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此词条暂由Moses初步翻译。

此词条暂由Moses初步翻译。

== Historical context 历史背景 ==

== Historical context ==

The term ''[[emergence|emergent]]'' was first used to describe the concept by [[George Lewes]] in volume two of his 1875 book ''Problems of Life and Mind'' (p. 412).  [[Henri Bergson]] covered similar themes in his popular 1907 book ''[[Creative Evolution (book)|Creative Evolution]]'' on the [[Élan vital]].  Emergence was further developed by [[Samuel Alexander]] in his [[Gifford Lectures]] at [[University of Glasgow|Glasgow]] during 1916–18 and published as ''Space, Time, and Deity'' (1920).  The related term ''emergent evolution'' was coined by [[C. Lloyd Morgan]] in his own Gifford lectures of 1921–22 at [[University of St. Andrews|St. Andrews]] and published as ''Emergent Evolution'' (1923). In an appendix to a lecture in his book, Morgan acknowledged the contributions of [[Roy Wood Sellars]]'s ''Evolutionary Naturalism'' (1922).

The term ''[[emergence|emergent]]'' was first used to describe the concept by [[George Lewes]] in volume two of his 1875 book ''Problems of Life and Mind'' (p. 412).  [[Henri Bergson]] covered similar themes in his popular 1907 book ''[[Creative Evolution (book)|Creative Evolution]]'' on the [[Élan vital]].  Emergence was further developed by [[Samuel Alexander]] in his [[Gifford Lectures]] at [[University of Glasgow|Glasgow]] during 1916–18 and published as ''Space, Time, and Deity'' (1920).  The related term ''emergent evolution'' was coined by [[C. Lloyd Morgan]] in his own Gifford lectures of 1921–22 at [[University of St. Andrews|St. Andrews]] and published as ''Emergent Evolution'' (1923). In an appendix to a lecture in his book, Morgan acknowledged the contributions of [[Roy Wood Sellars]]'s ''Evolutionary Naturalism'' (1922).

查尔斯·达尔文 Charles Darwin 和 阿尔弗雷德·拉塞尔·华莱士 Alfred Russel Wallace 对自然选择的介绍，结合西方思想中的进化论思想，由于提供了大量的观察数据，以及在人的事务中似乎用自然法则取代了神的法则，因此得到了人们的认可。然而，当时所描述的自然选择机制只解释了生物体如何适应变异。遗传变异 genetic variation 的原因当时还不清楚。

查尔斯·达尔文 Charles Darwin 和 阿尔弗雷德·拉塞尔·华莱士 Alfred Russel Wallace 对自然选择的介绍，结合西方思想中的进化论思想，由于提供了大量的观察数据，以及在人的事务中似乎用自然法则取代了神的法则，因此得到了人们的认可。然而，当时所描述的自然选择机制只解释了生物体如何适应变异。遗传变异 genetic variation 的原因当时还不清楚。

{{quote|Darwin knew that nature had to produce variations before natural selection could act …The problem had been caught by other evolutionists almost as soon as ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' was first published. [[Sir Charles Lyell]] saw it clearly in 1860 before he even became an evolutionist…(Reid, p.3)<ref name=Reid />}}

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Darwin knew that nature had to produce variations before natural selection could act …The problem had been caught by other evolutionists almost as soon as ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' was first published. [[Sir Charles Lyell]] saw it clearly in 1860 before he even became an evolutionist…(Reid, p.3)<ref name=Reid />}}

[[St. George Jackson Mivart|St. George Jackson Mivart's]] ''On the Genesis of Species'' (1872) and [[Edward Drinker Cope|Edward Cope]]'s ''Origin of the Fittest'' (1887) raised the need to address the origin of variation between members of a species. [[William Bateson]] in 1884 distinguished between the origin of novel variations and the action of natural selection (''Materials for the Study of Variation Treated with Especial Regard to Discontinuity in the Origin of Species'').<ref name=Reid />

