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第1行： − 此词条由Solitude初步翻译。 − 由CecileLi初步审校 − '''Aristotle''' ({{IPAc-en|ær|ɪ|s|ˈ|t|ɒ|t|əl}};{{sfn|Collins English Dictionary}} {{lang-grc-gre|Ἀριστοτέλης}} ''Aristotélēs'', {{IPA-grc|aristotélɛːs|pron}}; 384–322 BC) was a Greek [[philosopher]] and [[polymath]] during the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]] in [[Ancient Greece]]. Taught by [[Plato]], he was the founder of the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]], the [[Peripatetic school]] of philosophy, and the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] tradition. His writings cover many subjects including [[Physics (Aristotle)|physics]], [[biology]], [[zoology]], [[metaphysics]], [[logic]], [[ethics]], [[aesthetics]], [[Poetics (Aristotle)|poetry]], [[theatre]], [[music]], [[rhetoric]], [[psychology]], [[linguistics]], [[economics]], [[politics]], and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual [[lexicon]], as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.+ − Aristotle (/ærɪsˈtɒtəl/;Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pronounced [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.+ + − 亚里士多德(Aristotle /ærɪsˈtɒtəl/;Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pronounced [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BC)是古希腊古典时期的哲学家和博物学家。在'''<font color="#ff8000"> 柏拉图 Plato</font>'''的指导下，他创立了吕克昂学院、哲学逍遥学派和亚里士多德传统。他的著作涉及许多学科，包括'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物理学 physics </font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 生物学 biology </font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 动物学 zoology</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 形而上学 metaphysics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 逻辑学 logic</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 伦理学 ethics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 美学 aesthetics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 诗歌 poetry</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 戏剧 theatre</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 音乐 music </font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 修辞学 rhetoric</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 心理学 psychology</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 语言学 linguistics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 经济学 economics</font>'''、'''<font color="#ff8000"> 政治学 politics</font>'''和'''<font color="#ff8000">政府论 government</font>'''。亚里士多德对在他之前存在的各种哲学进行了复杂的综合。最重要的是，正是从他的教诲中，西方世界继承了他的知识词汇、问题，和研究方法。因此，他的哲学对西方几乎所有的知识领域都产生了独特的影响，并且继续成为当代哲学讨论的主题。+ − + − − Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]] in [[Northern Greece]]. His father, [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined [[Plato's Academy]] in [[Athens]] and remained there until the age of thirty-seven ([[Circa|c.]] 347 BC).{{sfn|Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}} Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of [[Philip II of Macedon]], tutored [[Alexander the Great]] beginning in 343 BC.{{sfn|Russell| 1972}} He established a library in the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on [[papyrus]] [[scrolls]]. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.{{sfn|Barnes|1995|p=9}} − − Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication. − − 关于他的生平我们知之甚少。亚里士多德出生于希腊北部的斯塔基拉市。他的父亲尼科马修斯（Nicomachus），在亚里士多德还是个孩子的时候就去世了，他是由一位监护人抚养长大的。十七岁的时候，他加入了雅典的柏拉图学院，一直呆到37岁(约公元前347年)。在柏拉图死后不久，亚里士多德离开了雅典，在腓力二世的要求下，他从公元前343年开始辅导亚历山大大帝。他在吕克昂里建立了一个图书馆，帮助他制作了数百本纸莎草卷轴的书籍。尽管亚里士多德写了许多优美的论文和对话录供出版，但是只有三分之一的原著保存下来，且没有一本是他打算出版的。 − − − − Aristotle's views on [[Aristotelian physics|physical science]] profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Early Middle Ages]] into the [[Renaissance]], and were not replaced systematically until [[Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]] and theories such as [[classical mechanics]] were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in [[Aristotle's biology|his biology]], such as on the [[Hectocotylus|hectocotyl (reproductive) arm]] of the [[octopus]], were disbelieved until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as [[Peter Abelard]] and [[John Buridan]]. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century. − − Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. ’’’<font color=’’#32CD32’’> Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. </font>’’’ His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century. − − 亚里士多德关于物理学的观点深刻地影响了中世纪的学术研究。他们的影响从古代晚期和中世纪早期一直延伸到文艺复兴时期，直到启蒙运动和经典力学等理论的发展才被系统地取代。亚里士多德在他的生物学中发现的一些动物学观察，例如章鱼的八轴臂（繁殖臂），直到19世纪才被人们所相信。他的著作包含了已知最早的逻辑学研究，中世纪学者如彼得·阿伯拉尔 Peter Abelard 和约翰·布里丹 John Buridan 研究过。亚里士多德对逻辑学的影响一直延续到19世纪。 − − − − He influenced [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)]] during the [[Middle Ages]], as well as [[Christian theology]], especially the [[Neoplatonism]] of the [[Early Church]] and the [[Scholasticism|scholastic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]]. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like [[Thomas Aquinas]] as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of [[virtue ethics]], such as in the thinking of [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] and [[Philippa Foot]]. − − He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400) during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics, such as in the thinking of Alasdair MacIntyre and Philippa Foot. − − 他影响了中世纪的犹太-伊斯兰哲学(800-1400)，也影响了基督教神学，特别是早期教会的新柏拉图主义和天主教会的经院传统。亚里士多德在中世纪的穆斯林学者中被尊为“第一导师” ，在托马斯·阿奎那 Thomas Aquinas 等中世纪基督徒中被尊为“哲学家”。他的伦理学，虽然一直就很有影响力，但随着现代美德伦理学的出现，例如阿拉斯代尔·麦金泰尔 Alasdair MacIntyre 和菲利帕·福特Philippa Foot的思想，他的伦理学又进一步重新引起了人们的兴趣。 − − − − ==生平== − − − − [[File:20160518 092 mieza nympheum.jpg | thumb | left | School of Aristotle in [[Mieza, Macedonia|Mieza]], [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia, Greece]]]] − − − − − In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.{{efn-ua | See {{harvnb|Shields|2012|pp=3–16}}; {{harvnb|Düring|1957}} covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.}} − − In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points. − − 总的来说，关于Aristotle生活的细节并不完整。古代的传记往往是臆测性的，历史学家们只在几个要点上达成一致。 − − − Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,{{sfn|Campbell}}<!--better source desirable--> was born in 384 BC in [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidice]], about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]].{{sfn|McLeisch|1999|p=5}}{{sfn|Aristoteles-Park in Stagira}} His father [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]] was the personal physician to [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of Macedon]]. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] became his guardian.{{sfn|Hall|2018|p=14}} Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Kingship and the royal court|Macedonian monarchy]].{{sfn|Anagnostopoulos|2013|page=4}} − − Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek,was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki.His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian.Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. − − − 亚里士多德的名字在古希腊语中意为“最好的目的”，他出生于公元前384年，位于查尔基迪斯的斯塔吉拉，距现代塞萨洛尼基东约55公里（34英里）。他的父亲''尼科马修斯 Nicomachus''是马其顿国王''阿米尼塔斯 Amyntas''的私人医生。亚里士多德的父母均在他十三岁时去世，而来自阿塔尼厄斯的''普罗齐诺斯 Proxenus''成为了他的监护人。尽管关于亚里士多德童年的信息很少，但他可能在马其顿宫殿里呆过一段时间，与马其顿君主政体初次接触。 − − − − At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at [[Platonic Academy|Plato's Academy]].{{sfn|Blits|1999|pp=58–63}} He probably experienced the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].{{sfn|Evans|2006}} Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew [[Speusippus]], although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.{{sfn|Aristotle|1984|pp=Introduction}} Aristotle then accompanied [[Xenocrates]] to the court of his friend [[Hermias of Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil [[Theophrastus]] to the island of [[Lesbos]], where together they researched the [[botany]] and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married [[Pythias]], either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor to his son [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]].{{sfn|Shields|2016}}{{sfn|Russell|1972}} − − At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy.He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν].Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died.Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander. − − 在十七八岁时，亚里士多德移居雅典，在柏拉图学院继续他的学业。他可能经历过厄琉息斯秘仪，因为他所描述过在厄琉息斯秘仪观察到的景象：'''“经历就是学习”[ παεθν αθν μθν ]'''。亚里士多德在公元前348/347年离开之前，在雅典呆了将近20年。关于他离开的故事记载，在柏拉图的侄子''斯皮普斯 Speusippus''掌管学院后，他对学院发展方向感到失望，尽管他也可能是害怕当时雅典的反马其顿情绪，因此在柏拉图去世之前离开了。随后，亚里士多德陪''同齐诺克利特 Xenocrates''来到小亚细亚的他的朋友阿塔尼厄斯的''赫米亚 Hermias''的宫廷。赫米亚死后，亚里士多德和他的学生''泰奥弗拉斯特斯 Theophrastus''前往莱斯博斯岛，在那里他们一起研究了岛上及其环礁湖的植物学和动物学。在莱斯博斯岛的时候，亚里士多德与赫米亚的养女或侄女''皮提亚斯 Pythias''结婚。她为他生了一个女儿，他们也给她起名叫Pythias。公元前343年，腓力二世邀请亚里士多德成为他儿子''亚历山大 Alexander''的家庭教师。 − − − − [[File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg | thumb | upright | [[Bust (sculpture)|Portrait bust]] of Aristotle; an [[Roman Empire|Imperial Roman]] (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost [[bronze sculpture]] made by [[Lysippos]]]] − − Portrait bust of Aristotle; an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos − − Aristotle的肖像半身像; 罗马帝国时期(公元1世纪或2世纪)利西波斯仿制的失落青铜雕像 − − − − Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of [[Macedon]]. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Cassander]].{{sfn|Green|1991|pp=58–59}} Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards [[Persia]] was unabashedly [[Ethnocentricism|ethnocentric]]. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants".{{sfn|Green|1991|pp=58–59}} By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]]. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with [[Herpyllis]] of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]]. If we believed the ''[[Suda]]'' (an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages) he may also had an ''[[eromenos|erômenos]]'', [[Palaephatus | Palaephatus of Abydus]].{{sfn|Smith|2007|p=88}} − − Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. If we believed the Suda (an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages) ’’’<font color=’’#32CD32’’> he may also had an erômenos, Palaephatus of Abydus.</font>’’’ − − 亚里士多德被任命为马其顿皇家学院院长。亚里士多德在马其顿宫廷的时候，他不仅向亚历山大授课，还向未来的另外两位国王授课: ''托勒密 Ptolemy''和''卡山德 Cassander''。亚里士多德鼓励亚历山大去征服东方，而亚里士多德本人对波斯的态度是毫不掩饰的种族主义。在一个著名的例子中，他建议亚历山大成为“希腊人的领袖，野蛮人的暴君，像对待亲友一样对待前者，像对待动物或植物一样对待后者”。到公元前335年，亚里士多德回到雅典，在那里建立了他自己的学校，被称为吕克昂。在接下来的十二年里，亚里士多德在学校里开设课程。在雅典期间，他的妻子Pythias去世，亚里士多德与斯塔吉拉的''赫皮利斯 Herpyllis''有染，赫皮利斯为他生了一个儿子，亚里士多德以他父亲Nicomachus的名字给他取名。如果我们相信''苏达 Suda''(中世纪的一个不严谨的汇编) 中的记载，他可能也有一个情人：Palaephatus of Abydus</font> − − − This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.{{sfn|Russell|1972}} He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in [[treatise]] form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[On the Soul]]'' and ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre."{{sfn|Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}} − − This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre." − − 公元前335年至公元前323年的雅典时期，被认为是亚里士多德创作的黄金时期。他写了许多对话录，其中只有一些片段留存了下来。那些留存下来的作品都是论文形式的，而且大部分并不打算广泛出版; 它们通常被认为是他的学生的讲课辅助工具。他最重要的论著包括《物理学》、《形而上学》、《尼各马可伦理学》、《政治学》、《论灵魂》和《诗学》。亚里士多德对“逻辑学、形而上学、数学、物理学、生物学、植物学、伦理学、政治学、农业、医学、舞蹈和戏剧学”都有研究，并作出了重大贡献 − − − − Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an [[Hagnothemis|unlikely claim]] made some six years after the death.{{sfn|Green|1991|p=460}} Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and [[Eurymedon the Hierophant]] reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety,{{sfn|Filonik|2013|pp=72–73}} prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in [[Chalcis | Chalcis, on Euboea]], at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy"{{sfn|Jones|1980|p=216}}{{sfn|Gigon|2017|p=41}}{{sfn|Düring|1957|p=T44a-e}} – a reference to Athens's [[Trial of Socrates|trial and execution of Socrates]]. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student [[Antipater]] as his chief [[executor]] and leaving a [[Will (law)|will]] in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.{{sfn|Haase|1992|p=3862}} − − Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife. − − 在他生命的最后阶段，亚历山大和亚里士多德因为亚历山大与波斯和波斯人的关系而变得疏远。古代有一个广泛流传的传说，怀疑亚里士多德在亚历山大的死亡中扮演了一个角色，但是唯一的证据是在亚历山大死亡大约六年后提出的一个不太可能的断言。亚历山大死后，雅典的反马其顿情绪重新燃起。公元前322年，据说''德摩菲勒斯 Demophilus''和''赫拉菲顿 Eurymedon''谴责亚里士多德不敬神，促使他逃往他母亲在埃维厄岛哈尔基斯的家族庄园，传闻当时他说: “我不允许雅典人两次违背哲学”——指的是雅典对苏格拉底的审判和处决。同年晚些时候，他在埃维厄岛自然去世，指定他的学生''安提帕特 Antipater''为他的首席遗嘱执行人，并留下一份遗嘱，要求与妻子葬在一起。 − − − − ==思辨哲学== − − ===逻辑学=== − With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic,{{sfn| Degnan | 1994 | pp=81–89}} and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in [[mathematical logic]].{{sfn| Corcoran | 2009 | pp=1–20}} [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] stated in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.{{sfn| Kant | 1787 | pages=Preface}} − − With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle logic reached its completion. − − 由于《先验分析学》一书，亚里士多德被认为是最早研究形式逻辑的人，并且他对形式逻辑的构想是19世纪数理逻辑发展之前西方逻辑的主导形式。''康德 Kant''在《纯粹理性批判》中指出，有了亚里士多德,逻辑学才得以完善。 − − − − ====《工具论》==== − What we today call ''Aristotelian logic'' with its [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]] (methods of logical argument),{{sfn| Lagerlund | 2016}} Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the ''[[Organon]]'' around 40 BC by [[Andronicus of Rhodes]] or others among his followers.{{sfn| Pickover | 2009 | page=52}} The books are: − − What we today call Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are: − − 今天我们所称的亚里士多德逻辑学及其三段论(逻辑论证的方法) ，亚里士多德本人将其称为“分析学”。他把“逻辑”一词保留为“辩证法”的意思。亚里士多德的大部分著作可能都不是原貌，因为它很可能是由学生和后来的讲师编辑的。大约在公元前40年左右，亚里士多德的逻辑学著作被罗德岛的''安东尼库斯 Andronicus''及其追随者中的其他人汇编成了一套6本书，名为《工具论》。这些书是: − − # 《范畴篇 Categories》 − # 《解释篇 On Interpretation》 − # 《先验分析篇 Prior Analytics》 − # 《后验分析篇 Posterior Analytics》 − # 《论题篇 Topics》 − # 《辩谬篇 On Sophistical Refutations》 − − The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics''){{sfn| Prior Analytics | pp= 24b18–20}}{{sfn| Bobzien | 2015}} and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The ''Rhetoric'' is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the ''Topics''.{{sfn| Smith | 2017}} − − The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics. − − 这些书的顺序(或者说它们所组成的课程)并不确定，但是这个清单是通过对亚里士多德著作的分析中得出的。它从基础知识，《范畴篇》中对简单术语的分析，《解释篇》中对命题及其基本关系的分析，到研究更复杂的形式，即三段论（在《分析篇》中）和辩证法（在《论题篇与辩谬篇》中）。前三篇论述构成了严格意义上的逻辑理论的核心: 逻辑语言的语法和正确的推理规则。《修辞学》没有按照惯例包括在内，但它指出它依赖于《论题篇》。 − − − − ===形而上学=== − The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name ''Metaphysics''.{{sfn| Cohen | 2000}} Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (''theoretikē'') philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his ''Metaphysics'' (1026a16): − − The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics. Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16): − − “形而上学”一词似乎是由公元前一世纪的一位编辑创造的，他把亚里士多德的作品中的一些小片段汇编成我们所知的《形而上学》这篇论文。亚里士多德称之为“第一哲学” ，并把它与数学和自然科学(物理学)区别开来，是一种沉思的(理论)哲学，即“神学”和研究神性。他在《形而上学》(1026a16)中写道: − − − <blockquote> − if there were no other independent things besides the composite natural ones, the study of nature would be the primary kind of knowledge; but if there is some motionless independent thing, the knowledge of this precedes it and is first philosophy, and it is universal ''in just this way'', because it is first. And it belongs to this sort of philosophy to study being as being, both what it is and what belongs to it just by virtue of being.{{sfn| Aristotle | 1999 | page=111}} − − 如果除了复合的自然事物之外，没有其他独立的事物，那么对自然的研究将是主要的一种知识；但是，如果有不动的独立的事物，那么对于这种独立的东西的认识就先于它而成为第一哲学，因此它就具有普遍性，因为它是第一的。而这种哲学，既要研究作为存在的存在，也要研究由于存在而属于存在的存在。 − </blockquote> − − ==== 物质 （substance）==== − Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] (''ousia'') and [[essence]] (''to ti ên einai'', "the what it was to be") in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called [[hylomorphism]]. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1043a 10–30}}{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}} − − Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form. − − 亚里士多德在《形而上学》(第七卷)中研究了物质和本质的概念，他得出结论说，一种特殊的物质是物质和形式的结合体，这是一种哲学理论，称为形式质料说。在第八卷中，他将物质区分为基础，或构成物质的材料。例如，房子的物质是砖、石头、木材等，或任何构成潜在房子的物质，而实体的形式是实际的房子，即“覆盖身体和动产”或任何其他差异，让我们定义一些东西为房子。给出分量的公式是对物质的描述，给出微分的公式是对形式的描述。 − − − − ===== Immanent realism ===== − 内在实在论 − − Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the [[Problem of universals|universal]]. Aristotle's [[ontology]] places the universal (''katholou'') in [[particular]]s (''kath' hekaston''), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what [[phenomena]] are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}} − − Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal (katholou) in particulars (kath' hekaston), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance. − − 和他的老师柏拉图一样，亚里士多德的哲学也着眼于普遍性。亚里士多德的本体论把普遍性(天主教)至于特殊性(凯斯的希卡斯顿)，即世界上的事物中，而对Plato来说，普遍性是实际事物模仿的一种单独存在的形式。对于亚里士多德来说，“形式”仍然是现象的基础，但是在特定的实体中被“实例化”了。 − − − − Plato argued that all things have a [[Theory of forms|universal form]], which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}{{sfn| Lloyd | 1968 | pages=43–47}} − − Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms. − − Plato认为，一切事物都有一个普遍的形式，这个形式可以是一种属性，也可以是与其他事物的关系。例如，当我们看一个苹果时，我们看到的是一个苹果，也可以分析出一个苹果的形式。在这种区分中，有一个特殊的苹果和一个苹果的普遍形式。此外，我们还可以把苹果放在一本书旁边，这样我们就可以把书和苹果都说成是相邻的。柏拉图认为，有一些普遍形式不是特定事物的一部分。例如，有可能没有特定的善存在，但 "善 "仍然是一种恰当的普遍形式。Aristotle在这一点上不同意柏拉图的观点，认为所有的普遍性都是在某个时期被实例化的，不存在不依附于现存事物的普遍性。此外，m在普遍性的位置问题上也与柏拉图意见相左。Plato所说的形式世界，是所有普遍形式都存在的地方，而m则认为，普遍性存在于每个普遍性所依托的每个事物之中。所以，根据m的观点，苹果的形式存在于每个苹果之内，而不是存在于形式世界之中。 − − − − ===== Potentiality and actuality ===== − 潜力和现实 − − {{see | Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)}} − − − − With regard to the change (''[[Potentiality and actuality|kinesis]]'') and its causes now, as he defines in his ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' and ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'' 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: − − With regard to the change (kinesis) and its causes now, as he defines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: − − 关于现在的变化(运动)及其原因，正如他在《物理学》和《论生成与腐败》319b-320a 中所定义的那样，他将变化的来源区分为: − − − − # growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; − − growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; − − 增长和减少，即数量的变化; − − # locomotion, which is change in space; and − − locomotion, which is change in space; and − − 运动，即空间的变化; 以及 − − # alteration, which is change in quality. − − alteration, which is change in quality. − − 改变，也就是质量的改变。 − − − − [[File:Flute-player dolphin Alcesti Group MAN.jpg | thumb | Aristotle argued that a capability like playing the flute could be acquired – [[Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)|the potential made actual]] – by learning.]] − − Flute-player dolphin Alcesti Group MAN.jpg | thumb | Aristotle argued that a capability like playing the flute could be acquired – Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)|the potential made actual − − m认为，通过学习可以获得像吹长笛这样的能力-使潜力得以实现。 − − − − The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (''[[Dunamis|dynamis]]'') and actuality (''[[entelecheia]]'') in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (''dynamei'') plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (''poiein'') or 'be acted upon' (''paschein''), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (''telos'') is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}} − − The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do. − − 形成是一种变化，其中没有任何东西持续存在，其结果是一种属性。在这种特殊的变化中，他引入了与物质和形式相相关的潜在性(动力)和现实性(真实性)的概念。所谓潜在性，是指一个事物在条件合适且不受其他事物阻碍的情况下，能够做什么或被什么所影响。例如，土壤中植物的种子是潜在的(dynamei )植物，如果不受某种东西的阻止，它就会成为植物。潜在的生命可以 "行动"（poiein）或 "被行动"（paschein），这可以是天生的，也可以是后天的。例如，眼睛具有视觉潜能(先天行为) ，而长笛演奏能力可以通过学习(练习作用)来实现。实际性是潜能最终的实现。因为目的是一切变化的原则，而为了目的而存在着潜能，所以现实性就是目的。那么，参照我们前面的例子，我们可以说，实际性是指植物做了植物所做的活动之一。 − − − {{quote | For that for the sake of which (''to hou heneka'') a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see.{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=IX 1050a 5–10}}}} − − 事物的存在，就是它的原则，成为就是它的目的;现实性就是目的，为了达到目的，才能获得潜在性。因为动物看东西不是为了它们有视力，而是它们有视力才会看。 − − − In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a [[final cause]] or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to [[Plato]] there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.{{sfn| Cohen | 2016}}{{sfn| Metaphysics | p=VIII 1045a–b}} − − In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same. − − 综上所述，用来造房子的物质具有成为房子的可能性，而建造房子的活动和最后房子的形式都是实际性，这也是最后的原因或目的。接着，m又得出结论说，实际性在公式上、在时间上和在实质上都是先于潜在性的。m用这种对特殊物质（即物质和形式）的定义，试图解决众生的统一性问题，例如，"是什么使人成为一个人"？既然按照Plato的说法，有两个意念：动物和两足动物，那么，人又如何是一个统一体呢？然而，按照m的说法，潜在的存在（物质）和实际的存在（形式）是一体的。 − − − ===Epistemology=== − 认识论 − − Aristotle's immanent realism means his [[epistemology]] is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal [[Theory of Forms|Forms]] (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these.{{sfn|Smith|2017}} Aristotle uses [[Inductive reasoning|induction]] from examples alongside [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]], whereas Plato relies on deduction from ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' principles.{{sfn|Smith|2017}} − − Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori principles. − − m的内在实在论意味着他的认识论是基于在对世界上存在或发生的事物的研究，并上升到对普遍性的认识，而对柏拉图来说，认识论始于对普遍形式(或思想)的认识，并下降到对这些形式的特定模仿的认识。m在演绎推理的同时也使用例证的归纳，而Plato则依赖于先验原则的演绎推理。 − − − − ==Natural philosophy== − 自然哲学 − − Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences.{{sfn| Wildberg | 2016}} In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (''Metaphysics'' 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.{{sfn|Wildberg|2016}} − − Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics. − − m的“自然哲学”涵盖了广泛的自然现象，包括现在被物理学、生物学和其他自然科学所覆盖的自然现象。在m的术语中，“自然哲学”是哲学的一个分支，研究自然世界的现象，包括今天被认为是物理学、生物学和其他自然科学的领域。m的著作几乎涵盖了智力探究的所有方面。m使广义的哲学与推理同时延伸，他也称之为“科学”。然而，请注意，他对“科学方法”一词的使用与“科学方法”一词所涵盖的含义不同。对于m来说，“所有的科学(dianoia)要么是实践的，要么是诗意的，要么是理论的”(《形而上学》1025b25)。他的实践科学包括伦理学和政治学，他的诗学是包括诗学在内的美术学，他的理论科学包括物理学、数学和形而上学。 − − − − ===Physics=== − 物理 − [[File:Four Classical Elements in Burning Log.svg | thumb | The four [[classical element]]s (fire, air, water, earth) of [[Empedocles]] and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.]] − − The four [[classical elements (fire, air, water, earth) of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.]] − − 恩培多克勒Empedocles 和Aristotle的四元素(火、气、水、土)用燃烧的圆木来说明。日志在被销毁时释放所有四个元素。] − − {{main | Aristotelian physics}} − − − ====Five elements==== − 五要素 − {{main | Classical element}} − − − In his ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'', Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by [[Empedocles]], [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], [[Water (classical element)|Water]], [[Air (classical element)|Air]], and [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly [[Aether (classical element)|Aether]], the divine substance of the [[Celestial spheres|heavenly spheres]], stars and planets.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1968 | pages=133–39, 166–69}} − − In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, Earth, Water, Air, and Fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly Aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets. − − 在《论世代与腐败》一书中，Aristotle将Empedocles早期提出的四种元素---- 土、水、空气和火---- 中的每一种都与四种可感知的性质中的两种相联系，即热、冷、湿和干。在恩培多克林计划中，所有物质都由四种元素以不同的比例组成。亚里士多德的方案增加了天上的以太，即天上的球体、星体和行星的神圣物质。 − − − − − − {| class="wikitable" − − { | class = “ wikitable” − − |+ [[Classical element|Aristotle's elements]]{{sfn|Lloyd|1968|pages=133–39, 166–69}} − − |+ Aristotle's elements − − | + Aristotle的元素 − − ! Element !!{{font color|red|Hot}}/{{font color|blue|Cold}} !!{{font color|green|Wet}}/{{font color|brown|Dry}} !! Motion !! Modern [[State of matter|state<br>of matter]] − − ! Element !!/ !!/ !! Motion !! Modern state<br>of matter − − !元素！热/ 冷 湿/ 干 运动 物质的现代状态 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |'''[[Earth (classical element)|Earth]]'''||{{font color|blue|Cold}}||{{font color|brown|Dry}}||Down||[[Solid]] − − |Earth|Cold|Dry||Down||Solid − − 地球 冷 干燥 向下 固体 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |'''[[Water (classical element)|Water]]'''||{{font color|blue|Cold}}||{{font color|green|Wet}}||Down||[[Liquid]] − − |Water|Cold|Wet||Down||Liquid − − 水 冷 湿 向下 液体 − − |- − − + − + − − − |Air|Hot|Wet||Up||Gas − − 空气 热 湿 向上 气体 − − + − + − + − − − |Fire|Hot|Dry||Up||Plasma − − 火 热 干燥 向上 等离子体 − − + − + − − − − − |Aether||(divine<br>substance)||—||Circular<br>(in heavens)||— − − | 以太 | | (神圣的物质) | | | ー | | 圆形的 < br > (在天堂) | | | ー − − |}+ + − |}+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + − 运动 − {{see | History of classical mechanics}}+ + − Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the ''Physics'' (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in ''On the Heavens'' (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also; in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,{{sfn| Allain | 2016}}{{efn-ua | Rhett Allain notes that [[Newton's First Law]] is "essentially a direct reply to Aristotle, that the natural state is ''not to change'' motion.{{sfn| Allain | 2016}}}} since Aristotle does not address [[friction]].{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}{{efn-ua | Leonard Susskind comments that Aristotle had clearly never gone [[ice skating]] or he would have seen that it takes force to stop an object.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}}} This would imply the equation{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}+ − Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also; in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,}} since Aristotle does not address friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.}} This would imply the equation+ − Aristotle描述了两种运动。"剧烈运动 "或 "非自然运动"，如《物理学》(254b10)中的抛石运动，以及 "自然运动"，如《论天》(300a20)中的坠物运动。在剧烈运动中，只要媒介停止引起运动，运动也就停止了，换句话说，物体的自然状态是静止的，因为Aristotle没有提到摩擦。有了这种理解，就可以观察到，正如Aristotle所说的，重的物体(比如在地上)需要更多的力来使它们移动;受到更大力推动的物体移动得更快。这就意味着这个方程这就意味着这个方程式+ + + + + − :: <math>F=mv</math>,+ − <math>F=mv</math>,+ + + + + + − incorrect in modern physics.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}+ − incorrect in modern physics.+ + + + + + − 在现代物理学中是错误的。+ + + − Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,{{efn-ua | For heavenly bodies like the Sun, Moon, and stars, the observed motions are "to a very good approximation" circular around the Earth's centre, (for example, the apparent rotation of the sky because of the rotation of the Earth, and the rotation of the moon around the Earth) as Aristotle stated.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}}} while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}{{efn-ua | Drabkin quotes numerous passages from ''Physics'' and ''On the Heavens'' (''De Caelo'') which state Aristotle's laws of motion.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}}}+ − Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,}} while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.+ − 自然运动取决于有关的元素：以太自然地绕天而行，而四种空净元素则垂直向上（如火，如观察到的）或向下（如土）向它们的自然静止处移动。+ + + + + + − [[File:Aristotle's laws of motion.svg | thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle's laws of motion. In ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}]]+ − Aristotle's laws of motion. In Physics he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in. This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.]]+ − Aristotle的运动定律。在物理学中，他指出，物体坠落的速度与它们的重量成正比，与它们所浸泡的液体的密度成反比。这对于地球引力场中在空气或水中运动的物体来说，是一个正确的近似值。+ + + + + + + + + + − In the ''Physics'' (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,{{efn-ua | Drabkin agrees that density is treated quantitatively in this passage, but without a sharp definition of density as weight per unit volume.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}}} ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}+ − In the Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,}} ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:+ − 在《物理学》(215a25)中，Aristotle有效地阐述了一个定量定律，即下落物体的速度v与物体的重量W成正比(即c不变)，与下落物体所在液体的密度成反比:+ + + − :: <math>v=c\frac{W}{\rho}</math>+ − <math>v=c\frac{W}{\rho}</math>+ − [ math > v = c frac { w }{ rho } </math > + + + − Aristotle implies that in a [[vacuum]] the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view"{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}} that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative,{{sfn| Carteron | 1923 | pages=1–32 and passim}} but other authors reject this.{{sfn| Drabkin | 1938 | pp=60–84}}+ + + − Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this.+ − Aristotle暗示，在真空中下落的速度将是无限的，并从这个明显的荒谬得出结论，真空是不可能的。对于Aristotle是否有意阐述数量法则，人们的意见不一。亨利·卡特隆(Henri Carteron)持“极端观点”，认为Aristotle的力概念基本上是定性的，但其他作者反对这种观点。+ + + + − [[Archimedes]] corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they [[Archimedes' principle|displace enough water]]; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}+ − Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition.+ − 阿基米德Archimedes纠正了Aristotle的理论，即物体会朝着它们自然休息的地方移动; 金属船只如果置换了足够多的水就能浮起来; 在Archimedes的理论中，浮力取决于物体的质量和体积，而不是Aristotle认为的物体的基本构成。+ + + + − Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the [[Early Modern]] period. [[John Philoponus]] (in the [[Middle Ages]]) and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.{{sfn| Wildberg | 2016}} A contrary opinion is given by [[Carlo Rovelli]], who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the [[Earth]]'s gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.{{sfn| Susskind | 2011}}{{efn-ua | Philoponus and Galileo correctly objected that for the transient phase (still increasing in speed) with heavy objects falling a short distance, the law does not apply: Galileo used balls on a short incline to show this. Rovelli notes that "Two heavy balls with the same shape and different weight do fall at different speeds from an aeroplane, confirming Aristotle's theory, not Galileo's."{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}}}+ − Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in the Middle Ages) and Galileo are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.+ − Aristotle关于运动的著作直到近代早期仍有影响。据说约翰•菲洛波努斯John Philoponus(中世纪)和伽利略Galileo通过实验表明，Aristotle关于较重的物体比较轻的物体下落得快的说法是不正确的。卡罗.罗维利Carlo Rovelli给出了相反的意见，他认为Aristotle的运动物理学在其有效领域内是正确的，即在地球引力场中浸泡在空气等流体中的物体。在这一体系中，处于稳定下落的重体确实比轻体走得快（无论是否忽略摩擦力），而且在密度较大的介质中，重体下落的速度确实较慢。+ + + + − Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval [[theory of impetus]].{{sfn| Rovelli | 2015 | pp=23–40}}+ − Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus.+ − 牛顿Newton的“被迫”运动相当于亚里士多德的“暴力”运动及其外部因素，但Aristotle的假设，该因素的影响立即停止(例如，球离开投掷者的手)，这就产生了尴尬的后果: 他必须假设周围的液体帮助推动球前进，使球继续上升，即使手不再作用于球，也会产生中世纪的推动力理论。+ + + − ====Four causes====+ − 四个原因 − {{main | Four causes}}+ − [[File:Aristotle's Four Causes of a Table.svg | thumb | upright=1.6 | Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from [[four causes]]: in the case of a table, the wood used ([[material cause]]), its design ([[formal cause]]), the tools and techniques used ([[efficient cause]]), and its decorative or practical purpose ([[final cause]]).{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=88–90}}]]+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + − Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from [[four causes: in the case of a table, the wood used (material cause), its design (formal cause), the tools and techniques used (efficient cause), and its decorative or practical purpose (final cause).