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第141行： − + − − − − Careful and well informed writers about thermodynamics, in their accounts of thermodynamic equilibrium, often enough make provisos or reservations to their statements. Some writers leave such reservations merely implied or more or less unstated. − − Careful and well informed writers about thermodynamics, in their accounts of thermodynamic equilibrium, often enough make provisos or reservations to their statements. Some writers leave such reservations merely implied or more or less unstated. 第153行：
第147行： − For example, one widely cited writer, [[Herbert Callen|H. B. Callen]] writes in this context: "In actuality, few systems are in absolute and true equilibrium." He refers to radioactive processes and remarks that they may take "cosmic times to complete, [and] generally can be ignored". He adds "In practice, the criterion for equilibrium is circular. ''Operationally, a system is in an equilibrium state if its properties are consistently described by thermodynamic theory!''"<ref>Callen, H.B. (1960/1985), p. 15.</ref>+ − − For example, one widely cited writer, H. B. Callen writes in this context: "In actuality, few systems are in absolute and true equilibrium." He refers to radioactive processes and remarks that they may take "cosmic times to complete, [and] generally can be ignored". He adds "In practice, the criterion for equilibrium is circular. Operationally, a system is in an equilibrium state if its properties are consistently described by thermodynamic theory!" − − − − − − J.A. Beattie and I. Oppenheim write: "Insistence on a strict interpretation of the definition of equilibrium would rule out the application of thermodynamics to practically all states of real systems."<ref>Beattie, J.A., Oppenheim, I. (1979), p. 3.</ref> − − J.A. Beattie and I. Oppenheim write: "Insistence on a strict interpretation of the definition of equilibrium would rule out the application of thermodynamics to practically all states of real systems." − − J.A.贝蒂和 I.奥本海姆写道: “坚持对平衡定义的严格解释，将排除热力学应用于实际系统的所有状态。” − − − − Another author, cited by Callen as giving a "scholarly and rigorous treatment",<ref>Callen, H.B. (1960/1985), p. 485.</ref> and cited by Adkins as having written a "classic text",<ref>Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983), p. ''xiii''.</ref> [[Brian Pippard|A.B. Pippard]] writes in that text: "Given long enough a supercooled vapour will eventually condense, ... . The time involved may be so enormous, however, perhaps 10<sup>100</sup> years or more, ... . For most purposes, provided the rapid change is not artificially stimulated, the systems may be regarded as being in equilibrium."<ref>Pippard, A.B. (1957/1966), p. 6.</ref> − Another author, cited by Callen as giving a "scholarly and rigorous treatment", and cited by Adkins as having written a "classic text", A.B. Pippard writes in that text: "Given long enough a supercooled vapour will eventually condense, ... . The time involved may be so enormous, however, perhaps 10<sup>100</sup> years or more, ... . For most purposes, provided the rapid change is not artificially stimulated, the systems may be regarded as being in equilibrium." − Callen引用另一位作者的话说，他给出了“学术且严谨的论述” ，Adkins引用他的话说，他写了一本“经典著作”—— '''<font color="#ff8000">A.B.皮帕德 A.B.Pippard</font>'''在文中写道: “只要时间足够长，过冷水蒸汽最终会凝结，... ..。时间可能是漫长的，也许长达10年或者更长。就大多数目的而言，只要这种迅速的变化不是人为地刺激，这些系统就可以被视为处于平衡状态。”