[[St. George Jackson Mivart|St. George Jackson Mivart's]] ''On the Genesis of Species'' (1872) and [[Edward Drinker Cope|Edward Cope]]'s ''Origin of the Fittest'' (1887) raised the need to address the origin of variation between members of a species. [[William Bateson]] in 1884 distinguished between the origin of novel variations and the action of natural selection (''Materials for the Study of Variation Treated with Especial Regard to Discontinuity in the Origin of Species'').<ref name=Reid />

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the most prominent feature is that I enter into popular yet critical examination of those underlying fundamental problems which Darwin purposely excluded from his works as being beyond the scope of his enquiry. Such are the nature and cause of Life itself, and more especially of its most fundamental and mysterious powers - growth and reproduction …

the most prominent feature is that I enter into popular yet critical examination of those underlying fundamental problems which Darwin purposely excluded from his works as being beyond the scope of his enquiry. Such are the nature and cause of Life itself, and more especially of its most fundamental and mysterious powers - growth and reproduction …

最突出的特点是，我对 Darwin 有意从他的作品中排除的那些根本性问题<font color="#32CD32">进行了通俗而批判的考察</font>，因为这些问题超出了他的考察范围。如生命本身的性质和原因，尤其是生命最基本和最神秘的力量 - 生长和繁殖的性质和原因 …...

最突出的特点是，我对 Darwin 有意从他的作品中排除的那些根本性问题<font color="#32CD32">进行了通俗而批判的考察</font>，因为这些问题超出了他的考察范围。如生命本身的性质和原因，尤其是生命最基本和最神秘的力量 - 生长和繁殖的性质和原因 …...

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a very well-founded doctrine, and one which was often advocated by John Hunter, that life is the cause and not the consequence of organisation ... if so, life must be antecedent to organisation, and can only be conceived as indissolubly connected with spirit and with thought, and with the cause of the directive energy everywhere manifested in the growth of living things ... endowed with the mysterious organising power we term life ...<ref name="Wallace"/>

a very well-founded doctrine, and one which was often advocated by John Hunter, that life is the cause and not the consequence of organisation ... if so, life must be antecedent to organisation, and can only be conceived as indissolubly connected with spirit and with thought, and with the cause of the directive energy everywhere manifested in the growth of living things ... endowed with the mysterious organising power we term life ...<ref name="Wallace"/>

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evidence of a foreseeing mind which...so directed and organised that life, in all its myriad forms, as, in the far-off future, to provide all that was most essential for the growth and development of man's spiritual nature ...<ref name="Wallace"/>

evidence of a foreseeing mind which...so directed and organised that life, in all its myriad forms, as, in the far-off future, to provide all that was most essential for the growth and development of man's spiritual nature ...<ref name="Wallace"/>

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If, as John Hunter, T.H. Huxley, and other eminent thinkers have declared, "life is the cause, not the consequence, of organisation," so we may believe that mind is the cause, not the consequence, of brain development. ... So there are undoubtedly different degrees and probably also different kinds of mind in various grades of animal life&nbsp;... And&nbsp;... so the mind-giver&nbsp;... enables each class or order of animals to obtain the amount of mind requisite for its place in nature&nbsp;...<ref name="Wallace"/>

If, as John Hunter, T.H. Huxley, and other eminent thinkers have declared, "life is the cause, not the consequence, of organisation," so we may believe that mind is the cause, not the consequence, of brain development. ... So there are undoubtedly different degrees and probably also different kinds of mind in various grades of animal life&nbsp;... And&nbsp;... so the mind-giver&nbsp;... enables each class or order of animals to obtain the amount of mind requisite for its place in nature&nbsp;...<ref name="Wallace"/>

[[George Henry Lewes]]（1874-1875）进一步提出了自然界中的新事物乃是一种涌现特征的观点，他再次指出，与前面的盖伦一样，这些进化的 "涌现 "特质与适应性、加成性的 "结果 "是有区别的。[[Henry Drummond (evangelist)|Henry Drummond]]在 ''人类的后裔''（1894）中指出，涌现性可以看出，自然规律对于有机界或生命界来说，与惯性的无机界相比是不同的。