+ − Aristotle通过与木制品的类比论证了一个事物的形式有四个原因:以桌子为例，使用的木材(材料原因)，它的设计(形式原因)，使用的工具和技术(有效原因)，以及它的装饰或实用目的(最终原因)。+ + + + − Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term ''aitia'' is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}}{{sfn| Hankinson | 1998 | page=159}}+ + + + − Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here.+ + + + − Aristotle认为，任何事情发生的原因，都可以归因于同时存在的四种不同类型的积极因素。他的术语aitia传统上被翻译为“原因”，但它并不总是指时间序列;将它翻译成“解释”可能更好，但这里将采用传统的呈现方式。+ − * [[Material cause]] describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}}+ − + − 物质原因描述的是组成某物的物质。因此，制作桌子的材料是木头。这不是行动的问题。这并不意味着一张多米诺骨牌会击倒另一张。+ − + − * The [[formal cause]] is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells us what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}}+ − + − 形式上的原因是它的形式，即该事物的安排。它告诉我们一个事物是什么，一个事物是由定义、形式、模式、本质、整体、综合或原型决定的。它包含了用基本原理或一般规律来说明原因，因为整体（即宏观结构）是其部分的原因，这种关系称为整体-部分因果关系。通俗地说，形式原因就是雕塑家头脑中的想法，使雕塑作品得以产生。形式因的一个简单的例子，就是让艺术家、建筑师或工程师创造出图纸的心理意象或想法。 − − * The [[efficient cause]] is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over. In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}} In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of [[developmental biology|how it develops from the egg]], and [[physiology|how its body functions]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=91–92, 369–73}} − − 有效原因是 "主要来源"，或者说，所考虑的变化是从这里开始的。它确定了 "是什么造就了什么，是什么引起了被改变的东西的变化"，因此暗示了各种代理人，无论是非生物的还是生物的，都是变化或运动或休息的来源。代表目前对因果关系的理解是因果关系，这涵盖了现代对 "原因 "的定义，要么是代理人或机构，要么是特定的事件或事态。在两个多米诺骨牌的情况下，当第一个骨牌被撞倒时，会导致第二个骨牌也倒下。就动物而言，该机构是鸡蛋如何发育以及其身体功能的综合体。 − − * The [[final cause]] (''telos'') is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition.{{sfn| Lloyd | 1996 | pages=96–100, 106–07}} In the case of living things, it implies [[adaptation]] to a particular way of life. In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=91–92, 369–73}} − − 最终的原因（''telos''）是其目的，是一件事情存在或被做的原因，包括目的性和工具性的行为和活动。最后的原因是指某一事物所要达到的目的或功能。这涵盖了现代动机原因的概念，如意志。就生物而言，它意味着适应一种特定的生活方式。 − − ====Optics==== − 光学 − − {{further | History of optics}} − − Aristotle describes experiments in [[optics]] using a [[camera obscura]] in ''[[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]]'', book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small [[aperture]] that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.{{sfn| Lahanas}} − − Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image. − − Aristotle在《问题》第15卷中描述了使用照相机暗箱进行光学实验的情况。该仪器由一个暗室组成，暗室有一个小孔，可以让光线进入。用它，他看到无论他把孔做成什么形状，太阳的图像总是保持圆形。他还注意到，增加光圈与图像表面之间的距离，可以放大图像。 − − − − ====Chance and spontaneity==== − 机会与自发性 − − {{further | Accident (philosophy)}} − − According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of [[Accident (philosophy)|accidental things]], "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.{{sfn| Physics | p=2.6}}{{sfn| Miller | 1973 | pp=204–13}} − − According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices. − − 根据Aristotle的观点，自发性和偶然性是某些事物的原因，区别于其他类型的原因，如简单的必然性。偶然作为一种偶然的原因，存在于偶然事物的领域，即“来自于自发的东西”。还有一种特定的机会，Aristotle称之为“运气”，它只适用于人们的道德选择。 − − − − ===Astronomy=== − 天文学 − {{further | History of astronomy}} − − − − In [[astronomy]], Aristotle refuted [[Democritus]]'s claim that the [[Milky Way]] was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."{{sfn| Meteorology | p=1. 8}} − − In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them." − − 在天文学上，Aristotle驳斥了德谟克利特Democritus关于银河系是由 "那些被地球遮挡住太阳光线的恒星 "组成的说法，正确地指出，如果 "太阳的大小大于地球的大小，恒星与地球的距离比太阳的距离大许多倍，那么......太阳照耀着所有的恒星，而地球却没有屏蔽任何一颗恒星"。 − − − − [[File:DenglerSW-Stromboli-20040928-1230x800.jpg | thumb | Aristotle noted that the ground level of the [[Aeolian islands]] changed before a [[volcanic eruption]].]] − − Aristotle noted that the ground level of the [[Aeolian islands changed before a volcanic eruption. − − Aristotle指出，在火山爆发之前，伊奥利亚群岛的地面就发生了变化。 − − − − ===Geology=== − 地质学 − {{further | History of geology}} − − − − Aristotle was one of the first people to record any [[geology|geological]] observations. He stated that [[Uniformitarianism|geological change]] was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime.{{sfn| Moore | 1956 | page=13}}{{sfn| Meteorology | p=Book 1, Part 14}} − − Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime. − − Aristotle是最早记录地质观测数据的人之一。他说，地质变化太慢，在一个人的一生中无法观察到。 − − The geologist [[Charles Lyell]] noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the [[Nile delta]] since the time of [[Homer]], and "the upheaving of one of the [[Aeolian islands]], previous to a [[volcanic eruption]]."'{{sfn| Lyell | 1832 | page=17}} − − The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."' − − 地质学家查尔斯•莱尔Charles Lyell指出，Aristotle描述了这种变化，包括 "已经干涸的湖泊 "和 "被河流浇灌的沙漠"，他举例说，自荷马时代以来，尼罗河三角洲的增长，以及 "伊奥利亚群岛中的一个岛屿在火山喷发颠覆"。 − − − ===Biology=== − 生物学 − {{main | Aristotle's biology}} − − [[File:Tremoctopus violaceus5.jpg | thumb | upright | Among many pioneering zoological observations, Aristotle described the reproductive [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]] of the [[octopus]] (bottom left).]] − − 在许多开拓性的动物学观察中，Aristotle描述了章鱼的生殖臂(左下)。 − − − − ====Empirical research==== − 实证研究 − Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically,{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=7}} and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of [[Lesbos]] and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=14}}{{sfn| Thompson | 1910 | page=Prefatory Note}} His data in ''[[History of Animals]]'', ''[[Generation of Animals]]'', ''[[Movement of Animals]]'', and ''[[Parts of Animals]]'' are assembled from his own observations,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/darwins-ghosts-by-rebecca-stott-7808310.html|title=Darwin's Ghosts, By Rebecca Stott − − |website=independent.co.uk|date=2 June 2012 − − |access-date=19 June 2012}}</ref> statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=196, 248}} His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on [[botany]] have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived.{{sfn| Day | 2013 | pp=5805–16}} − − Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived. − − Aristotle是第一个系统研究生物学的人，生物学构成了他著作的很大一部分。他花了两年时间观察和描述莱斯博斯岛及周围海域的动物学，尤其是包括莱斯伯斯岛的皮尔哈泻湖。他在《动物的历史》、《动物的生成》、《动物的运动》和《动物的部分》中的数据是根据他自己的观察、养蜂人和渔民等具有专业知识的人的陈述以及海外旅行者提供的不太准确的描述汇集而成。他显然强调动物而不是植物，这是一个历史的偶然：他的植物学著作已经遗失，但他的学生提Theophrastus的两本植物学著作却留了下来。 − − Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the [[catfish]], [[electric ray]], and [[frogfish]] in detail, as well as [[cephalopod]]s such as the [[octopus]] and [[paper nautilus]]. His description of the [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]] of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=66–74, 137}} He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of [[ruminant]]s,{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=118–19}} and of the [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]] embryological development of the [[hound shark]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=73}} − − Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark. − − Aristotle通过对莱斯博斯岛的观察和渔民的捕获来描述海洋生物。他详细描述了鲶鱼、电鳐和蛙鱼，以及章鱼和纸鹦鹉螺等头足类动物。直到19世纪，人们才广泛相信他所描述的头足类动物中的交接腕。他对反刍动物的四腔前胃和猎鲨的卵生胚胎发育作了准确的描述。 − − − He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the [[heron]], which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas [[duck]]s that swim have short legs and webbed feet.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=135–36}} [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of [[evolution]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=206}} Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or [[Hybridisation (biology)|hybridizations]] could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results.{{sfn| Sedley | 2007 | page=189}} To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a [[common descent|common ancestor]], or that one kind can [[speciation|change into another]], or that kinds can become [[extinction|extinct]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=273}} − − He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the heron, which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct. − − 他指出，动物的结构与功能是相匹配的，因此，在鸟类中，栖息在泥沼中以捕鱼为生的苍鹭有长长的脖子和长腿，还有像矛一样锋利的喙，而游泳的鸭子有短腿和蹼足。达尔文也注意到了类似动物之间的这些差异，但与Aristotle不同的是，他利用这些数据得出了进化论。对现代读者来说，Aristotle的著作似乎暗示了进化论，但当Aristotle意识到可能会发生新的突变或杂交时，他把这些看作是罕见的意外。对亚里士多德来说，对Aristotle来说，意外就像冬天的热浪一样，必须区别于自然原因来考虑。因此，他对Empedocles关于生物及其器官 "适者生存 "起源的唯物主义理论持批判态度，并嘲笑了意外事故可以导致有序结果的观点。用现代的术语来说，他没有说过不同的物种可以有一个共同的祖先，也没有说过一种物种可以变为另一种物种，也没有说过物种可以灭绝。 − − − ====Scientific style==== − 科学风格 − [[File:Two of Aristotle's Growth Laws.svg | thumb | left | upright=1.4 | Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that [[brood size]] decreases with body mass, whereas [[gestation]] period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.]] − − Aristotle从他对动物的观察中推断出生长规律，包括卵数随着体重的增加而减少，而妊娠期却在增加。他的这些预测是正确的，至少对哺乳动物来说是这样:有数据显示了老鼠和大象的情况。 − − Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense.{{sfn| Taylor | 1922 | page=42}} He used the ancient Greek term ''pepeiramenoi'' to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=361–65}} In ''Generation of Animals'', he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside.{{sfn| Leroi | 2011}}{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=197–200}} − − Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term pepeiramenoi to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside. − − Aristotle没有做现代意义上的实验。他使用古希腊术语pepeiramenoi来表示观察，或者至多表示像解剖这样的研究过程。在动物繁殖过程中，他找到一个处于合适阶段的受精卵，打开它看里面胚胎的心脏跳动。 − − Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=365–68}}{{sfn| Taylor | 1922 | page=49}} This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as [[genomics]]. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=365–68}} − − Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific. − − 相反，他实践了一种不同的科学风格：系统地收集数据，发现整个动物群体的共同模式，并从中推断出可能的因果解释。这种风格在现代生物学中很常见，当在一个新的领域（如基因组学）中出现大量数据时，就会出现这种风格。它的结果并不像实验科学那样具有确定性，但它提出了可检验的假说，并对观察到的东西构建了一种叙述性的解释。在这个意义上，Aristotle的生物学是科学的。 − − − From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of [[biological rules|rules]] relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. [[Life expectancy|Lifespan]] increases with [[gestation period]], and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, [[fecundity]] decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | page=408}}{{-}} − − From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice. − − 从他收集和记录的数据中，Aristotle推断出许多他所研究的四足动物(陆生胎盘哺乳动物)生活史特征的规律。以下是正确的预测。幼体大小随着(成年)体重的增加而减少，因此大象每窝产下的幼体(通常只有一个)比老鼠少。寿命随着妊娠期和体重的增加而延长，因此大象比老鼠活得更长，妊娠期更长，体重也更重。最后一个例子是，繁殖力随着寿命的延长而减少，所以像大象这样的长寿种类的幼崽总数要少于像老鼠这样的短寿种类。 − − ====Classification of living things==== − 生物分类 − {{further | Scala naturae}} − − [[File:Scyliorhinus retifer embryo.JPG | thumb | Aristotle recorded that the [[embryo]] of [[Mustelus canis|<!--a different species shown-->a dogfish]] was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the [[yolk sac]]), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=72–74}}]] − − Aristotle recorded that the [[embryo of <!--a different species shown-->a dogfish was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.]] − − Aristotle记载，角鲨的胚胎像高等动物一样，由一根绳索系在一种胎盘(卵黄囊)上;这形成了一个从最高到最低的线性尺度的例外。 − − Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of [[animal]]s,{{sfn| Bergstrom | Dugatkin | 2012 | page=35}}{{sfn| Rhodes | 1974 | page=7}} arranging these in the ''History of Animals'' in a graded scale of perfection, a ''[[scala naturae]]'', with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave [[viviparity|live birth]] to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above [[plant]]s, and these in turn were above minerals.{{sfn| Mayr | 1982 | pages=201–02}} see also:{{sfn| Lovejoy | 1976}} He grouped what the modern zoologist would call [[vertebrate]]s as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder [[invertebrate]]s as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing ([[mammal]]s), and the egg-laying ([[bird]]s, [[reptile]]s, [[fish]]). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and [[crustacea|shelled]]) and the hard-shelled [[mollusc]]s ([[bivalve]]s and [[gastropod]]s). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a [[placenta]] like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle,<!--Leroi | p= 113--> is [[convergent evolution]].{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=111–19}} He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this [[teleological]] view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | pp=43–44}} − − Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a scala naturae, with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals. see also: He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle,<!--Leroi | p= 113--> is convergent evolution. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design. − − Aristotle区分了大约500种动物，在动物发展史上按照完美程度(即自然等级)对它们进行排列，其中人处于最顶端。他的系统将动物分为11个等级，从潜能最高的到潜能最低的，以出生时的形式表现出来:潜能最高的能生下湿热的生物，而潜能最低的能生下冰冷、干燥的类似矿物的蛋。动物在植物之上，植物又在矿物之上。另见:他将现代动物学家称之为脊椎动物的动物归类为温度较高的“带血的动物”，而温度较低的无脊椎动物则归类为“无血的动物”。那些有血液的动物被分为胎生动物(哺乳动物)和卵生动物(鸟类、爬行动物、鱼类)。那些没有血液的是昆虫、甲壳类(无壳的头足类和有壳的)和硬壳软体动物(双壳类和腹足类)。他认识到动物并不完全符合线性比例，并指出了各种例外情况，比如鲨鱼和四足动物一样有胎盘。对现代生物学家来说，亚里士多德无法解释的解释是趋同进化。他相信有目的的最终原因引导着所有的自然过程;这种目的论的观点证明他观察到的数据是形式设计的一种表现。 − − {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%;" − − { | class = “ wikitable” style = “ font-size: 80% ; ” − − − − |+ Aristotle's Scala naturae (highest to lowest) − − | + Aristotle的斯卡拉自然史(最高到最低) − − {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%;" − − ! Group !! Examples<br>(given by Aristotle) !! Blood !! Legs !! Souls<br>(Rational,<br>Sensitive,<br>Vegetative) !! Qualities<br>(–,<br>–) − − !组! ！示例 < br > (由亚里士多德给出) ! ！血液! ！腿部! ！灵魂(理性，敏感，植物性) ! ！