+ − Another author, A. Münster, writes in this context. He observes that thermonuclear processes often occur so slowly that they can be ignored in thermodynamics. He comments: "The concept 'absolute equilibrium' or 'equilibrium with respect to all imaginable processes', has therefore, no physical significance." He therefore states that: "... we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to specified processes and defined experimental conditions." <ref name="Nster">Münster, A. (1970), p. 53.</ref> − Another author, A. Münster, writes in this context. He observes that thermonuclear processes often occur so slowly that they can be ignored in thermodynamics. He comments: "The concept 'absolute equilibrium' or 'equilibrium with respect to all imaginable processes', has therefore, no physical significance." He therefore states that: "... we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to specified processes and defined experimental conditions." − 另一位作者A.Münster，写道。他观察到热核反应发生的速度非常缓慢，以至于在热力学中可以忽略不计。他评论道: “‘绝对平衡’或‘所有可想象过程的平衡’的概念没有物理意义。”他说: “ ... 我们只能考虑特定过程和确定的实验条件下的平衡。”+ − According to [[László Tisza|L. Tisza]]: "... in the discussion of phenomena near absolute zero. The absolute predictions of the classical theory become particularly vague because the occurrence of frozen-in nonequilibrium states is very common."<ref>Tisza, L. (1966), p. 119.</ref>+ − According to L. Tisza: "... in the discussion of phenomena near absolute zero. The absolute predictions of the classical theory become particularly vague because the occurrence of frozen-in nonequilibrium states is very common." − +
→Reservations 保留意见
局部热力学平衡不需要局部或全局的平稳性。换句话说，每一个小区域不需要有一个恒定的温度。然而，它确实要求每个小的局部变化缓慢到足以维持其局部麦克斯韦-波尔兹曼速度分布。全局非平衡态只有通过系统与外界的交换才能保持稳定。例如，通过在水杯中不断添加细粉冰来补偿熔化，并持续排出融水，可以保持全局稳定的静态。自然'''<font color="#ff8000">输运现象 Transport Phenomena</font>'''会使一个局部热力学平衡系统逐渐达到全局的热力学平衡。回顾我们的例子，热量的扩散将导致我们的玻璃杯水流向全局热力学平衡，在这种状态下，玻璃杯的温度是完全均匀的。<ref>H.R. Griem, 2005</ref>
局部热力学平衡不需要局部或全局的平稳性。换句话说，每一个小区域不需要有一个恒定的温度。然而，它确实要求每个小的局部变化缓慢到足以维持其局部麦克斯韦-波尔兹曼速度分布。全局非平衡态只有通过系统与外界的交换才能保持稳定。例如，通过在水杯中不断添加细粉冰来补偿熔化，并持续排出融水，可以保持全局稳定的静态。自然'''<font color="#ff8000">输运现象 Transport Phenomena</font>'''会使一个局部热力学平衡系统逐渐达到全局的热力学平衡。回顾我们的例子，热量的扩散将导致我们的玻璃杯水流向全局热力学平衡，在这种状态下，玻璃杯的温度是完全均匀的。<ref>H.R. Griem, 2005</ref>
==Reservations 保留意见==
==保留意见==
学识渊博的笔者在热力学领域对热力学平衡描述时，经常对他们的描述附加条件或保留意见。有些笔者含蓄地保留了或多或少的空白，以待说明。
学识渊博的笔者在热力学领域对热力学平衡描述时，经常对他们的描述附加条件或保留意见。有些笔者含蓄地保留了或多或少的空白，以待说明。
例如，一位被广泛引用的作家'''<font color="#ff8000">H.B.卡伦 H.B.Callen</font>'''在这里写道: “实际上，很少有系统处于绝对和真正的平衡状态。”他提到了放射性过程，认为它们可能需要“宇宙时间才能完成，因此通常可以忽略”。他补充道: “在实践中，平衡的标准是循环的。在操作上，如果一个系统的性质一致地用热力学理论来描述，那么它就处于平衡状态! ”<ref>Callen, H.B. (1960/1985), p. 15.</ref>
例如，一位被广泛引用的作家'''<font color="#ff8000">H.B.卡伦 H.B.Callen</font>'''在这里写道: “实际上，很少有系统处于绝对和真正的平衡状态。”他提到了放射性过程，认为它们可能需要“宇宙时间才能完成，因此通常可以忽略”。他补充道: “在实践中，平衡的标准是循环的。在操作上，如果一个系统的性质一致地用热力学理论来描述，那么它就处于平衡状态! ”
J.A.贝蒂和 I.奥本海姆写道: “坚持对平衡定义的严格解释，将排除热力学应用于实际系统的所有状态。”<ref>Beattie, J.A., Oppenheim, I. (1979), p. 3.</ref>
Callen引用另一位作者的话说，他给出了“学术且严谨的论述” ，Adkins引用他的话说，他写了一本“经典著作”—— '''<font color="#ff8000">A.B.皮帕德 A.B.Pippard</font>'''<ref>Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983), p. ''xiii''.</ref>在文中写道: “只要时间足够长，过冷水蒸汽最终会凝结，... ..。时间可能是漫长的，也许长达10<sup>100</sup>年或者更长。就大多数目的而言，只要这种迅速的变化不是人为地刺激，这些系统就可以被视为处于平衡状态。”<ref>Pippard, A.B. (1957/1966), p. 6.</ref>
另一位作者A.Münster，写道。他观察到热核反应发生的速度非常缓慢，以至于在热力学中可以忽略不计。他评论道: “‘绝对平衡’或‘所有可想象过程的平衡’的概念没有物理意义。”他说: “ ... 我们只能考虑特定过程和确定的实验条件下的平衡。”<ref name="Nster">Münster, A. (1970), p. 53.</ref>
根据'''<font color="#ff8000">L.缇莎 L.Tisza</font>'''的说法: “ ... 在讨论接近绝对零度的现象时。经典理论的绝对预测变得特别模糊，因为在非平衡状态下发生冻结是非常普遍的。”
根据'''<font color="#ff8000">L.缇莎 L.Tisza</font>'''的说法: “ ... 在讨论接近绝对零度的现象时。经典理论的绝对预测变得特别模糊，因为在非平衡状态下发生冻结是非常普遍的。”<ref>Tisza, L. (1966), p. 119.</ref>
==Definitions 定义==
==Definitions 定义==