[[George Henry Lewes]]（1874-1875）进一步提出了自然界中的新事物乃是一种涌现特征的观点，他再次指出，与前面的盖伦一样，这些进化的 "涌现 "特质与适应性、加成性的 "结果 "是有区别的。[[Henry Drummond (evangelist)|Henry Drummond]]在 ''人类的后裔''（1894）中指出，涌现性可以看出，自然规律对于有机界或生命界来说，与惯性的无机界相比是不同的。

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When we pass from the inorganic to the organic we come upon a new set of laws - but the reason why the lower set do not seem to operate in the higher sphere is not that they are annhilated, but that they are overruled. (Drummond 1883, p. 405, quoted in Reid)<ref name=Reid />

When we pass from the inorganic to the organic we come upon a new set of laws - but the reason why the lower set do not seem to operate in the higher sphere is not that they are annhilated, but that they are overruled. (Drummond 1883, p. 405, quoted in Reid)<ref name=Reid />

[[Samuel Alexander]]提出了这样的观点，即涌现性具有凌驾于低级组织需求之上的特性。最近，John Holland（1998）又提出了这一主题。

[[Samuel Alexander]]提出了这样的观点，即涌现性具有凌驾于低级组织需求之上的特性。最近，John Holland（1998）又提出了这一主题。

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If we turn reductionism on its head we add levels. More carefully, we add new laws that satisfy the constraints imposed by laws already in place. Moreover these new laws apply to complex phenomena that are consequences of the original laws; they are at a new level.<ref name=Holland>{{cite book|last=Holland|first=John|title=Emergence. From Chaos to Order|year=1998|publisher=Addison-Wesley|location=Reading, Massachusetts}}</ref>

If we turn reductionism on its head we add levels. More carefully, we add new laws that satisfy the constraints imposed by laws already in place. Moreover these new laws apply to complex phenomena that are consequences of the original laws; they are at a new level.<ref name=Holland>{{cite book|last=Holland|first=John|title=Emergence. From Chaos to Order|year=1998|publisher=Addison-Wesley|location=Reading, Massachusetts}}</ref>

另一位质疑自然选择是进化的动力的主要科学家是[[C. Lloyd Morgan]]，他是动物学家，也是[[T.H. Huxley]]的学生，他对 Samuel Alexander 影响很大。他的''涌现进化''（1923）确立了中心思想，即涌现可能具有[[盐化(生物学)|盐化]]的外观，但最好被视为 "方向的质变或关键的转折点。"(引自Reid，p.&nbsp;73-74)<ref name=Reid /> Morgan 由于他在动物心理学方面的工作，早些时候（1894）就对心理进化的连续性观点提出了质疑，并认为跨物种的心理能力存在着各种不连续性。为了避免任何将 拟人化[[anthropomorphism]] 引入他的观点的企图，他创造了著名的、但经常被误解的方法论典籍：

另一位质疑自然选择是进化的动力的主要科学家是[[C. Lloyd Morgan]]，他是动物学家，也是[[T.H. Huxley]]的学生，他对 Samuel Alexander 影响很大。他的''涌现进化''（1923）确立了中心思想，即涌现可能具有[[盐化(生物学)|盐化]]的外观，但最好被视为 "方向的质变或关键的转折点。"(引自Reid，p.&nbsp;73-74)<ref name=Reid /> Morgan 由于他在动物心理学方面的工作，早些时候（1894）就对心理进化的连续性观点提出了质疑，并认为跨物种的心理能力存在着各种不连续性。为了避免任何将 拟人化[[anthropomorphism]] 引入他的观点的企图，他创造了著名的、但经常被误解的方法论典籍：

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In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale.|Morgan, 1894, p. 53