品质 < br > (热-冷 ，< br >湿 -干) − − |+ Aristotle's ''[[Scala naturae]]'' (highest to lowest) − − |- − − |- − − ! Group !! Examples<br>(given by Aristotle) !! Blood !! Legs !! Souls<br>(Rational,<br>Sensitive,<br>Vegetative) !! Qualities<br>({{font color|red|Hot}}–{{font color|blue|Cold}},<br>{{font color|green|Wet}}–{{font color|brown|Dry}}) − − |Man||Man||with blood||2 legs||R, S, V||, − − 人 人 带血 2条腿 R，S，V 热，湿 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Man||Man||with blood||2 legs||R, S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} − − |Live-bearing tetrapods||Cat, hare||with blood||4 legs||S, V||, − − 四足动物 猫，野兔 带血 4条腿 S，V 热，湿 − |- − − |- − − |- − − |[[Mammal|Live-bearing tetrapods]]||Cat, [[hare]]||with blood||4 legs||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} − − |Cetaceans||Dolphin, whale||with blood||none||S, V||, − − 鲸类 海豚，鲸鱼，带血, 没有 S，V 热，湿 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |[[Cetaceans]]||[[Dolphin]], [[whale]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} − − |Birds||Bee-eater, nightjar||with blood||2 legs||S, V||, , except eggs − − 鸟类，蜂虎鸟，夜鹰，带血， 两条腿，热，湿，干鸡蛋除外 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |[[Birds]]||[[Bee-eater]], [[nightjar]]||with blood||2 legs||S, V||{{font color|red|Hot}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, except {{font color|brown|Dry}} eggs − − |Egg-laying tetrapods||Chameleon, crocodile||with blood||4 legs||S, V||, except scales, eggs − − 产卵四足动物，变色龙，鳄鱼，，带血，4条腿，S，V 寒冷，潮湿，除了鳞片，蛋 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |[[Reptile|Egg-laying tetrapods]]||[[Chameleon]], [[crocodile]]||with blood||4 legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs − − |Snakes||Water snake, Ottoman viper||with blood||none||S, V||, except scales, eggs − − 蛇，水蛇，奥斯曼毒蛇，带血，没有，S，V 寒冷，潮湿，除了鳞片和蛋 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |[[Snakes]]||Water snake, [[Ottoman viper]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except scales, eggs − − |Egg-laying fishes||Sea bass, parrotfish||with blood||none||S, V||, , including eggs − − 产卵鱼，鲈鱼，鹦嘴鱼，带血， 没有，S，V 寒冷，潮湿包括卵 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Egg-laying [[fish]]es||[[Sea bass]], [[Sparisoma cretense|parrotfish]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, including eggs − − |(Among the egg-laying fishes):<br>placental selachians||Shark, skate||with blood||none||S, V||, , but placenta like tetrapods − − 产卵鱼类中的胎盘类，鲨鱼，鳐鱼，带血，没有，S，V，寒冷，潮湿但胎盘像四足动物 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |(Among the egg-laying fishes):<br>placental [[selachian]]s||[[Shark]], [[Skate (fish)|skate]]||with blood||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}}, but [[placenta]] like tetrapods − − |Crustaceans||Shrimp, crab||without||many legs||S, V||, except shell − − 甲壳类动物虾，蟹，没有，多腿，S，Ｖ 寒冷，潮湿除外壳 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |[[Crustaceans]]||[[Shrimp]], [[crab]]||without||many legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} except shell − − |Cephalopods||Squid, octopus||without||tentacles||S, V||, − − 头足类动物，鱿鱼，章鱼，没有 触须,S，Ｖ 寒冷，潮湿 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |[[Cephalopods]]||[[Squid]], [[octopus]]||without||tentacles||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} − − |Hard-shelled animals||Cockle, trumpet snail||without||none||S, V||, (mineral shell) − − 硬壳动物，海扇类，喇叭螺 没有，没有 S，Ｖ寒冷，干燥（矿物克） − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |[[Mollusc|Hard-shelled animals]]||[[Cockle (bivalve)|Cockle]], [[Charonia variegata|trumpet snail]]||without||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} (mineral shell) − − |Larva-bearing insects||Ant, cicada||without||6 legs||S, V||, − − 幼虫，蚂蚁，蝉，没有，6条腿,S，Ｖ寒冷，干燥 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Larva-bearing insects||[[Ant]], [[cicada]]||without||6 legs||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} − − |Spontaneously-generating||Sponges, worms||without||none||S, V||, or , from earth − − 从地球上自发产生的，海绵，蠕虫 没有 没有 S，Ｖ 寒冷，潮湿或干燥，来自地球 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |[[Spontaneous generation|Spontaneously-generating]]||[[Sponges]], [[worm]]s||without||none||S, V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|green|Wet}} or {{font color|brown|Dry}}, from earth − − |Plants||Fig||without||none||V||, − − 植物，无花果,没有，没有 Ｖ 寒冷，干燥 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |[[Plants]]||[[Common fig|Fig]]||without||none||V||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} − − |Minerals||Iron||without||none||none||, − − 矿物，铁，没有,没有，没有 寒冷，干燥 − − |- − − |} − − |} − − |[[Mineral]]s||Iron||without||none||none||{{font color|blue|Cold}}, {{font color|brown|Dry}} − − |} − − − − ===Psychology=== − 心理学 − − − ====Soul==== − 灵魂 − − {{further | On the Soul}} − − [[File:Aristotelian Soul.png | thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle proposed a three-part [[Soul#Aristotle|structure for souls]] of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.]] − − Aristotle proposed a three-part structure for souls of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul. − − Aristotle提出了植物、动物和人类的灵魂的三部分结构，这使得人类独特地拥有这三种类型的灵魂。 − − Aristotle's [[psychology]], given in his treatise ''[[On the Soul]]'' (''peri psychēs''), posits three kinds of [[soul]] ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the ''[[Nous#Aristotle|nous]]'' (intellect) and ''logos'' (reason).{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | pages=156–63}} − − Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (peri psychēs), posits three kinds of soul ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the nous (intellect) and logos (reason). − − Aristotle的心理学，在他的论文《论灵魂》(peri psychēs)中，提出了三种灵魂("psyches")：植物性灵魂、敏感性灵魂和理性灵魂。人类有一个理性的灵魂。人类的灵魂融合了其他种类的力量。像植物性灵魂一样，它可以生长和滋养自己；像敏感的灵魂一样，它可以体验感觉和局部移动。人的理性灵魂的独特之处在于它能接受其他事物的形式，并能用nous(智力)和logos(理智)来比较它们。 − − For Aristotle, the soul is the [[Hylomorphism#Body–soul hylomorphism|form]] of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement).{{sfn| Shields | 2016}} In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p=45}} Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]].{{sfn| Guthrie | 2010 | p=348}} − − For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon. − − 在Aristotle看来，灵魂是生命体的形式。因为所有的生命都是形式和物质的复合体，所以生命体的形式就是赋予生命体特有的东西，例如发起运动的能力（或者在植物的情况下，发起生长和化学转化，Aristotle认为这是运动的类型）。与早期的哲学家不同，但与埃及人一致，他把理性的灵魂放在心里，而不是大脑。值得注意的是亚里士多德对感觉和思维的划分，除阿尔克马翁Alcmaeon外，一般都与以前哲学家的概念不同。 − − − ====Memory==== − 记忆 − − According to Aristotle in ''On the Soul'', memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past.{{sfn| Bloch | 2007 | p=12}} In other words, a memory is a mental picture ([[wikt:phantasm|phantasm]]) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when [[stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian '[[common sense]]', and thinking.{{sfn| Bloch | 2007 | p=61}}{{sfn| Carruthers | 2007 | p=16}} − − According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian 'common sense', and thinking. − − 根据Aristotle在《论灵魂》一书中的观点，记忆是指将感知到的经验保存在脑海中，并将内部的 "表象 "与过去发生的事情区分开来的能力。换句话说，记忆是一种可以恢复的心理图景（幻象）。Aristotle认为，印象是在半流体的身体器官上留下的，经过几次变化，才能形成记忆。当景物或声音等刺激物非常复杂，以至于神经系统不能同时接受所有的印象时，就会产生记忆。这些变化与感觉、Aristotle的 "常识 "和思维的操作一样。 − − Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience.{{sfn| Bloch | 2007 | p=25}} − − Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in our past experiences, both for our previous experience and present experience. − − Aristotle用 "记忆 "一词，是指在印象中实际保留一种经验，而这种经验可以从感觉中发展出来，同时，由于印象是在特定的时间和加工特定的内容中形成的，因此，这种印象会带来知识上的焦虑。记忆是过去的，预测是未来的，感觉是现在的。印象的检索不能突然进行。需要一个过渡通道，位于我们过去的经验中，既是我们以前的经验，也是现在的经验。 − − Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=30}} Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=25}} Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression.{{sfn| Carruthers | 2007 | p=19}} Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=296}} − − Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed. − − 因为Aristotle认为，人们接受各种感觉知觉，并把它们当作印象来认识，所以人们不断地把新的经验印象编织在一起。为了寻找这些印象，人们搜索记忆本身。在记忆中，如果提供一种经验而不是特定的记忆，那么这个人就会拒绝这种经验，直到找到他们所要找的东西。当一个检索到的经验自然而然地跟在另一个经验后面时，就会出现回忆。如果需要 "图像 "的链条，一个记忆会刺激下一个记忆。当人们回忆经验时，他们会刺激以前的某些经验，直到达到需要的经验。因此，回忆是检索存储在记忆印象中的信息的自发活动。只有人类能记住数字、文字等智力活动的印象。有时间知觉的动物可以检索过去观察的记忆。记忆只涉及对所记事物和所过时间的感知。 − − [[File:Aristotle Senses Perception Memory Dreams Action.svg | thumb | upright=2.3 | Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the [[sensorium]] (the heart), linked by his [[laws of association]] (similarity, contrast, and [[Contiguity (psychology)|contiguity]]).]] − − Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the sensorium (the heart), linked by his laws of association (similarity, contrast, and contiguity). − − Aristotle心理学中的感觉、知觉、记忆、梦、行动。印象被储存在感观（心）中，由他的联想法则（相似性、对比性和相邻性）联系起来。 − − Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and [[Contiguity (psychology)|contiguity]], described in his [[laws of association]]. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.{{sfn| Warren | 1921 | p=259}}{{sfn | Sorabji | 2006 | p=54}} − − Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled. − − Aristotle认为，以回忆某些印象为终结的思维链，在他的联想定律中描述的相似性、对比性和相邻性等关系中，是有系统地连接起来的。Aristotle认为，过去的经验是隐藏在头脑中的。一种力量的运作唤醒了隐藏的材料，使实际的经验浮现出来。根据Aristotle的观点，联想是一种精神状态中与生俱来的力量，它作用于过去经验中未被表达的残余，使它们得以升起并被唤起。 − − − ====Dreams==== − 梦 − − {{see | Dream#Classical history}} − − Aristotle describes sleep in ''On Sleep and Wakefulness''.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} or of digestion,{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} so it is vital to the body.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep,{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} albeit differently,{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} unless they are weary.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} − − Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness. Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they can not have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary. − − Aristotle在《论睡眠与觉醒》中对睡眠进行了描述。睡眠的发生是感官的过度使用或消化的结果，所以它对身体至关重要。当一个人处于睡眠状态时，包括思考、感知、回忆和记忆在内的关键活动，不会像清醒时那样发挥作用。由于人在睡眠中不能感知，他们就不能有欲望，而欲望是感觉的结果。然而，感官在睡眠期间能够工作，尽管方式不同，除非它们疲惫不堪。 − − Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then look away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored.{{sfn| Shute | 1941 | pages=115–18}} However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience.{{sfn| Modrak | 2009 | pp=169–81}} During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature.{{sfn| Holowchak | 1996 | pp=405–23}} In ''De Anima'' iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, ''phantasia''.{{sfn| Shields | 2016}} − − Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then look away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature. In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia. − − 梦并不涉及到实际的感觉刺激。在梦中，感觉仍然参与其中，但以一种改变的方式。Aristotle解释说，当一个人盯着一个移动的刺激物，如水体中的波浪，然后把目光移开，他们所看的下一个东西就会出现波浪般的运动。当一个人感知到一个刺激物，而这个刺激物不再是他们注意的焦点时，就会留下印象。当身体清醒，感官功能正常时，人不断地遇到新的刺激物来感知，所以以前感知到的刺激物的印象就被忽略了。但是，在睡眠中，由于没有新的干扰感官体验，所以一整天的印象都会被注意到。所以，梦是这些持久印象的结果。由于留下的只是印象，而不是确切的刺激，所以梦境与实际的清醒经验并不相似。在睡眠中，人的精神状态发生了改变。亚里士多德把睡眠中的人比作一个对刺激物产生强烈感情的人。例如，一个对某人有强烈迷恋的人可能会开始认为他们到处都能看到那个人，因为他们被自己的感情冲昏了头脑。由于睡眠中的人处于易受暗示的状态，无法做出判断，所以很容易被梦中出现的东西所欺骗，就像那个痴情的人一样。这使人相信梦境是真实的，即使梦境的本质是荒谬的。在《德阿尼玛三世》3中，Aristotle把在没有知觉的情况下创造、储存和回忆形象的能力归结为想象力的能力，即幻觉。 − − − One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences.{{sfn| Webb | 1990 | pages=174–84}} Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.{{sfn| Modrak | 2009 | pp=169–81}} − − One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences. − − Aristotle的梦境理论中有一个内容与以前的信念不一致。他声称，梦不是预言，也不是由神灵发出的。Aristotle从自然主义的角度推理，梦境确实与未来事件相似的事例只是巧合。Aristotle称，梦的成立首先要看人在经历梦的时候是否睡着了。如果一个人在醒来后有一个影像出现了一会儿，或者他们在黑暗中看到了一些东西，就不认为是梦，因为当梦发生时他们是清醒的。其次，任何在人睡觉时被感知到的感官体验都不能算作梦的一部分。例如，如果一个人在睡觉的时候，一扇门关上了，而在梦中他们听到门被关上了，这种感官体验不属于梦的一部分。最后，梦中的影像必须是清醒的感官体验的持久印象的结果。 − − − ==Practical philosophy== − 实践哲学 − Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric.{{sfn| Wildberg | 2016}} − − Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric. − − Aristotle的实践哲学涵盖了伦理学、政治学、经济学和修辞学等领域。 − − {| class="wikitable floatright" align=right style="font-size: 80%;" − − { | class = “ wikitable floatright” align = right style = “ font-size: 80% ; − − |+ Virtues and their accompanying vices − − | + 美德及伴随的恶习 − − {| class="wikitable floatright" align=right style="font-size: 80%;" − − ! Too little !! Virtuous mean !! Too much − − !太少了 均值 太多了 − − |+ Virtues and their accompanying vices{{sfn|Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}} − − |- − − |- − − ! Too little !! Virtuous mean !! Too much − − |Humbleness||High-mindedness||Vainglory − 谦虚 胸怀大志 虚荣 − |Humbleness||High-mindedness||Vainglory − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Humbleness||High-mindedness||Vainglory − − |Lack of purpose||Right ambition||Over-ambition − − 缺乏目标 正确的野心 过于野心勃勃 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Lack of purpose||Right ambition||Over-ambition − − |Spiritlessness||Good temper||Irascibility − − 无精打采 脾气好 脾气暴躁 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Spiritlessness||Good temper||Irascibility − − |Rudeness||Civility||Obsequiousness − − 粗鲁，礼貌，谄媚 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Rudeness||Civility||Obsequiousness − − |Cowardice||Courage||Rashness − − 懦弱，勇气，鲁莽 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Cowardice||Courage||Rashness − − |Insensibility||Self-control||Intemperance − − 麻木不仁| | 自我控制 | | 放纵 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Insensibility||Self-control||Intemperance − − |Sarcasm||Sincerity||Boastfulness − − 讽刺 真诚 自夸 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Sarcasm||Sincerity||Boastfulness − − |Boorishness||Wit||Buffoonery − 粗鲁 机智 滑稽 − |Boorishness||Wit||Buffoonery − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Boorishness||Wit||Buffoonery − − |Shamelessness||Modesty||Shyness − − 无耻 谦虚，羞怯 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Shamelessness||Modesty||Shyness − − |Callousness||Just resentment||Spitefulness − − 冷漠，怨恨，恶意 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Callousness||Just resentment||Spitefulness − − |Pettiness||Generosity||Vulgarity − − 朴素慷慨粗俗 − − |- − − |- − − |- − − |Pettiness||Generosity||Vulgarity − − |Meanness||Liberality||Wastefulness − − 吝啬自由浪费 − − |- − − |} − − |} − − |Meanness||Liberality||Wastefulness − − |} − − − − ===Just war theory=== − 公理战役理论 − Aristotelian [[just war theory]] is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "[[natural slavery]]" would undermine civic [[freedom]]. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to ''The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics'' the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks'".{{sfn|Deslauriers|Destrée|2013|pp=157-162}} − − Aristotelian just war theory is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "natural slavery" would undermine civic freedom. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks'". − − Aristotle的公理战役理论在今天并不受欢迎，特别是他认为战争是为了奴役 "自然奴隶 "而进行的正义战争。在Aristotle的哲学中，他认为“自然奴隶制”的废除会破坏公民自由。追求自由与追求掌握 "应该成为奴隶的人 "是分不开的。根据《剑桥亚里士多德政治指南》，这种侵略战争的对象是非希腊人，指出Aristotle的观点是 "我们的诗人说'希腊人统治非希腊人是合适的'"。 − − Aristotle generally has a favourable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for [[virtue]] and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defense. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).{{sfn|Deslauriers|Destrée|2013|pp=157-162}} − − Aristotle generally has a favourable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for virtue and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defense. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above). − − Aristotle一般对战争持赞成态度，赞美战争是美德的机会，并写道："伴随和平而来的闲暇 "容易使人 "傲慢"。为了 "避免成为他人的奴隶 "而进行的战争，是正当的自卫。他写道，战争 "迫使人们变得公正和节制"，然而，为了公正，"必须为了和平而选择战争"（上文讨论的侵略战争除外）。 − − − ===Ethics=== − 伦理 − − − − {{main | Aristotelian ethics}} − − Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''.{{sfn| Kraut | 2001}} − − Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the Nicomachean Ethics. − − Aristotle认为伦理学是一门实践性的而非理论性的研究，即旨在向善和行善，而不是为了认识而认识。他写了几篇伦理学论文，其中最著名的是《尼各马可伦理学》。 − − Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (''ergon'') of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the ''[[De Anima|psuchē]]'' (''soul'') in accordance with reason (''[[logos]]''). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency{{sfn| Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}}) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, ''[[eudaimonia]]'', generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (''ēthikē'' ''[[arete (moral virtue)|aretē]]''), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence.{{sfn| Nicomachean Ethics | ps= Book I. See for example chapter 7.}} − − Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence. − − Aristotle教导说，美德与事物的适当功能(ergon)有关。一只眼睛只有在它能看见的范围内才是一只好眼睛，因为眼睛的适当功能是视觉。Aristotle推理说，人必须有一种人类特有的功能，这种功能必须是符合理性（logos）的psuchē（灵魂）的活动。Aristotle把灵魂的这种最佳活动（在过剩或不足的与之相伴的恶习之间的良性平均）确定为人类一切刻意行动的目标，即eudaimonia，一般译为 "幸福"，有时也译为 "安康"。要想以这种方式拥有永远幸福的潜力，必然需要良好的品格(ēthikē aretē)，通常被译为道德或伦理的美德或卓越。 − − Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (''[[phronesis]]'') and their intellect (''[[nous]]'') can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.{{sfn| Nicomachean Ethics | p= Book VI}} − − Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (phronesis) and their intellect (nous) can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher. − − Aristotle教导说，要达到一种有德行的、潜在的幸福的品格，需要有一个第一阶段的幸运，不是刻意的，而是通过老师、经验的熏陶，导致后期自觉地选择做最好的事情。当最优秀的人以这种方式来生活时，他们的实践智慧(实践理性)和他们的智力(理性)可以相互发展，朝着人类最高的美德，即一个有成就的理论或投机思想家的智慧，或者换句话说，一个哲学家的智慧发展。 − − − ===Politics=== − 政治 − − − − {{main | Politics (Aristotle)}} − − In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part".{{sfn| Politics | pp=1253a19–24}} He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality.{{sfn| Aristotle | 2009 | pages=320–21}} Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.{{sfn| Ebenstein | Ebenstein | 2002 | page=59}} − − In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part". He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner. − − Aristotle除了在他的伦理学著作中论述个人外，还在他题为《政治学》的著作中论述了城市。