]] in his [[Gifford Lectures]] at [[University of Glasgow|Glasgow]] during 1916–18 and published as ''Space, Time, and Deity'' (1920).  The related term ''emergent evolution'' was coined by [[C. Lloyd Morgan]] in his own Gifford lectures of 1921–22 at [[University of St. Andrews|St. Andrews]] and published as ''Emergent Evolution'' (1923). In an appendix to a lecture in his book, Morgan acknowledged the contributions of [[Roy Wood Sellars]]'s ''Evolutionary Naturalism'' (1922).

The term ''[[emergence|emergent]]'' was first used to describe the concept by [[George Lewes]] in volume two of his 1875 book ''Problems of Life and Mind'' (p.&nbsp;412).  [[Henri Bergson]] covered similar themes in his popular 1907 book ''[[Creative Evolution (book)|Creative Evolution]]'' on the [[Élan vital]].  Emergence was further developed by [[Samuel Alexander]] in his [[Gifford Lectures]] at [[University of Glasgow|Glasgow]] during 1916–18 and published as ''Space, Time, and Deity'' (1920).  The related term ''emergent evolution'' was coined by [[C. Lloyd Morgan]] in his own Gifford lectures of 1921–22 at [[University of St. Andrews|St. Andrews]] and published as ''Emergent Evolution'' (1923). In an appendix to a lecture in his book, Morgan acknowledged the contributions of [[Roy Wood Sellars]]'s ''Evolutionary Naturalism'' (1922).

The term emergent was first used to describe the concept by George Lewes in volume two of his 1875 book Problems of Life and Mind (p.&nbsp;412).  Henri Bergson covered similar themes in his popular 1907 book Creative Evolution on the Élan vital.  Emergence was further developed by Samuel Alexander in his Gifford Lectures at Glasgow during 1916–18 and published as Space, Time, and Deity (1920).  The related term emergent evolution was coined by C. Lloyd Morgan in his own Gifford lectures of 1921–22 at St. Andrews and published as Emergent Evolution (1923). In an appendix to a lecture in his book, Morgan acknowledged the contributions of Roy Wood Sellars's Evolutionary Naturalism (1922).

The term emergent was first used to describe the concept by George Lewes in volume two of his 1875 book Problems of Life and Mind (p.&nbsp;412).  Henri Bergson covered similar themes in his popular 1907 book Creative Evolution on the Élan vital.  Emergence was further developed by Samuel Alexander in his Gifford Lectures at Glasgow during 1916–18 and published as Space, Time, and Deity (1920).  The related term emergent evolution was coined by C. Lloyd Morgan in his own Gifford lectures of 1921–22 at St. Andrews and published as Emergent Evolution (1923). In an appendix to a lecture in his book, Morgan acknowledged the contributions of Roy Wood Sellars's Evolutionary Naturalism (1922).

“涌现”这个术语最初是由乔治 · 刘易斯在他1875年出版的《生活与心智的问题》(412页)第二卷中用来描述这个概念的。亨利 · 柏格森在他1907年的畅销书《生机勃勃的创造性进化》中也提到了类似的主题。1916-18年间，Samuel Alexander 在他位于格拉斯哥的吉福德的讲述教学法中进一步发展了羽化理论，并出版了《空间、时间和神性》(1920)。相关的术语突生演化是 c. Lloyd Morgan 在他1921-1922年在圣安德鲁斯的吉福德的讲述教学法中创造的，并出版为《突生演化(1923年)》。在他书中的演讲的附录中，摩根承认了罗伊 · 伍德 · 塞拉斯的进化自然主义(1922)的贡献。

刘易士 George Lewes 在其1875年出版的《生命和心灵问题  Problems of Life and Mind》一书的第二卷中首次使用了涌现一词来描述这一概念(p.&nbsp;412)。 亨利·柏格森  Henri Bergson 在他1907年流行的《创造进化论 Creative Evolution》（Élan vital）一书中也涉及了类似的主题。 1916-1918年间，塞缪尔·亚历山大 Samuel Alexander 在格拉斯哥的《吉福德讲座 Gifford lectures》中进一步发展了涌现这个概念，并以《空间、时间和神性 Space, Time, and Deity》（1920）的形式出版。 相关的术语"涌现进化"是由 C. Lloyd Morgan 于1921-1922年在自己在圣安德鲁斯的吉福德讲座中创造的，并以《涌现进化 Emergent Evolution》（1923）出版。C. Lloyd Morgan 在其书中的一篇讲座的附录中，承认了 塞拉斯 Roy Wood Sellars的《进化的自然主义 Evolutionary Naturalism》（1922）的贡献。

 

== Origins ==

== Origins ==

 

 

=== Response to Darwin's ''Origin of Species'' ===

=== Response to Darwin's ''Origin of Species'' ===

 

Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace's presentation of natural selection, coupled to the idea of evolution in Western thought, had gained acceptance due to the wealth of observational data provided and the seeming replacement of divine law with natural law in the affairs of men. However, the mechanism of natural selection described at the time only explained how organisms adapted to variation. The cause of genetic variation was unknown at the time.

Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace's presentation of natural selection, coupled to the idea of evolution in Western thought, had gained acceptance due to the wealth of observational data provided and the seeming replacement of divine law with natural law in the affairs of men. However, the mechanism of natural selection described at the time only explained how organisms adapted to variation. The cause of genetic variation was unknown at the time.

 

 

{{quote|Darwin knew that nature had to produce variations before natural selection could act …The problem had been caught by other evolutionists almost as soon as ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' was first published. [[Sir Charles Lyell]] saw it clearly in 1860 before he even became an evolutionist…(Reid, p.3)<ref name=Reid />}}

{{quote|Darwin knew that nature had to produce variations before natural selection could act …The problem had been caught by other evolutionists almost as soon as ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' was first published. [[Sir Charles Lyell]] saw it clearly in 1860 before he even became an evolutionist…(Reid, p.3)<ref name=Reid />}}

[[St. George Jackson Mivart|St. George Jackson Mivart's]] ''On the Genesis of Species'' (1872) and [[Edward Drinker Cope|Edward Cope]]'s ''Origin of the Fittest'' (1887) raised the need to address the origin of variation between members of a species. [[William Bateson]] in 1884 distinguished between the origin of novel variations and the action of natural selection (''Materials for the Study of Variation Treated with Especial Regard to Discontinuity in the Origin of Species'').<ref name=Reid />

[[St. George Jackson Mivart|St. George Jackson Mivart's]] ''On the Genesis of Species'' (1872) and [[Edward Drinker Cope|Edward Cope]]'s ''Origin of the Fittest'' (1887) raised the need to address the origin of variation between members of a species. [[William Bateson]] in 1884 distinguished between the origin of novel variations and the action of natural selection (''Materials for the Study of Variation Treated with Especial Regard to Discontinuity in the Origin of Species'').<ref name=Reid />

In examining this aspect, excluded ab initio by Darwin, Wallace came to the conclusion that Life itself cannot be understood except by means of a theory that includes "an organising and directive Life-Principle." These necessarily involve a "Creative Power", a "directive Mind" and finally "an ultimate Purpose" (the development of Man). It supports the view of John Hunter that "life is the cause, not the consequence" of the organisation of matter. Thus, life precedes matter and when it infuses matter, forms living matter (protoplasm).

In examining this aspect, excluded ab initio by Darwin, Wallace came to the conclusion that Life itself cannot be understood except by means of a theory that includes "an organising and directive Life-Principle." These necessarily involve a "Creative Power", a "directive Mind" and finally "an ultimate Purpose" (the development of Man). It supports the view of John Hunter that "life is the cause, not the consequence" of the organisation of matter. Thus, life precedes matter and when it infuses matter, forms living matter (protoplasm).

在研究这个方面时，华莱士从一开始就排除了达尔文的观点，他得出的结论是，生命本身不能被理解，除非通过一种包括“组织和指导性的生命原则”的理论这些必然涉及到“创造力”、“指导性思维”和最终的“终极目的”(人的发展)。它支持约翰 · 亨特的观点，即“生命是物质组织的原因，而不是结果”。因此，生命先于物质，当它注入物质时，就形成了生命物质(原生质)。

在研究这个被 Darwin 从一开始就排除在外的方面时，Wallace 得出的结论是，除非通过一个包括 "<font color="#32CD32">一个有组织性和指导性的生命准则</font>" 的理论，否则无法理解生命本身。这些都必然涉及到 "创造性的力量 Creative Power"、"<font color="#32CD32">指导性的心灵 directive Mind</font>"以及最后的 "终极目的 an ultimate Purpose"（人的发展）。它支持 约翰·亨特 John Hunter  的观点，即 "生命是物质组织的原因，而不是结果"。因此，生命先于物质，当它注入物质时，形成了有生命的物质（<font color="#ff8000">原生质 protoplasm<font color="#ff8000">）。

 

 

=== Wallace's further thoughts ===

=== Wallace's further thoughts ===

 

Wallace 一生都在支持和扩展 Darwin 的基于自然选择机制的进化论的范围。他提出的  ''达尔文主义'' 经常被引用来支持 Darwin 的理论。他还致力于阐述和扩展 Darwin 及其关于自然选择的思想。然而，Wallace 也意识到，该理论的范围和主张是有限的。达尔文本人也对其进行了限制。

Wallace throughout his life continued to support and extend the scope of Darwin's theory of evolution via the mechanism of natural selection. One of his works, ''Darwinism'', was often cited in support of Darwin's theory. He also worked to elaborate and extend Darwin and his ideas on natural selection. However, Wallace also realized that the scope and claim of the theory was limited. Darwin himself had limited it.