In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale.|Morgan, 1894, p. 53

然而，Morgan 意识到这一点被滥用于鼓吹还原论（而不是作为一般方法论的告诫），在他的 ''比较心理学导论''（1903）第二版中引入了一个限定条件：

然而，Morgan 意识到这一点被滥用于鼓吹还原论（而不是作为一般方法论的告诫），在他的 ''比较心理学导论''（1903）第二版中引入了一个限定条件：

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To this, however, it should be added, lest the range of the principle be misunderstood, that the canon by no means excludes the interpretation of a particular activity in terms of the higher processes, if we already have independent evidence of the occurrence of these higher processes in the animal under observation.|Morgan, 1903, p. 59

To this, however, it should be added, lest the range of the principle be misunderstood, that the canon by no means excludes the interpretation of a particular activity in terms of the higher processes, if we already have independent evidence of the occurrence of these higher processes in the animal under observation.|Morgan, 1903, p. 59

正如 Reid 所言，

正如 Reid 所言，

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While the so-called historiographical "rehabilitation of the canon" has been underway for some time now, Morgan's emergent evolutionist position (which was the highest expression of his attempt to place the study of mind back into such a "wider" natural history) is seldom mentioned in more than passing terms even within contemporary history of psychology textbooks.<ref name=Reid />

While the so-called historiographical "rehabilitation of the canon" has been underway for some time now, Morgan's emergent evolutionist position (which was the highest expression of his attempt to place the study of mind back into such a "wider" natural history) is seldom mentioned in more than passing terms even within contemporary history of psychology textbooks.<ref name=Reid />

Morgan 还与 行为主义|行为主义学派 [[Behaviorism|behaviorist school]进行了斗争，更澄清了他对进化论的涌现观点：

Morgan 还与 行为主义|行为主义学派 [[Behaviorism|behaviorist school]进行了斗争，更澄清了他对进化论的涌现观点：

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An influential school of 'behaviorists' roundly deny that mental relations, if such there be, are in any sense or in any manner effective... My message is that one may speak of mental relations as effective no less 'scientifically' than... physical relations...|Morgan, 1930, p. 72

An influential school of 'behaviorists' roundly deny that mental relations, if such there be, are in any sense or in any manner effective... My message is that one may speak of mental relations as effective no less 'scientifically' than... physical relations...|Morgan, 1930, p. 72

而心理过程也是某种新东西，"<font color="#32CD32">一种全新的创造 a fresh creation</font>"，这就排除了心理生理学上的平行主义。<font color="#ff8000">还原论 Reductionism</font> 也是违背经验事实的。

而心理过程也是某种新东西，"<font color="#32CD32">一种全新的创造 a fresh creation</font>"，这就排除了心理生理学上的平行主义。<font color="#ff8000">还原论 Reductionism</font> 也是违背经验事实的。

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All the available evidence of fact leads to the conclusion that the mental element is essential to the neural process which it is said to accompany...and is not accidental to it, nor is it in turn indifferent to the mental feature. Epiphenomenalism is a mere fallacy of observation.<ref name="Alexander"/>

All the available evidence of fact leads to the conclusion that the mental element is essential to the neural process which it is said to accompany...and is not accidental to it, nor is it in turn indifferent to the mental feature. Epiphenomenalism is a mere fallacy of observation.<ref name="Alexander"/>

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Life is not an epiphenomenon of matter but an emergent from it&nbsp;... The new character or quality which the vital physico-chemical complex possesses stands to it as soul or mind to the neural basis.<ref name="Alexander"/>

Life is not an epiphenomenon of matter but an emergent from it&nbsp;... The new character or quality which the vital physico-chemical complex possesses stands to it as soul or mind to the neural basis.<ref name="Alexander"/>

在 Alexander 看来，"指导机构 "或 <font color="#32CD32">entelechy</font> 是 "在原则或计划中" 发现的。

在 Alexander 看来，"指导机构 "或 <font color="#32CD32">entelechy</font> 是 "在原则或计划中" 发现的。

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a given stage of material complexity is characterised by such and such special features…By accepting this we at any rate confine ourselves to noting the facts…and do not invent entities for which there seems to be no other justification than that something is done in life which is not done in matter.<ref name="Alexander"/>

a given stage of material complexity is characterised by such and such special features…By accepting this we at any rate confine ourselves to noting the facts…and do not invent entities for which there seems to be no other justification than that something is done in life which is not done in matter.<ref name="Alexander"/>