Aristotle认为城市是一个自然共同体。此外，他认为城市的重要性高于家庭，而家庭又高于个人，"因为整体必然高于部分"。他有句名言："人在本质上是一种政治动物"，认为人类在动物界其他动物中的决定性因素是其理性。Aristotle把政治设想为像一个有机体而不是像一台机器，是一个部分的集合，其中任何一个部分都不能离开其他部分而存在。Aristotle的城市概念是有机的，他被认为是最早以这种方式设想城市的人之一。 − − [[File:Aristotle's constitutions.svg | thumb|upright=1.7 | Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions]] − − Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions − − Aristotle对政治宪法的分类 − − The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (''[[polis]]'') which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (''koinōnia'')<!-- (1252a1) -->. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability<!-- (1280b29–31) -->, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together<!-- (1281a1–3) -->." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with [[social contract]] theory, according to which individuals leave the [[state of nature]] because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."{{efn-ua | For a different reading of social and economic processes in the ''Nicomachean Ethics'' and ''Politics'' see Polanyi, Karl (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in ''Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi'' ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115.}} − − The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences." − − 现代人对作为现代国家的政治共同体的普遍理解与Aristotle的理解大相径庭。尽管他意识到更大帝国的存在和潜力，但Aristotle认为的自然共同体是作为政治 "共同体 "或 "伙伴关系"（koinōnia）的城市（城邦）。城市的目的不仅仅是为了避免不公正，也不仅仅是为了经济稳定，而是至少要让一些公民有可能过上好的生活，有可能做出美好的行为。"因此，政治伙伴关系必须被视为是为了高尚的行为，而不是为了共同生活。" 这有别于从社会契约论开始的现代方法，根据这种方法，个人因为 "害怕暴力死亡 "或其 "不便 "而离开自然状态。 − − − In ''[[Protrepticus (Aristotle)|Protrepticus]]'', the character 'Aristotle' states:{{sfn| Hutchinson | Johnson | 2015 | p=22}} − − In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states: − − 在《 劝勉篇 》中，Aristotle这样写道: − − − − {{quote | For we all agree that the most excellent man should rule, i.e., the supreme by nature, and that the law rules and alone is authoritative; but the law is a kind of intelligence, i.e. a discourse based on intelligence. And again, what standard do we have, what criterion of good things, that is more precise than the intelligent man? For all that this man will choose, if the choice is based on his knowledge, are good things and their contraries are bad. And since everybody chooses most of all what conforms to their own proper dispositions (a just man choosing to live justly, a man with bravery to live bravely, likewise a self-controlled man to live with self-control), it is clear that the intelligent man will choose most of all to be intelligent; for this is the function of that capacity. Hence it's evident that, according to the most authoritative judgment, intelligence is supreme among goods.{{sfn| Hutchinson | Johnson | 2015 | p=22}}}} − − 因为我们都认为，最优秀的人应该是统治者，也就是本质上的最高者，法律的统治，只有法律才是权威的；但法律是一种智慧，也就是以智慧为基础的话语。再如，我们有什么标准，有什么好东西的标准，比聪明人更精确呢？因为这个人会选择的所有东西，如果是基于他的知识而选择的，都是好东西，而它们的反面是坏东西。既然每个人都会选择最符合自己适当性情的东西（一个公正的人选择公正地生活，一个勇敢的人选择勇敢地生活，同样，一个自制的人选择自制地生活），那么很明显，聪明的人最会选择聪明的东西；因为这是这种能力的功能。因此，很明显，根据最权威的判断，智慧在商品中是至高无上的。 − − − ===Economics=== − 经济学 − − {{main | Politics (Aristotle)}} − − Aristotle made substantial contributions to [[economics|economic thought]], especially to thought in the Middle Ages.{{sfn| Robbins | 2000 | pages=20–24}} In ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', Aristotle addresses the city, [[property]], and [[trade]]. His response to criticisms of [[private property]], in [[Lionel Robbins]]'s view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall [[utility]] of social arrangements.{{sfn| Robbins | 2000 | pages=20–24}} Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from [[human nature]]. In ''Politics'', Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of [[money]].{{sfn| Robbins | 2000 | pages=20–24}} Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or [[silver]].{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}} − − Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver. − − Aristotle对经济思想，特别是对中世纪的思想做出了实质性的贡献。在《政治学》中，Aristotle论述了城市、财产和贸易问题。在莱昂内尔•罗宾斯Lionel Robbins看来，他对私有财产批评的回应，预见到了后来哲学家和经济学家中私有财产的支持者，因为它关系到社会安排的整体效用。Aristotle认为，虽然公有制安排看似对社会有益，虽然私有财产常常被指责为社会纷争的原因，但这种弊端其实来自于人性。在《政治学》中，Aristotle对货币的起源提出了一个最早的说法。货币之所以会被使用，是因为人们开始相互依赖，进口自己需要的东西，出口多余的东西。为了方便起见，人们便同意用铁或银等本质上有用且容易适用的东西进行交易。 − − − Aristotle's discussions on [[retail]] and [[interest]] was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a [[profit (economics)|profit]]. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use.{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}} − − Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use. − − Aristotle关于零售和利息的讨论对中世纪的经济思想产生了重大影响。他不看好零售业，认为零售业与用金钱来采购自己管理家庭所需的东西相反，零售业追求的是利润。因此，它把商品作为达到目的的手段，而不是作为目的本身。他认为，零售贸易在这种方式上是不自然的。同样，Aristotle认为，通过利息获利是不自然的，因为它从货币本身而不是从货币的使用中获得收益。 − − Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable".{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}} He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".{{sfn| Aristotle | 1948 | pages=16–28}} − − Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it". − − Aristotle总结了货币的功能，对于他那个时代来说，这个概念可能是非常早熟的。他写道，由于不可能通过计算每件商品的价值来确定它的价值，因此有必要制定一个统一的衡量标准。因此，货币可以把不同的商品联系起来，使它们 "可通约"。他接着说，货币对于未来的交换也是有用的，使它成为一种保障。也就是说，"如果我们现在不想要一件东西，那么当我们想要的时候，我们就能够得到它"。 − − − − − − − ===Rhetoric and poetics=== − 修辞学和诗学 − − [[File:Bénigne Gagneraux, The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods.jpg | thumb | upright=1.3 | ''The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods'' (1784) by [[Bénigne Gagneraux]]. In his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'', Aristotle uses the tragedy ''[[Oedipus Rex|Oedipus Tyrannus]]'' by [[Sophocles]] as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some ''[[hamartia]]'' (fault).{{sfn| Kaufmann | 1968 | pages=56–60}}]] − − The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) by Bénigne Gagneraux. In his Poetics, Aristotle uses the tragedy Oedipus Tyrannus by Sophocles as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some hamartia (fault). − − 《失明的俄狄浦斯向神明夸奖他的孩子们》（1784年），作者是贝尼涅•加格纳罗Bénigne Gagneraux。在他的《诗学》中，Aristotle以索福克勒斯Sophocles的悲剧《俄狄浦斯——暴君》为例，说明完美的悲剧应该如何结构，剧中的主人公一般都是好的，他在剧中一开始很繁荣，但由于一些过失而失去了一切。 − − − {{main | Rhetoric (Aristotle) | Poetics (Aristotle)}} − − Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ''[[ethos]]'' (an appeal to the speaker's character), ''[[pathos]]'' (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and ''[[logos]]'' (an appeal to logical reasoning).{{sfn| Garver | 1994 | pages=109–10}} He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: [[epideictic]] (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), [[Forensic rhetoric|forensic]] (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and [[Deliberative rhetoric|deliberative]] (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue).{{sfn| Rorty | 1996 | pages=3–7}} Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical [[Proof (truth)|proofs]]: ''[[enthymeme]]'' (proof by [[syllogism]]) and ''[[paradeigma]]'' (proof by example).{{sfn| Grimaldi | 1998 | p=71}} − − Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example). − − Aristotle的《修辞学》提出，演讲者可以使用三种基本的呼吁来说服他的听众：ethos(对演讲者性格的呼吁)、pathos(对听众情感的呼吁)和logos(对逻辑推理的呼吁)。他还将修辞分为三种类型：epideictic（礼仪性演讲，涉及赞美或指责）、forensic（司法性演讲，涉及有罪或无罪）和deliberative（呼吁听众就某一问题做出决定的演讲）。Aristotle还概述了两种修辞学的证明：省略推理法(推论证明)和paradeigma(例证证明)。 − − − Aristotle writes in his ''Poetics'' that [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]], painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of ''[[mimesis]]'' ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}}{{sfn| Poetics | p= I 1447a}} He applies the term ''mimesis'' both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} and contends that the audience's realisation of the ''mimesis'' is vital to understanding the work itself.{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} Aristotle states that ''mimesis'' is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}}{{sfn| Poetics | p= IV}} and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature".{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what [[Stephen Halliwell (academic)|Stephen Halliwell]] calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes."{{sfn| Halliwell | 2002 | pp=152–59}} For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.{{sfn| Poetics | p=III}} − − Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. − − Aristotle在他的《诗学》中写道，史诗、悲剧、喜剧、二律诗、绘画、雕塑、音乐和舞蹈从根本上说都是模仿行为(“模仿”) ，每一种都因媒介、对象和方式的不同而不同。他把拟态一词既作为艺术作品的一种属性，又作为艺术家意图的产物，认为观众对拟态的实现对理解作品本身至关重要。亚里士多德指出，拟态是人类区别于动物的一种自然本能，人类的一切艺术创作都 "遵循自然的模式"。正因为如此，Aristotle认为，每一种模仿艺术都拥有斯蒂芬•哈利维尔所说的 "实现其目的的高度结构化的程序"。例如，音乐是以节奏与和谐为媒介进行模仿的，而舞蹈则仅以节奏进行模仿，诗歌则以语言进行模仿。在模仿的对象上，形式也有所不同。比如喜剧是模仿比一般人差的人的戏剧性；而悲剧则是模仿比一般人稍好的人。最后，形式在模仿的方式上也有不同——通过叙事或人物，通过变化或不变化，通过戏剧或不戏剧。 − − − While it is believed that Aristotle's ''Poetics'' originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry.{{sfn| Poetics | p=VI}} The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the [[catharsis]] of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes ''Poetics'' with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.{{sfn| Poetics | p=XXVI}} Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].{{sfn| Aesop | 1998 | pages=Introduction, xi–xii}} − − While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop. − − 虽然人们认为Aristotle的《诗学》最初是由两部书组成——一部论述喜剧，一部论述悲剧，但只有集中论述悲剧的部分留存了下来。Aristotle认为悲剧由六个要素组成: 情节结构、人物、风格、思想、景观和抒情诗。悲剧中的人物只是推动故事发展的一种手段; 悲剧的主要焦点是情节，而不是人物。悲剧是对引起怜悯和恐惧的行为的模仿，是为了达到宣泄这些相同情感的效果。Aristotle在《诗学》的最后，讨论了史诗和悲剧模仿哪一个更优越。他认为，由于悲剧具有史诗的所有属性，可能还具有诸如景观和音乐等额外的属性，更加统一，并在较短的范围内达到了模仿的目的，因此可以认为它优于史诗。Aristotle热衷于系统地收集谜语、民间传说和谚语; 他和他的学派对特尔菲神谕的谜语特别感兴趣，并研究了伊索寓言。 − − − − ===Views on women=== − 对女性的看法 − − {{main | Aristotle's views on women}} − − {{further | Aristotle's biology#Inheritance}} − − Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of [[feminist metaphysics]] have accused Aristotle of [[misogyny]]{{sfn| Freeland | 1998}} and [[sexism]].{{sfn| Morsink | 1979 | pp=83–112}} However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his ''Rhetoric'' that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.{{efn-ua | "Where, as among the Lacedaemonians, the state of women is bad, almost half of human life is spoilt."{{sfn| Rhetoric | p=Book I, Chapter 5}}}} − − Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of feminist metaphysics have accused Aristotle of misogyny and sexism. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men. − − Aristotle对生育的分析描述了一个主动的、合体的男性元素给一个惰性的、被动的女性元素带来生命。基于此，女权主义形而上学的支持者指责Aristotle厌恶女性和性别歧视。然而，Aristotle对女人的幸福和对男人的幸福给予了同等的重视，并在他的修辞学中评论说，通向幸福的东西幸福的东西既要在妇女身上，也要在男子身上。 − − − ==Influence== − 影响 − − {{see | List of writers influenced by Aristotle}} − − 更多信息：受Aristotle影响的作家名单 − More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived.{{sfn| Leroi | 2015 | p=8}}{{sfn| Aristotle's Influence | 2018}} He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher [[Bryan Magee]], "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did".{{sfn| Magee | 2010 | page=34}} Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of [[formal logic]],{{sfn| Guthrie | 1990 | page=156}}<!--{{sfn| Case | p=518}}--> pioneered the study of [[zoology]], and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.{{sfn| Aristotle (Greek philosopher)}}{{sfn| Durant | 2006 | page=92}}{{sfn| Kukkonen | 2010 | pages=70–77}} Taneli Kukkonen, writing in ''The Classical Tradition'', observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind."{{sfn| Kukkonen | 2010 | pages=70–77}} [[Jonathan Barnes]] wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".{{sfn| Barnes | 1982 | page=86}} − − More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,<!----> pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in The Classical Tradition, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought". − − Aristotle去世2300多年后，他仍然是有史以来最有影响力的人物之一。他对当时存在的人类知识的几乎每一个领域都做出了贡献，他还是许多新领域的创始人。哲学家布莱恩 · 马吉Bryan Magee认为，“很怀疑是否有人像他一样知道这么多。”。在无数的成就中，Aristotle是形式逻辑的创始人，开创了动物学研究，他对科学方法的贡献让每一个未来的科学家和哲学家都感激不尽。狄克礼•库克宁Taneli Kukkonen 在《古典传统》一书中写道，他在创立两门科学方面的成就是无与伦比的，他在影响“知识事业的每一个分支” ，包括西方伦理和政治理论、神学、修辞学和文学分析的影响也同样长久。因此，Kukkonen 认为，今天对现实的任何分析“几乎肯定会带有Aristotle的色彩... ... 证明他的思想异常强大。”乔纳森•巴恩斯Jonathan Barnes写道: “对Aristotle的知识后世的描述将不亚于一部欧洲思想史。”。 − − − ===On his successor, Theophrastus=== − − 他的后继者泰奥弗拉斯托斯 − − [[File:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg | thumb | upright | [[Book frontispiece|Frontispiece]] to a 1644 version of [[Theophrastus]]'s ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Historia Plantarum]]'', originally written around 300 BC]] − − Frontispiece to a 1644 version of Theophrastus's Historia Plantarum, originally written around 300 BC − − Theophrastus的《植物历史》1644年版本的卷首插图，最初写于公元前300年左右 − − {{main | Theophrastus | Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)}} − − Aristotle's pupil and successor, [[Theophrastus]], wrote the ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|History of Plants]]'', a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as [[carpel]] from ''carpos'', fruit, and [[pericarp]], from ''pericarpion'', seed chamber.{{sfn| Hooker | 1831 | page=219}} − Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.{{sfn| Mayr | 1982 | pp= 90–91}}{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p= 46}} − − Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber. Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned. − − Aristotle的学生和后继者Theophrastus撰写了植物学史，这是一部植物学的开创性著作。他的某些技术术语仍然在使用，如心皮，果实，果皮，从外皮，种子室。与亚里士多德相比，Theophrastus对形式上的原因的关注要少得多，而是实事求是地描述植物是如何运作的。 − − − − ===On later Greek philosophers=== − 关于后来的希腊哲学家 − {{further | Peripatetic school}} − − The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the [[Peripatetic school]]. Aristotle's notable students included [[Aristoxenus]], [[Dicaearchus]], [[Demetrius of Phalerum]], [[Eudemos of Rhodes]], [[Harpalus]], [[Hephaestion]], [[Mnason of Phocis]], [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"{{sfn| Plutarch | 1919 | p= Part 1, 7:7}} − − The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's notable students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?" − − 当吕克昂学院发展成为逍遥学派时，Aristotle的作品随即产生了影响。Aristotle著名的学生包括阿里斯托克西努斯Aristoxenus、狄卡伊尔库斯Dicaearchus、法勒鲁姆的德米特里Demetrius of Phalerum、罗得岛的尤德莫斯Eudemos of Rhodes、哈帕卢斯Harpalus、 赫菲谢耳Hephaestion、 弗西斯的姆纳松Mnason of Phocis、尼各马库斯Nicomachus和Theophrastus。Aristotle对Alexandria大帝的影响体现在Alexandria大帝远征时带来的大批动物学家、植物学家和研究人员。他还从他的老师那里学到了很多关于波斯风俗和传统的知识。尽管他对Aristotle的尊敬有所减弱，因为他的远征清楚地表明，Aristotle的许多地理学说显然是错误的，但当这位老哲学家将他的作品公之于众时，Alexandria抱怨道: “你发表你的晦涩难懂的学说并不好，因为如果我所接受的这些学说成为所有人的共同财产，那么我还能在什么方面超越其他人呢? ” − − − − − − ===On Hellenistic science=== − 关于希腊化科学 − − {{details | Ancient Greek medicine}} − 更多信息：古希腊医学 − − After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.{{sfn| Annas | 2001 | page=252}} It is not until the age of [[Alexandria]] under the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemies]] that advances in biology can be again found. − − After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. − − 在Theophrastus之后，吕克昂学院未能创作出任何原创作品。尽管人们对Aristotle思想的兴趣依然存在，但人们普遍毫无疑问地接受了这些思想。直到托勒密统治下的亚历山大时代，生物学的进步才得以重见天日。 − − − The first medical teacher at Alexandria, [[Herophilos|Herophilus of Chalcedon]], corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between [[vein]]s and [[artery|arteries]], noting that the latter [[pulse]] while the former do not.{{sfn| Mason | 1979 | p= 56}} Though a few ancient [[atomism|atomists]] such as [[Lucretius]] challenged the [[teleology|teleological]] viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, [[natural theology]]) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. [[Ernst Mayr]] states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."