 

 

Another major scientist to question natural selection as the motive force of evolution was C. Lloyd Morgan, a zoologist and student of T.H. Huxley, who had a strong influence on Samuel Alexander. His Emergent Evolution (1923) established the central idea that an emergence might have the appearance of saltation but was best regarded as "a qualitative change of direction or critical turning point."(quoted in Reid, p.&nbsp;73-74)

Another major scientist to question natural selection as the motive force of evolution was C. Lloyd Morgan, a zoologist and student of T.H. Huxley, who had a strong influence on Samuel Alexander. His Emergent Evolution (1923) established the central idea that an emergence might have the appearance of saltation but was best regarded as "a qualitative change of direction or critical turning point."(quoted in Reid, p.&nbsp;73-74)

另一位质疑自然选择作为进化动力的主要科学家是 c · 劳埃德 · 摩根，他是一位动物学家，也是 t.h. 的学生。赫胥黎对塞缪尔 · 亚历山大有着深远的影响。他的《突生演化(1923)确立了一个中心思想，即一个涌现可能有跳跃的表象，但最好被视为“方向或关键转折点的质变”。(引自 Reid，第73-74页)

另一位质疑自然选择是进化的动力的主要科学家是 C.Lloyd Morgan，他是动物学家，也是 托马斯·亨利·赫胥黎 T.H.Huxley 的学生，他对 Samuel Alexander 影响很大。他的《涌现进化 Emergent Evolution》(1923)确立了这样一个中心思想：涌现可能具有盐化的表象，但最好理解为 "方向的质变或关键的转折点。" (引自Reid，p.&nbsp;73-74)

{{quote|the most prominent feature is that I enter into popular yet critical examination of those underlying fundamental problems which Darwin purposely excluded from his works as being beyond the scope of his enquiry. Such are the nature and cause of Life itself, and more especially of its most fundamental and mysterious powers - growth and reproduction ...

{{quote|the most prominent feature is that I enter into popular yet critical examination of those underlying fundamental problems which Darwin purposely excluded from his works as being beyond the scope of his enquiry. Such are the nature and cause of Life itself, and more especially of its most fundamental and mysterious powers - growth and reproduction ...

And mental process is also "something new, "a fresh creation", which precludes a psycho-physiological parallelism. Reductionism is also contrary to empirical fact.

And mental process is also "something new, "a fresh creation", which precludes a psycho-physiological parallelism. Reductionism is also contrary to empirical fact.

Darwin always ... adduced the "laws of Growth with Reproduction," and of "Inheritance with Variability," as being fundamental facts of nature, without which Natural Selection would be powerless or even non-existent ...

Darwin always ... adduced the "laws of Growth with Reproduction," and of "Inheritance with Variability," as being fundamental facts of nature, without which Natural Selection would be powerless or even non-existent …

Emergent evolution was revived by Robert G. B. Reid (March 20, 1939 - May 28, 2016), a biology professor at the University of Victoria (in British Columbia, Canada). In his book Evolutionary Theory: The Unfinished Synthesis (1985), he stated that the modern evolutionary synthesis with its emphasis on natural selection is an incomplete picture of evolution, and emergent evolution can explain the origin of genetic variation. Biologist Ernst Mayr heavily criticized the book claiming it was a misinformed attack on natural selection. Mayr commented that Reid was working from an "obsolete conceptual framework", provided no solid evidence and that he was arguing for a teleological process of evolution.

Emergent evolution was revived by Robert G. B. Reid (March 20, 1939 - May 28, 2016), a biology professor at the University of Victoria (in British Columbia, Canada). In his book Evolutionary Theory: The Unfinished Synthesis (1985), he stated that the modern evolutionary synthesis with its emphasis on natural selection is an incomplete picture of evolution, and emergent evolution can explain the origin of genetic variation. Biologist Ernst Mayr heavily criticized the book claiming it was a misinformed attack on natural selection. Mayr commented that Reid was working from an "obsolete conceptual framework", provided no solid evidence and that he was arguing for a teleological process of evolution.