虽然一个涌现是一个较高的复杂性，但它也导致了一个新的简单性，因为它把一个较高的秩序带入了以前不太有序的东西中（一个复杂的新简单性）。这种新的简单性并不带有它之前的那个涌现层次的任何特质或方面，但如前所述，确实还带有它内部的这种较低层次，所以可以通过这种层次的科学来理解，但它本身却不能被理解，除非是由一种能够揭示适用于它的新的规律和原则的科学来理解。

虽然一个涌现是一个较高的复杂性，但它也导致了一个新的简单性，因为它把一个较高的秩序带入了以前不太有序的东西中（一个复杂的新简单性）。这种新的简单性并不带有它之前的那个涌现层次的任何特质或方面，但如前所述，确实还带有它内部的这种较低层次，所以可以通过这种层次的科学来理解，但它本身却不能被理解，除非是由一种能够揭示适用于它的新的规律和原则的科学来理解。

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Ascent takes place, it would seem, through complexity.[increasing order] But at each change of quality the complexity as it were gathers itself together and is expressed in a new simplicity.

Ascent takes place, it would seem, through complexity.[increasing order] But at each change of quality the complexity as it were gathers itself together and is expressed in a new simplicity.

心灵的概念或观念，是我们已知的最高级的涌现物，在我们的层面上，一直延伸到纯粹的维度或时空。换句话说，时间是运动的 "心"，物化是物质的 "心"，生活是生命的 "心"。通过纯粹的时间（或生命天文、心灵表意）的运动，出现了物质的 "物化"（地质时间、生命地质、心灵存在），而这又出现了生命的 "生活"（生物时间、生命生物、心灵体验），这又让我们有了心灵的 "心智"（历史时间、生命历史、心灵认知）。但是，心智还有一种向上延伸的可能，就是我们所说的德性 Deity。

心灵的概念或观念，是我们已知的最高级的涌现物，在我们的层面上，一直延伸到纯粹的维度或时空。换句话说，时间是运动的 "心"，物化是物质的 "心"，生活是生命的 "心"。通过纯粹的时间（或生命天文、心灵表意）的运动，出现了物质的 "物化"（地质时间、生命地质、心灵存在），而这又出现了生命的 "生活"（生物时间、生命生物、心灵体验），这又让我们有了心灵的 "心智"（历史时间、生命历史、心灵认知）。但是，心智还有一种向上延伸的可能，就是我们所说的德性 Deity。

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let us describe the empirical quality of any kind of finite which performs to it the office of consciousness or mind as its 'mind.' Yet at the same time let us remember that the 'mind' of a living thing is not conscious mind but is life, and has not the empirical character of consciousness at all, and that life is not merely a lower degree of mind or consciousness, but something different. We are using 'mind' metaphorically by transference from real minds and applying it to the finites on each level in virtue of their distinctive quality; down to Space-Time itself whose existent complexes of bare space-time have for their mind bare time in its empirical variations.<ref name="Alexander"/>

let us describe the empirical quality of any kind of finite which performs to it the office of consciousness or mind as its 'mind.' Yet at the same time let us remember that the 'mind' of a living thing is not conscious mind but is life, and has not the empirical character of consciousness at all, and that life is not merely a lower degree of mind or consciousness, but something different. We are using 'mind' metaphorically by transference from real minds and applying it to the finites on each level in virtue of their distinctive quality; down to Space-Time itself whose existent complexes of bare space-time have for their mind bare time in its empirical variations.<ref name="Alexander"/>

Alexander 又回到了希腊人的观念，即知识是 "存在于" 被思考的对象中的。在这个意义上，并不存在精神客体（概念）与物理客体 "不同"（即存在状态不同），而只是二者之间存在着明显的分裂，然后可以通过意识在客体本身中的适当压缩或参与而使二者结合起来。