{{sfn| Mayr | 1985 | pp=90–94}} − − The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance." − − 亚历山大的第一位医学老师，来自查尔斯顿的赫罗菲菲罗斯Herophilus，纠正了Aristotle的错误，将智慧置于大脑，并将神经系统与运动和感觉联系起来。Herophilus还区分了静脉和动脉，指出后者有脉搏，而前者没有。尽管少数古代原子论者，如 卢克莱修斯Lucretius挑战了Aristotle关于生命的心学观点，但心学(以及基督教兴起后的自然神学)在18、19世纪之前基本上仍然是生物学思想的核心。恩斯特 · 迈尔Ernst Mayr 说，“在Lucretius和盖伦Galen之后，直到文艺复兴时期，生物学上没有任何实质性的结果。” − − ===On Byzantine scholars=== − 关于拜占庭学者 − − {{see also | Commentaries on Aristotle | Byzantine Aristotelianism}} − − 另请参阅：亚里士多德和拜占庭亚里士多德主义评论 − − Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and [[Stephen of Alexandria]] in the early seventh century.{{sfn| Sorabji | 1990 | pages=20, 28, 35–36}} [[John Philoponus]] stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought.{{sfn| Sorabji | 1990 | pages=233–74}} Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the [[theory of impetus]] to explain his observations.{{sfn|Lindberg|1992|p=162}} − − Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations. − − 希腊基督教抄写员抄写了所有现存的希腊语手稿，对保存Aristotle的著作起到了至关重要的作用。第一个广泛评论Aristotle的希腊基督徒是六世纪的斐洛波诺斯Philoponus、以利亚Elias和大卫David，以及七世纪初的亚历山大•斯蒂芬Stephen of Alexandria 。John Philoponus站出来，因为他试图对Aristotle关于世界永恒、运动和Aristotle思想的其他要素观点进行根本性的批判。Philoponus质疑Aristotle的物理学教学，指出其缺陷，并引入了动力理论来解释他的观察。 − − − After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and [[Michael of Ephesus]] reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by [[Anna Comnena]].{{sfn|Sorabji|1990|pp=20–21, 28–29, 393–406, 407–08}} − − After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena. − − 在中断了几个世纪之后，以弗所的 尤斯特拉修斯和米迦勒 Michael 的正式评论在11世纪末和12世纪初重新出现，显然是由 安娜•康姆纳Anna Comnena 发起的。 − − − − ===On the medieval Islamic world=== − 在中世纪的伊斯兰世界 − − {{further|Logic in Islamic philosophy|Transmission of the Greek Classics}} − − [[File:Arabic aristotle.jpg | thumb|upright | Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220]] − − Islamic portrayal of Aristotle, c. 1220 − − 伊斯兰对亚里士多德的描绘，约1220年 − − Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early [[Islamic theology]]. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle,{{sfn|Kennedy-Day|1998}} as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. [[Averroes]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Alpharabius]], who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced [[Thomas Aquinas]] and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. [[Alkindus]] greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy,{{sfn|Staley|1989}} and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers.{{sfn|Averroes|1953|p=III, 2, 43}} Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher".{{sfn|Kennedy-Day|1998}} The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]) who were influenced by the tradition of [[Islamic philosophy]].{{sfn|Nasr|1996|pp=59–60}} − − Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy. − − Aristotle是早期伊斯兰教神学派别最受尊敬的西方思想家之一。现存的Aristotle的大部分著作，以及一些希腊原文注释，被翻译成阿拉伯语，被穆斯林哲学家，科学家和学者研究。阿维罗伊斯Averroes、阿维森纳Avicenna和阿尔法拉比乌斯Alpharabius对Aristotle的著述颇有深度，他们也影响了托马斯 · 阿奎那Thomas Aquinas和其他西方基督教哲学家。阿尔金杜斯Alkindus非常推崇亚里士多德的哲学，Avicenna称Aristotle是未来所有哲学家的“典范”。中世纪的穆斯林学者经常把亚里士多德称为“第一导师”。“老师”这个头衔最初是由穆斯林学者赋予Aristotle的，后来受到伊斯兰哲学传统的影响，西方哲学家也使用这个称号(如但丁的著名诗歌)。 − − − − − − ===On medieval Europe=== − 在中世纪的欧洲 − − {{anchor|Phyllis}} − − [[File:Aristotle and Phyllis.jpg | thumb | upright | left | Woodcut of [[The tale of Phyllis and Aristotle|Aristotle ridden by Phyllis]] by [[Hans Baldung]], 1515{{sfn|Phyllis and Aristotle}}]] − − Aristotle ridden by Phyllis by Hans Baldung, 1515 − − 菲利斯骑在亚里士多德身上，汉斯 · 巴尔顿，1515 − − {{further|Aristotelianism|Syllogism#Medieval}} − − With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early [[medieval]] Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the ''Organon'' made by [[Boethius]]. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by [[Gerard of Cremona]],{{sfn| Hasse | 2014}} and from the original Greek, such as those by [[James of Venice]] and [[William of Moerbeke]]. After the [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] Thomas Aquinas wrote his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher",{{sfn|Aquinas|2013}} the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the [[Renaissance]].{{sfn| Kuhn | 2018}} These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, [[Peter Abelard]], and [[John Buridan]] worked on Aristotelian logic.{{sfn| Lagerlund}} − − With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa Theologica, working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic. − − 随着中世纪早期拉丁美洲对古希腊文研究的缺失，Aristotle在公元600年到公元1100年期间几乎不为人所知，除了通过对波伊提乌斯Boethius《工具论》的拉丁文翻译。在12世纪和13世纪，人们对亚里士多德重新有了兴趣，拉丁基督徒也有译本，既有阿拉伯译本，如克雷莫纳的杰拉德，也有原希腊译本，如威尼斯的雅各和莫尔比克的威廉。在经院哲学家Thomas Aquinas 根据莫尔贝克Moerbeke的译本写了《神学年鉴》后，人们对Aristotle作品的需求增加了，希腊手稿也回到了西方，刺激了Aristotle主义在欧洲的复兴，并持续到文艺复兴时期。这些思想家将亚里士多德哲学与基督教相结合，将古希腊思想带入中世纪。Boethius、彼得 · 阿贝拉尔Peter Abelard和约翰 · 布里丹John Buridan等学者致力于亚里士多德逻辑学。 − − − The medieval English poet [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] describes his student as being happy by having − − The medieval English poet Chaucer describes his student as being happy by having − − 中世纪英国诗人乔叟这样描述他的学生: 因为拥有他而感到快乐 − − − − {{quote | <poem>at his beddes heed − Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed, − {{quote | <poem>at his beddes heed − Of aristotle and his philosophie,</poem>}} − − 他宁可在他的床头前 − 摆上二十本书，黑的或红的封面， − 那是亚里士多德和他的哲学 − − A [[The tale of Phyllis and Aristotle|cautionary medieval tale]] held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as [[Hans Baldung]] produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme.{{sfn| Aristotle Phyllis}}{{sfn|Phyllis and Aristotle}} − − A cautionary medieval tale held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as Hans Baldung produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme. − − 在一个中世纪的警世故事中，Aristotle建议他的学生亚历山大避开国王的情妇菲利斯，但他自己却被她迷住了，允许她骑在他身上。菲利斯Phyllis秘密地告诉亚历山大接下来会发生什么，他目睹了Phyllis证明了一个女人的魅力可以战胜哪怕是最伟大的哲学家的男性智慧。艺术家如汉斯•巴尔顿Hans Baldung创作了一系列插图的流行主题。 − − The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'': − − The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in The Divine Comedy: − − 意大利诗人但丁在《神曲》中这样评价Aristotle: − − − − {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 85%;" − − { | class = “ wikable” style = “ font-size: 85% ; ” − − |+ − − |+ − − {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 85%;" − − ! Dante<br>L'Inferno, Canto IV. 131–135 !! Translation<br>Hell − − !但丁《地狱篇》 ，第四章。131–135 !!地狱 − − |+ − − |- − − |- − − ! [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]<br>''L'Inferno'', Canto IV. 131–135 !! Translation<br>''Hell'' − − |<poem>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno − − |<poem>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno − − |- − − − − [咒语]。 − − |<poem>vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno − − seder tra filosofica famiglia. − − − − − − − I saw the Master there of those who know, − − 我在那里见到了那位为人所知的大师, − − Amid the philosophic family, − − 在哲学家族中, − − By all admired, and by all reverenced; − − 受到所有人的敬仰和崇敬; − − There Plato too I saw, and Socrates, − − 在那里我也看到了柏拉图和苏格拉底, + + + + − 站在他身边的人比其他人都近。+ − + − + − + − + − + − |} − − |} − − − − |} − − − ===On Early Modern scientists=== − 论早期现代科学家 − − [[File:William Harvey ( 1578-1657) Venenbild.jpg | thumb | [[William Harvey]]'s ''[[Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus|De Motu Cordis]]'', 1628, showed that the [[circulation of the blood|blood circulated]], contrary to classical era thinking.]] − − [[William Harvey's De Motu Cordis, 1628, showed that the blood circulated, contrary to classical era thinking.]] − − [威廉 · 哈维(William Harvey)的于1628年出版的《De Motu Cordis》表明，血液循环与古典时代的思想相反。 − − In the [[Early Modern]] period, scientists such as [[William Harvey]] in England and [[Galileo Galilei]] in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like [[Galen]], establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the [[circulation of the blood]], establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought.{{sfn| Aird | 2011 | pp=118–29}} Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.{{sfn| Machamer | 2017}} − − In the Early Modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight. − − 在近代早期，英国的威廉 · 哈维William Harvey和意大利的伽利略 · 伽利雷Galileo Galilei等科学家反对Aristotle和其他古典时代思想家如盖伦的理论，一定程度上建立了以观察和实验为基础的新理论。哈维证明了血液循环，证明了心脏作为一个泵的功能，而不是像Aristotle认为的那样，是灵魂的所在地和身体热量的控制器。伽利略用更多值得怀疑的论点来取代Aristotle的物理学，他提出物体不论重量大小，下落的速度都是一样的。 − − − ===On 19th-century thinkers=== − 关于19世纪思想家 − − The 19th-century German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.{{sfn| Durant | 2006 | p=86}} Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, ''arete'') of others. It was [[Martin Heidegger]], not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition.{{sfn| Sikka | 1997 | page=265}} − − The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, arete) of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. − − 据说19世纪德国哲学家弗里德里希·尼采Friedrich Nietzsche的政治哲学几乎全部来自于Aristotle。Aristotle严格地将行动与生产分离开来，并主张某些人(“自然奴隶”)应得的服从，而另一些人的自然优越感(美德，受到尊重)。是马丁·海德格尔Martin Heidegger而不是Nietzsche，阐述了对Aristotle的新诠释，意图证明他对学术和哲学传统的解构。 − − The English mathematician [[George Boole]] fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of [[Boolean algebra|algebraic logic]] in his 1854 book ''[[The Laws of Thought]]''. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check [[Validity (logic)|validity]], and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.{{sfn| Boole | 2003}} − − The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two. − − 英国数学家乔治 · 布尔George Boole 完全接受Aristotle的逻辑学，但在他1854年出版的著作《思想法则》中，他决定用他的代数逻辑系统“超越”它。这就使逻辑学有了方程的数学基础，使它既能解方程，又能检验有效性，并使它能处理更广泛的一类问题，将任意数项的命题扩大，而不仅仅是两个命题。 − − − ===Modern rejection and rehabilitation=== − 现代的废弃和复原 − [[File:Alexander and Aristotle.jpg | thumb|upright=1.2 | left | "That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander".{{sfn|Kukkonen|2010|pages=70–77}} Illustration by {{interlanguage link|Charles Laplante|fr}}, 1866]] − − − "That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander". Illustration by , 1866 − − “最经久不衰的浪漫主义形象，是Aristotle教导未来的征服者亚历山大”。插图: 1866 − − During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]]argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.{{sfn|Russell|1972}} − − During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors. − − 在20世纪，Aristotle的著作受到广泛的批评。哲学家伯特兰·罗素Bertrand Russell认为，“几乎每一次重大的知识进步都必须从攻击Aristotle的某些学说开始”。Aristotle的伦理学是“令人厌恶”的 ，并称他的逻辑学“和托勒密Ptolemaic的天文学一样过时”。Russell指出，这些错误使得人们很难公正地看待Aristotle，直到人们想起他对他所有的前辈所做的进步。 − − The Dutch historian of science [[Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis]] wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses.{{sfn|Dijksterhuis|1969|p=72}} In 1985, the biologist [[Peter Medawar]] could still state in "pure seventeenth century"{{sfn|Leroi|2015|p=353}} tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility".{{sfn|Leroi|2015|p=353}}{{sfn|Medawar|Medawar|1984|p=28}} − − The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility". − − 荷兰科学史家迪克斯特休伊斯爱德华·简 Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis写道，Aristotle和他的前辈们通过 "如此轻易地根据他们的感官提供的有限证据来构筑这样一种一般性的理论"，显示了科学的困难。1985年，生物学家彼得•梅达瓦Peter Medawar仍然可以用 "纯正的十七世纪 "的语气说，Aristotle集合了 "一种奇怪的、一般说来相当令人厌烦的传闻、不完善的观察、一厢情愿的想法和相当于完全轻信的可信度"。 − − By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition."{{sfn|Kukkonen|2010|pp=70–77}} [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.{{sfn|Knight|2007|pp=''passim''}} Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film ''[[Alexander (2004 film)|Alexander]]'', while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the ''Poetics'' in [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]].{{sfn|Kukkonen|2010|pp=70–77}} − − By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film Alexander, while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the Poetics in Hollywood. − − 然而，到了21世纪初，Aristotle受到了更多的重视。Kukkonen指出，"在20世纪最好的学术研究中，Aristotle作为一个思想家与希腊哲学传统的全部重量相抗衡，活灵活现。" 阿拉斯戴尔•麦金泰尔Alasdair MacIntyre试图以一种反精英主义的方式改革他所谓的亚里士多德传统，并能够与自由主义者和尼采主义者的主张相争 。Kukkonen 还指出，“Aristotle对未来的征服者亚历山大的指导，是最经久不衰的浪漫主义形象” ，正如2004年的电影《亚历山大》一样，而Aristotle戏剧理论的“坚定规则”确保了《诗学》在好莱坞的地位。 − − Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. [[Armand Marie Leroi]] has reconstructed Aristotle's biology,{{sfn|Leroi|2015}} while [[Tinbergen's four questions|Niko Tinbergen's four questions]], based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse [[animal behaviour]]; they examine [[function (biology)|function]], [[phylogeny]], [[mechanism (biology)|mechanism]], and [[ontogeny]].{{sfn|MacDougall-Shackleton|2011|pp=2076–85}}{{sfn|Hladký|Havlíček|2013}} − − Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny. − − 生物学家继续对Aristotle的思想感兴趣。阿曼德 · 玛丽 · 莱罗伊Armand Marie Leroi重建了Aristotle的生物学，而尼科 · 廷伯根Niko Tinbergen根据Aristotle的四个原因提出的四个问题，被用来分析动物行为; 他们研究功能、系统发育、机制和个体发育。 − − − − ==Surviving works== − 幸存的作品 − − ===Corpus Aristotelicum=== − 亚里士多德文集 − {{main | Corpus Aristotelicum}} − − [[File:Aristotelis De Moribus ad Nicomachum.jpg | thumb | upright | First page of a 1566 edition of the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in Greek and Latin]] − − First page of a 1566 edition of the [[Nicomachean Ethics in Greek and Latin]] − − 1566年版《希腊文和拉丁文的尼科马奇伦理》的首页 − − The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of [[Immanuel Bekker]]'s Royal Prussian Academy edition (''Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica'', Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.{{sfn| Aristotelis Opera}} − − The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works. − − Aristotle的著作是通过中世纪手稿传播而从古代流传下来的，现收藏在亚里士多德文集中。这些文本，相对于Aristotle失传的著作，是Aristotle派内部的技术性哲学论著。参考他们是根据伊曼纽尔贝克的普鲁士皇家学院版(Aristotle的歌剧编辑委员会学术区，柏林，1831-1870年)的编排 ，而这一编排又是基于古代对这些著作的分类来进行的。 − − − ===Loss and preservation=== − 损失和保存 − {{see | Recovery of Aristotle}} − − Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.{{efn-ua | "When the Roman dictator Sulla invaded Athens in 86 BC, he brought back to Rome a fantastic prize – Aristotle's library. Books then were papyrus rolls, from 10 to 20 feet long, and since Aristotle's death in 322 BC, worms and damp had done their worst. The rolls needed repairing, and the texts clarifying and copying on to new papyrus (imported from Egypt – Moses' bulrushes). The man in Rome who put Aristotle's library in order was a Greek scholar, Tyrannio."{{sfn| When libraries were | 2001}}}} His writings are divisible into two groups: the "[[exoteric]]", intended for the public, and the "[[esoteric]]", for use within the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] school.{{sfn| Barnes | 1995 | p=12}}{{efn-ua | 1=Aristotle: ''Nicomachean Ethics'' 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of ''exōterikoi logoi'', see [[W.D. Ross]], ''Aristotle's Metaphysics'' (1953), vol. 2 pp= 408–10. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the [[Peripatetic school]]", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.}}{{sfn| House | 1956 | page=35}} Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication.{{sfn| Irwin | Fine | 1996 | pp= xi–xii }}{{sfn| Barnes | 1995 | p=12}} [[Cicero]]'s description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.{{efn-ua | "''veniet flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles''", (Google translation: "Aristotle will come pouring forth a golden stream of eloquence").{{sfn| Cicero | 1874}}}} A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us.{{sfn| Barnes | Griffin | 1999 | pages=1–69}} The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.{{sfn| Anagnostopoulos | 2013 | page=16}}{{sfn| Barnes | 1995 | pp=10–15}} − − Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.}His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school. Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today. − − Aristotle把他的作品写在纸莎草纸卷上，这是当时常见的书写媒介。他的著作可分为两类: 面向公众的“通俗”著作，以及在吕克昂学院内部使用的“深奥”著作。Aristotle的 "遗失 "的作品在表征上与现存的亚里士多德文集大相径庭。遗失的作品似乎最初是为了以后的出版而写的，而现存的作品则大多类似于不打算出版的讲义。