1939年3月20日至2016年5月28日，加拿大不列颠哥伦比亚省维多利亚大学的生物学教授 Robert G.b. Reid 恢复了突生演化。在他的著作《进化论: 未完成的综合》(1985)中，他指出强调自然选择的现代进化综论是一幅不完整的进化画卷，而突生演化可以解释遗传变异的起源。生物学家恩斯特 · 迈尔严厉批评这本书，声称它是对自然选择的误导攻击。评论说 Reid 是在一个“过时的概念框架”工作，没有提供确凿的证据，他主张进化的目的论过程。

 

涌现进化论是由罗伯特-G-B-里德（1939年3月20日-2016年5月28日）恢复的，他是维多利亚大学（位于加拿大不列颠哥伦比亚省）的生物学教授。在他的著作《进化论。The Unfinished Synthesis (1985), he stated that the modern evolutionary synthesis with its emphasis on natural selection is an incomplete picture of evolution, and emergent evolution can explain the origin of genetic variation. 生物学家恩斯特-迈尔（Ernst Mayr）严厉批评了这本书，称这是对自然选择的错误攻击。Mayr评论说，Reid从一个 "过时的概念框架 "出发，没有提供任何可靠的证据，而且他主张的是一种心智学的进化过程。

{{quote|a very well-founded doctrine, and one which was often advocated by John Hunter, that life is the cause and not the consequence of organisation ... if so, life must be antecedent to organisation, and can only be conceived as indissolubly connected with spirit and with thought, and with the cause of the directive energy everywhere manifested in the growth of living things ... endowed with the mysterious organising power we term life ...<ref name="Wallace"/>}}

{{quote|a very well-founded doctrine, and one which was often advocated by John Hunter, that life is the cause and not the consequence of organisation ... if so, life must be antecedent to organisation, and can only be conceived as indissolubly connected with spirit and with thought, and with the cause of the directive energy everywhere manifested in the growth of living things ... endowed with the mysterious organising power we term life ...<ref name="Wallace"/>}}

Reid later published the book Biological Emergences (2007) with a theory on how emergent novelties are generated in evolution. According to Massimo Pigliucci "Biological Emergences by Robert Reid is an interesting contribution to the ongoing debate on the status of evolutionary theory, but it is hard to separate the good stuff from the more dubious claims." Pigliucci noted a dubious claim in the book is that natural selection has no role in evolution. It was positively reviewed by biologist Alexander Badyaev who commented that "the book succeeds in drawing attention to an under appreciated aspect of the evolutionary process". Others have criticized Reid's unorthodox views on emergence and evolution. Biologist Samuel Scheiner stated that Reid's "presentation is both a caricature of evolutionary theory and severely out of date."

Reid later published the book Biological Emergences (2007) with a theory on how emergent novelties are generated in evolution. According to Massimo Pigliucci "Biological Emergences by Robert Reid is an interesting contribution to the ongoing debate on the status of evolutionary theory, but it is hard to separate the good stuff from the more dubious claims." Pigliucci noted a dubious claim in the book is that natural selection has no role in evolution. It was positively reviewed by biologist Alexander Badyaev who commented that "the book succeeds in drawing attention to an under appreciated aspect of the evolutionary process". Others have criticized Reid's unorthodox views on emergence and evolution. Biologist Samuel Scheiner stated that Reid's "presentation is both a caricature of evolutionary theory and severely out of date."

Proceeding from Hunter's view that Life is the directive power above and behind living matter, Wallace argues that logically, Mind is the cause of [[consciousness]], which exists in different degrees and kinds in living matter.

Proceeding from Hunter's view that Life is the directive power above and behind living matter, Wallace argues that logically, Mind is the cause of [[consciousness]], which exists in different degrees and kinds in living matter.

 

== Emergent evolution ==

== Emergent evolution ==

 

 

=== Early roots ===

=== Early roots ===

The issue of how change in nature 'emerged' can be found in classical Greek thought -  order coming out of chaos and whether by chance or necessity. [[Aristotle]] spoke of wholes that were greater than the sum of their parts because of emergent properties. The second-century anatomist and physiologist [[Galen]] also distinguished between the resultant and emergent qualities of wholes. (Reid, p.&nbsp;72)<ref name=Reid />

The issue of how change in nature 'emerged' can be found in classical Greek thought -  order coming out of chaos and whether by chance or necessity. [[Aristotle]] spoke of wholes that were greater than the sum of their parts because of emergent properties. The second-century anatomist and physiologist [[Galen]] also distinguished between the resultant and emergent qualities of wholes. (Reid, p.&nbsp;72)<ref name=Reid />