Alexander 又回到了希腊人的观念，即知识是 "存在于" 被思考的对象中的。在这个意义上，并不存在精神客体（概念）与物理客体 "不同"（即存在状态不同），而只是二者之间存在着明显的分裂，然后可以通过意识在客体本身中的适当压缩或参与而使二者结合起来。

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There is no consciousness lodged, as I have supposed, in the organism as a quality of the neural response; consciousness belongs to the totality of objects, of what are commonly called the objects of consciousness or the field of consciousness&nbsp;... Consciousness is therefore "out there" where the objects are, by a new version of Berkleyanism&nbsp;... Obviously for this doctrine as for mine there is no mental object as distinct from a physical object: the image of a tree is a tree in an appropriate form...<ref name="Alexander"/>

There is no consciousness lodged, as I have supposed, in the organism as a quality of the neural response; consciousness belongs to the totality of objects, of what are commonly called the objects of consciousness or the field of consciousness&nbsp;... Consciousness is therefore "out there" where the objects are, by a new version of Berkleyanism&nbsp;... Obviously for this doctrine as for mine there is no mental object as distinct from a physical object: the image of a tree is a tree in an appropriate form...<ref name="Alexander"/>

由于宇宙凭借时空的相互联系，由于心灵通过感觉和心灵经验的统一来认识空间、时间和运动，所以有一种认识形式是直观的（参与性的）- 感觉和理性是它的产物。

由于宇宙凭借时空的相互联系，由于心灵通过感觉和心灵经验的统一来认识空间、时间和运动，所以有一种认识形式是直观的（参与性的）- 感觉和理性是它的产物。

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In being conscious of its own space and time, the mind is conscious of the space and time of external things and vice versa. This is a direct consequence of the continuity of Space-Time in virtue of which any point-instant is connected sooner or later, directly or indirectly, with every other...

In being conscious of its own space and time, the mind is conscious of the space and time of external things and vice versa. This is a direct consequence of the continuity of Space-Time in virtue of which any point-instant is connected sooner or later, directly or indirectly, with every other...

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The universe for Alexander is essentially in process, with Time as its ongoing aspect, and the ongoing process consists in the formation of changing complexes of motions. These complexes become ordered in repeatable ways displaying what he calls "qualities." There is a hierarchy of kinds of organized patterns of motions, in which each level depends on the subvening level, but also displays qualities not shown at the subvening level nor predictable from it… On this there sometimes supervenes a further level with the quality called "life"; and certain subtle syntheses which carry life are the foundation for a further level with a new quality. "mind." This is the highest level known to us, but not necessarily the highest possible level. The universe has a forward thrust, called its "nisus" (broadly to be identified with the Time aspect) in virtue of which further levels are to be expected...<ref name=Emmet>{{cite web|last=Emmet |first=Dorothy |title=Whitehead and Alexander |url=http://www.religion-online.org/article/whitehead-and-alexander/|accessdate=23 July 2012 }}</ref>

The universe for Alexander is essentially in process, with Time as its ongoing aspect, and the ongoing process consists in the formation of changing complexes of motions. These complexes become ordered in repeatable ways displaying what he calls "qualities." There is a hierarchy of kinds of organized patterns of motions, in which each level depends on the subvening level, but also displays qualities not shown at the subvening level nor predictable from it… On this there sometimes supervenes a further level with the quality called "life"; and certain subtle syntheses which carry life are the foundation for a further level with a new quality. "mind." This is the highest level known to us, but not necessarily the highest possible level. The universe has a forward thrust, called its "nisus" (broadly to be identified with the Time aspect) in virtue of which further levels are to be expected...<ref name=Emmet>{{cite web|last=Emmet |first=Dorothy |title=Whitehead and Alexander |url=http://www.religion-online.org/article/whitehead-and-alexander/|accessdate=23 July 2012 }}</ref>