Aristotle的文学风格描述为“黄金之河” ，这一定适用于已出版的作品，而不是现存的笔记。Aristotle著作史上的一个主要问题是，那些公开的著作是如何全部丢失的，而我们现在拥有的那些著作又是如何来到我们这里的。人们一致认为，罗德岛的Andronicus收集了亚里士多德学派的，以较小的、独立的作品形式存在的深奥作品，将它们与Theophrastus和其他学派的作品区分开来，对它们进行编辑，最后将它们汇编成今天人们所熟知的更具凝聚力的、更大的作品。 − − − ==Legacy== − 遗产 − − ===Depictions=== − 叙述 − − ==Paintings== − 绘画 − − Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]],{{sfn| Lucas Cranach the Elder}} [[Justus van Gent]], [[Raphael]], [[Paolo Veronese]], [[Jusepe de Ribera]],{{sfn| Lee | Robinson | 2005}} [[Rembrandt]],{{sfn| Aristotle with Bust | 2002}} and [[Francesco Hayez]] over the centuries. Among the best known is Raphael's [[fresco]] ''[[The School of Athens]]'', in the [[Apostolic Palace|Vatican's Apostolic Palace]], where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural [[vanishing point]], reflecting their importance.{{sfn| Phelan | 2002}} Rembrandt's ''[[Aristotle with a Bust of Homer]]'', too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic [[Jonathan Jones (journalist)|Jonathan Jones]] writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time."{{sfn| Held | 1969}}{{sfn| Jones | 2002}} − − − − “ packed" heights = " 170px" > − − Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best known is Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time." − − 几个世纪以来，包括老卢卡斯·克拉纳赫Lucas Cranach the Elder，贾斯特斯•范绅士 Justus van Gent，Raphael，保罗·委罗内塞 Paolo Veronese，胡塞佩·德·里贝拉，伦勃朗Rembrandt，和 弗朗西斯科·海兹Francesco Hayez 等主要艺术家都曾描绘过Aristotle的形象。其中最著名的是Raphael在梵蒂冈使徒宫的壁画《雅典学校》 ，Plato和Aristotle的形象是图像的中心，处于建筑的消失点，反映了他们的重要性。Rembrandt的《亚里士多德与荷马半身像》也是一幅著名的作品，展示了早年的知识渊博的哲学家和盲人荷马: 正如艺术评论家乔纳森 · 琼斯 Jonathan Jones所写的，“这幅画仍将是世界上最伟大、最神秘的画作之一，让我们沉浸于发霉、发光、漆黑、可怕的时间知识中"。 − − − File:Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg | ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' [[anachronism|anachronistically]] shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493 − − − − Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg | Nuremberg Chronicle anachronistically shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493 − − 《纽伦堡编年史》不合时宜地展示了Aristotle穿着中世纪学者的服装。水彩画，1493年 − − File:Gent, Justus van - Aristotle - c. 1476.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Justus van Gent]]. Oil on panel, c. 1476 − − File:Gent, Justus van - Aristotle - c. 1476.jpg | Aristotle by Justus van Gent. Oil on panel, c. 1476 − − Aristotle（贾斯特斯•范绅士）画板油画，c.1476 − − File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Phyllis und Aristotle (1530).jpg | ''Phyllis and Aristotle'' by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]]. Oil on panel, 1530 − − File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Phyllis und Aristotle (1530).jpg | Phyllis and Aristotle by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Oil on panel, 1530 − − Phyllis 和Aristotle（ 老卢卡斯·克拉纳赫）画板油画，1530 − − File:Biblioteka Marciana, Aristotel.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Paolo Veronese]], Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s − − File:Biblioteka Marciana, Aristotel.jpg | Aristotle by Paolo Veronese, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s − − Aristotle（保罗·委罗内塞），马丽安娜图书馆帆布油画，16世纪60年代 − − File:Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG | ''Aristotle and [[Campaspe]]'',{{efn-ua | Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.}} [[Alessandro Turchi]] (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713 − − File:Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG | Aristotle and Campaspe, Alessandro Turchi (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713 − − Aristotle和坎帕斯佩，亚历山德罗·图尔奇（attrib）布面油画，1713年 − − File:Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg | ''[[Aristotle (Ribera painting)|Aristotle]]'' by [[Jusepe de Ribera]]. Oil on canvas, 1637 − − File:Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg | Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera. Oil on canvas, 1637 − − Aristotle（胡塞佩·德·里贝拉），帆布油画，1637年 − − File:Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg | ''Aristotle with a Bust of [[Homer]]'' by [[Rembrandt]]. Oil on canvas, 1653 − − File:Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg | Aristotle with a Bust of Homer by Rembrandt. Oil on canvas, 1653 − − Aristotle与伦勃朗荷马半身像。帆布油画，1653年 − − File:Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder]]. Oil on canvas, by 1813 − − File:Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg | Aristotle by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder. Oil on canvas, by 1813 − − Aristotle（老约翰·雅各布·多尔纳）帆布油画，1813年 − − File:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg | ''Aristotle'' by [[Francesco Hayez]]. Oil on canvas, 1811 − − File:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg | Aristotle by Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1811 − − 亚里士多德 （弗朗西斯科·海兹）。帆布油画，1811年 − − ==Sculptures== − 雕塑作品 − − File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by [[Lysippos]]. [[Louvre Museum]] − − File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by Lysippos. Louvre Museum − − 1世纪或2世纪的罗马复制品，出自 利西波斯 的青铜原件。卢浮宫博物馆 − − File:DSC00218 - Aristotele - Copia romana del 117-138 dC. - Foto di G. Dall'Orto.jpg|Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum − − File:DSC00218 - Aristotele - Copia romana del 117-138 dC. - Foto di G. Dall'Orto.jpg|Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum − − 117-138 dC.- Foto di g. Dall‘ Orto.jpg | 公元117-138年希腊原版的罗马复制品。巴勒莫地区考古博物馆 − − File:Formella 21, platone e aristotele o la filosofia, luca della robbia, 1437-1439.JPG|Relief of Aristotle and Plato by [[Luca della Robbia]], [[Florence Cathedral]], 1437-1439 − − File:Formella 21, platone e aristotele o la filosofia, luca della robbia, 1437-1439.JPG|Relief of Aristotle and Plato by Luca della Robbia, Florence Cathedral, 1437-1439 − − Aristotle和Plato的救赎，卢卡·德拉·罗比亚，佛罗伦萨大教堂，1437-1439 − − File:Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone's Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG|Stone statue in niche, [[Gladstone's Library]], [[Hawarden]], Wales, 1899 − − File:Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone's Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG|Stone statue in niche, Gladstone's Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899 − − 利基的石像，格拉斯通图书馆，威尔士哈沃登，1899年 − − File:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|Bronze statue, [[University of Freiburg]], Germany, 1915 − − File:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|Bronze statue, University of Freiburg, Germany, 1915 − − 青铜雕像，弗赖堡大学，德国，1915年 − − ===Eponyms=== − 名字被用于命名地方 − − The [[Aristotle Mountains]] in [[Antarctica]] are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]'', the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it ''Antarctica''.{{sfn| Aristotle Mountains}} [[Aristoteles (crater)|Aristoteles]] is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.{{sfn| Aristoteles}} − − The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it Antarctica. Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name. − − 南极洲的亚里士多德山是以Aristotle的名字命名的。他是第一个在他的《气象学》一书中推测出南半球高纬度地区存在一个地块并将其称为南极洲的人。亚里士多德是月球上的一个陨石坑，是Aristotle名字的经典形式。 − − − − ==See also== − 另请参见 − * [[Aristotelian Society]]亚里士多德学会 − − * [[Conimbricenses]]孔布拉派 − − * [[Perfectionism (philosophy)|Perfectionism]] 完美主义 − − − − ==References== − − − − ===Notes=== − − {{notelist-ua | 30em}} − − − − ===Citations=== − − {{Reflist | colwidth=25em}} − − − − ===Sources=== − − − − {{refbegin|36em}} − − * {{cite book |author=Aesop |author-link=Aesop |title=The Complete Fables By Aesop |date=1998 | translator-last=Temple | translator-first=Olivia | translator-last2=Temple | translator-first2=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&pg=PR3 |publisher=Penguin Classics |isbn=978-0-14-044649-4}} − − * {{cite journal |last=Aird |first=W. C. |title=Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William Harvey |year=2011 |pages=118–29 |journal=Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis |volume=9 |doi=10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04312.x |pmid=21781247 |s2cid=12092592}} − − * {{cite journal |last1=Allain |first1=Rhett |title=I'm So Totally Over Newton's Laws of Motion |journal=Wired |date=21 March 2016 |url=https://www.wired.com/2016/03/im-totally-newtons-laws-motion/ |access-date=11 May 2018}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Allen |first1=Mark |last2=Fisher |first2=John H. |title=The Complete Poetry and Prose of Geoffrey Chaucer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eMSUXumf6psC&pg=PA17 |date=2011 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-15-506041-8}} − − * {{cite book |last=Anagnostopoulos |first=Georgios |title=A Companion to Aristotle |year=2013 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-118-59243-4}} − − * {{cite book |last=Annas |first=Julia |title=Classical Greek Philosophy |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285357-8}} − − * {{cite book |last=Aquinas |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Aquinas |title=Summa Theologica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YiJCBAAAQBAJ |date=20 August 2013 |publisher=e-artnow |isbn=978-80-7484-292-4}} − − * {{cite web | editor-first=Immanuel | editor-last=Bekker | orig-year=1831 |url=http://archive.org/details/bub_gb_jMz9zVYu9Q0C |title=Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica Aristoteles graece |last=Aristoteles |date=31 January 2019 |publisher=apud Georgium Reimerum |access-date=31 January 2019 |via=Internet Archive |ref=CITEREFAristotelis Opera}} − − * {{cite web |title=Aristoteles |url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/nomenclature/SearchResults;jsessionid=BE8F9834B709207DDD5D36EFA5506C7F |website=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. United States Geological Survey |access-date=19 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristoteles}} − − * {{cite web |title=Aristoteles-Park in Stagira |url=http://www.dimosaristoteli.gr/en/sights/aristotle-park |publisher=Dimos Aristoteli |access-date=20 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristoteles-Park in Stagira}} − − * {{cite IEP |title=Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E.) |date=2009 | url-id=aristotl |issn=2161-0002 |ref=CITEREFAristotle (384–322 B.C.E.)}} − − * {{cite web |title=Aristotle (Greek philosopher) |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |website=Britannica.com |access-date=26 April 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422103155/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |archivedate=22 April 2009 | url-status=live |ref=CITEREFAristotle (Greek philosopher)}} − − * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Metaphysics |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFMetaphysics}} − − * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Meteorology |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFMeteorology}} − − * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Nicomachean Ethics |author=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |ref=CITEREFNicomachean Ethics}} − − * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/soul.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=On the Soul |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFOn the Soul}} − − * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Physics |author=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=31 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPhysics}} − − * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Poetics |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPoetics}} − − * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Politics |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |access-date=30 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPolitics}} − − * {{cite web |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/prior.html |publisher=The Internet Classics Archive |title=Prior Analytics |last=Aristotle |website=classics.mit.edu |ref=CITEREFPrior Analytics}} − − * {{cite web |author=Aristotle |title=Rhetoric | translator-first=W. Rhys | translator-last=Roberts |url=http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-5.html |archivedate=13 February 2015 |ref=CITEREFRhetoric| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213075039/http://rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-5.html}} − − * {{cite web |title=Aristotle Mountains |url=https://data.aad.gov.au/aadc/gaz/scar/display_name.cfm?gaz_id=137410 |work=[[Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research|SCAR]] [[Composite Antarctic Gazetteer]] |publisher=[[Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide]] |agency=[[Department of the Environment and Energy]], [[Australian Antarctic Division]], [[Australian Government]] | access-date=1 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle Mountains}} − − * {{cite book |author=Aristotle |title=Politics-Ethics, In Early Economic Thought: Selections from Economic Literature Prior to Adam Smith |date=1948 |editor=Monroe, Arthur E. |publisher=Harvard University Press}} − − * {{cite book |author=Aristotle |title=The Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/politics0000aris |url-access=registration |date=1984 |editor=Lord, Carnes |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-92184-6}} − − * {{cite book |author=Aristotle |title=Politics |date=2009 |others=Translated by Ernest Barker and revised with introduction and notes by R.F. Stalley |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953873-7 |edition=1st |origyear=1995}} − − * {{cite book |author=Aristotle | translator-last1=Sachs | translator-first1=Joe |title=Aristotle's ''Metaphysics'' |year=1999 |publisher=Green Lion Press}} − − * {{cite web |title=Aristotle and Phyllis |url=http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/20121 |publisher=Art Institute Chicago |access-date=22 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle Phyllis}} − − * {{cite web |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/aristotle |title=Aristotle definition and meaning |publisher=Collins English Dictionary |website=www.collinsdictionary.com |ref=CITEREFCollins English Dictionary}} − − * {{cite news |title=Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, Rembrandt (1653) |date=27 July 2002 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2002/jul/27/art.homer |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=23 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle with Bust2002}} − − * {{cite book |last=Averroes |title=Commentarium Magnum in Aristotelis De Anima Libros|editor-last=Crawford|editor-first=F. Stuart |publisher=Mediaeval Academy of America |oclc=611422373 |date=1953}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |title=Aristotle: A Very Short Introduction |date=1982 |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285408-7}} − − * {{cite book |last=Barnes |first=Jonathan |chapter=Life and Work |title=The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle |date=1995 |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42294-9 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBqQOqM5dfsC}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Barnes |last2=Griffin |first2=Miriam Tamara |title=Philosophia Togata: Plato and Aristotle at Rome. II |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r18BAAAACAAJ |year=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-815222-4}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Bergstrom |first1=Carl T. |last2=Dugatkin |first2=Lee Alan |title=Evolution |date=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SeaEZwEACAAJ |publisher=Norton |isbn=978-0-393-92592-0}} − − * {{cite journal |last=Blits |first=Kathleen C. |title=Aristotle: Form, function, and comparative anatomy |date=15 April 1999 |pages=58–63 |journal=The Anatomical Record |volume=257 |issue=2 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(19990415)257:2<58::AID-AR6>3.0.CO;2-I |pmid=10321433}} − − * {{cite book |last=Bloch |first=David |title=Aristotle on Memory and Recollection |date=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwTHng_5RqAC&q=Aristotle+on+Memory+and+Recollection&pg=PR9 |isbn=978-90-04-16046-0}} − − * {{cite book | chapter-url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/logic-ancient/ |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |first=Susanne |last=Bobzien |chapter=Ancient Logic | editor-first=Edward N. | editor-last=Zalta |date=2015 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |via=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}} − − * {{cite book |last=Boole |first=George |author-link=George Boole |title=The Laws of Thought |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nUEQAQAAIAAJ |year=2003 | orig-year=1854 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-59102-089-9}} − − * {{cite web |last=Campbell |first=Michael |title=Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name "Aristotle" |url=http://www.behindthename.com/name/aristotle |website=Behind the Name |access-date=6 April 2012}} − − * {{cite book |last=Carruthers |first=Mary |title=The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture |date=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dntrAnqfIasC&q=The+book+of+memory:+the+study+of+memory+in+medieval+times&pg=PR8 |isbn=978-0-521-42973-3}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Carteron |first1=Henri |title=Notion de Force dans le Systeme d'Aristote |date=1923 |publisher=J. Vrin |language=French}} − − * {{cite book |last=Cicero |first=Marcus Tullius |author-link=Cicero |chapter=Book II, chapter XXXVIII, §119 |title=The Academica of Cicero 106–43 BC |date=1874 | editor-first=James S. | editor-last=Reid |publisher=Macmillan}} − − * {{cite web |last1=Cohen |first1=S. Marc |title=Aristotle's Metaphysics |date=8 October 2000 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=The Metaphysics Research Lab Center for the Study of Language and Information |access-date=14 November 2018}} − − * {{cite SEP |last=Cohen |first=S. Marc |title=Aristotle's Metaphysics |date=2016 | url-id=aristotle-metaphysics/#ActuPote}} − − * {{cite SEP |last=Cohen |first=S. Marc |title=Aristotle's Metaphysics: Substance and Definition |date=2016 | url-id=aristotle-metaphysics/#SubsDefi}} − − * {{cite SEP |last=Cohen |first=S. Marc |title=Aristotle's Metaphysics: Substances and Universals |date=2016 | url-id=aristotle-metaphysics/#SubsUniv}} − − * {{cite journal |last=Corcoran |first=John |title=Aristotle's Demonstrative Logic |date=2009 |pages=1–20 |journal=History and Philosophy of Logic |volume=30|doi=10.1080/01445340802228362 |citeseerx=10.1.1.650.463|s2cid=8514675 }} − − * {{cite journal |last1=Day |first1=J. |title=Botany meets archaeology: people and plants in the past |year=2013 |pages=5805–16 |journal=Journal of Experimental Botany |volume=64 |issue=18 |doi=10.1093/jxb/ert068 |pmid=23669575|doi-access=free }} − − * {{cite journal |last=Degnan |first=Michael |title=Recent Work in Aristotle's Logic |date=1994 |pages=81–89 |journal=Philosophical Books |volume=35 |issue=2 (April 1994)|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0149.1994.tb02858.x}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Deslauriers |first1=Marguerite |last2=Destrée |first2=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haCyAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 |title=The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=157–162 |isbn=978-1107004689}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Dijksterhuis |first1=Eduard Jan |title=The Mechanization of the World Picture |date=1969 |translator=C. Dikshoorn |publisher=Princeton University Press}} − − * {{cite journal |last1=Drabkin |first1=Israel E. |title=Notes on the Laws of Motion in Aristotle |date=1938 |pages=60–84 |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=59 |issue=1 |jstor=90584|doi=10.2307/290584}} − * {{cite book |last=Durant |first=Will |title=The Story of Philosophy |date=2006 |author-link=Will Durant |origyear=1926 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-73916-4 | title-link=The Story of Philosophy}}+ − * {{cite book |last=Düring |first=Ingemar |title=Aristotle in the Ancient Biographical Tradition. By Ingemar Düring |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MnKAQwAACAAJ |year=1957 |publisher=Almqvist & Wiksell in Komm.}}+ − * {{cite book |last1=Ebenstein |first1=Alan |first2=William |last2=Ebenstein |title=Introduction to Political Thinkers |date=2002 | author-link=Alan O. Ebenstein |publisher=Wadsworth Group}}+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − * {{cite journal |last=Evans |first=Nancy |s2cid=143750010 |date=2006 |title=Diotima and Demeter as Mystagogues in Plato's Symposium |journal=Hypatia |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=1–27 |doi=10.1111/j.1527-2001.2006.tb01091.x |issn=1527-2001}}+ − * {{cite journal |last=Filonik |first=Jakub |title=Athenian impiety trials: a reappraisal |date=2013 |pages=72–73 |journal=Dike |issue=16 |doi=10.13130/1128-8221/4290 | doi-access=free}}+ − * {{cite book |last=Freeland |first=Cynthia A. |title=Feminist Interpretations of Aristotle |date=1998 |publisher=Penn State University Press |isbn=978-0-271-01730-3}}+ − * {{cite book |last1=Garver |first1=Eugene |title=Aristotle's Rhetoric: An Art of Character |date=1994 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-28425-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2ldWwIQhHwC&q=Aristotle+ethos+pathos+logos}}+ − * {{cite book |last=Gigon |first=Olof |title=Vita Aristotelis Marciana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a3ldDwAAQBAJ |date=2017 | orig-year=1965 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-082017-1}} − * {{cite book |last=Green |first=Peter |title=Alexander of Macedon |url=https://archive.org/details/alexanderofmaced0000gree |url-access=registration |date=1991 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-27586-7}}+ + − * {{cite book |last=Grimaldi |first=William M. 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Philosophie (Doxographica [Forts. ]) |year=1992 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ifqGuiHo6eQC&pg=PA3862 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-013699-9}}+ + − * {{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Edith |title=Aristotle's Way: How Ancient Wisdom Can Change Your Life |date=2018 |publisher=[[The Bodley Head]] |isbn=978-1-84792-407-0}}+ + + + + + + − * {{cite book |last1=Halliwell |first1=Stephen |chapter=Inside and Outside the Work of Art |title=The Aesthetics of Mimesis: Ancient Texts and Modern Problems |date=2002 |pages=152–59 |author-link=Stephen Halliwell (academic) |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-09258-4 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R8wctGFg12MC&q=Aristotle+mimesis}}+ + + + − * {{cite book |last=Hankinson |first=R.J. |title=Cause and Explanation in Ancient Greek Thought |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-823745-7 |doi=10.1093/0199246564.001.0001}}+ + − * {{cite SEP |last=Hasse |first=Dag Nikolaus |title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West |date=2014 | url-id=arabic-islamic-influence}}+ − + − * {{cite book |last=Held |first=Julius |title=Rembrandt's Aristotle and Other Rembrandt Studies |url=https://archive.org/details/rembrandtsaristo0000held | url-access=registration |year=1969 |author-link=Julius S. 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Comparison of Tinbergen's Four Whys and Aristotle's Four Causes |journal=Human Ethology Bulletin |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=3–11}} − − * {{cite journal |last1=Holowchak |first1=Mark |title=Aristotle on Dreaming: What Goes on in Sleep when the 'Big Fire' goes out |date=1996 |pages=405–23 |journal=Ancient Philosophy |volume=16 |issue=2 |url=http://www.pdcnet.org/ancientphil/Ancient-Philosophy |doi=10.5840/ancientphil199616244}} − − * {{cite book |last=Hooker |first=Sir William Jackson |author-link=William Jackson Hooker |title=The British Flora: Comprising the Phaenogamous, Or Flowering Plants, and the Ferns |year=1831 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-IYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA219 |publisher=Longman |oclc=17317293}} − − * {{cite book |last=House |first=Humphry |title=Aristotle's Poetics |date=1956 |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotlespoetic032945mbp |publisher=Rupert Hart-Davis}} − − * {{cite web |last1=Hutchinson |first1=D. 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R. |title=The Scientific Evolution of Psychology, Volume I |year=1963 |publisher=Principia Press |isbn=978-0-911188-25-7}} − − * {{cite book |last=Kaufmann |first=Walter Arnold |title=Tragedy and Philosophy |date=1968 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-02005-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NTk9-180NbsC&q=Aristotle+Oedipus+the+King}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Kennedy-Day |first1=Kiki |chapter=Aristotelianism in Islamic philosophy |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=1998 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-H002-1 |isbn=978-0-415-25069-6}} − − * {{cite book |last=Knight |first=Kelvin |title=Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics & Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre |date=2007 |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-0-7456-1977-4}} − − * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Kraut |first1=Richard |title=Aristotle's Ethics |date=1 May 2001 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |accessdate=19 March 2018}} − − * {{cite SEP |last=Kuhn |first=Heinrich |title=Aristotelianism in the Renaissance |date=2018 | url-id=aristotelianism-renaissance}} − − * {{cite book |last=Kukkonen |first=Taneli |title=The classical tradition |year=2010 | editor-last=Grafton | editor-first=Anthony | display-editors=etal |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-03572-0}} − − * {{cite SEP |last=Lagerlund |first=Henrik |title=Medieval Theories of the Syllogism |date=2016 | url-id=medieval-syllogism}} − − * {{cite SEP |last=Lagerlund |first=Henrik |title=Medieval Theories of the Syllogism | url-id=medieval-syllogism}} − − * {{cite web |last=Lahanas |first=Michael |title=Optics and ancient Greeks |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |website=Mlahanas.de |access-date=26 April 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411051535/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |archivedate=11 April 2009 | url-status=dead}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Ellen Wardwell |last2=Robinson |first2=Anne |title=Indianapolis Museum of Art: Highlights of the Collection |year=2005 |publisher=[[Indianapolis Museum of Art]] |isbn=978-0-936260-77-8}} − − * {{cite book |last=Leroi |first=Armand Marie |title=The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science |date=2015 |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |titlelink=Aristotle's Lagoon |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4088-3622-4}} − − * {{cite web |last1=Leroi |first1=Armand Marie (Presenter) |author-link=Armand Marie Leroi |title=Aristotle's Lagoon: Embryo Inside a Chicken's Egg |date=3 May 2011 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00gqlyy |publisher=BBC |access-date=17 November 2016}} − − * {{cite book |last=Lindberg |first=David |title=The Beginnings of Western Science |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningsofwest00lind | url-access=registration |date=1992 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}} − − * {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=G. E. R. |title=The critic of Plato |date=1968 |author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd |work=Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-09456-6}} − − * {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=G. E. R. |title=Causes and correlations |date=1996 | author-link=G. E. R. Lloyd |work=Adversaries and Authorities: Investigations into ancient Greek and Chinese science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-55695-8}} − − * {{cite book |last=Lovejoy |first=Arthur O. |title=The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea |date=31 January 1976 |author-link=Arthur O. Lovejoy |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36153-9}} − − * {{cite web |title=Lucas Cranach the Elder{{!}} Phyllis and Aristotle | url=http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2008/important-old-master-paintings-including-european-works-of-art-n08404/lot.78.html | publisher=[[Sotheby's]] | access-date=23 March 2018 | date=2008 | ref=CITEREFLucas Cranach the Elder}} − − * {{cite book |last=Lyell |first=Charles |title=Principles of Geology |date=1832 |author-link=Charles Lyell |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesgeolo01unkngoog |oclc=609586345|publisher=J. Murray, 1832}} − − * {{cite journal |last=MacDougall-Shackleton |first=Scott A. |title=The levels of analysis revisited |date=27 July 2011 |pages=2076–85 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=366 |issue=1574 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0363 |pmc=3130367 |pmid=21690126}} − − * {{cite SEP |last=Machamer |first=Peter |title=Galileo Galilei |date=2017 | url-id=galileo}} − − * {{cite book |last=Magee |first=Bryan |title=The Story of Philosophy |date=2010 |author-link=Bryan Magee |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |isbn=978-0-241-24126-4}} − − * {{cite book |last=Mason |first=Stephen F. |title=A History of the Sciences |date=1979 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PLlMAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Collier Books |isbn=978-0-02-093400-4 |oclc=924760574}} − − * {{cite web |last1=Mayhew |first1=Robert |title=Aristotle For Objectivists |url=https://estore.aynrand.org/p/692/aristotle-for-objectivists-mp3-download |publisher=The Ayn Rand Institute |access-date=29 March 2018}} − − * {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/growthofbiologic00mayr | url-access=registration |date=1982 |publisher=Belknap Press |isbn=978-0-674-36446-2}} − − * {{cite book |last=Mayr |first=Ernst |author-link=Ernst Mayr |title=The Growth of Biological Thought |date=1985 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-36446-2}} − − * {{cite book |last=McLeisch |first=Kenneth Cole |title=Aristotle: The Great Philosophers |date=1999 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-92392-7|url=https://archive.org/details/aristotle00mcle}} − − * {{cite book |title=Aristotle to Zoos: a philosophical dictionary of biology |year=1984 |last1=Medawar |first1=Peter B. |author-link=Peter Medawar |last2=Medawar |first2=J. S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-283043-2}} − − * {{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Willard M. |title=Aristotle on Necessity, Chance, and Spontaneity |year=1973 |pages=204–13 |journal=New Scholasticism |volume=47 |issue=2 |doi=10.5840/newscholas197347237}} − − * {{cite journal |last1=Modrak |first1=Deborah |title=Dreams and Method in Aristotle |date=2009 |pages=169–81 |journal=Skepsis: A Journal for Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Research |volume=20}} − − * {{cite book |last=Moore |first=Ruth |title=The Earth We Live On |url=https://archive.org/details/earthweliveonsto00moor | url-access=registration |year=1956 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |oclc=1024467091}} − − * {{cite journal |last=Morsink |first=Johannes |title=Was Aristotle's Biology Sexist? |date=Spring 1979 |pages=83–112 |jstor=4330727 |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |volume=12 |issue=1 |doi=10.1007/bf00128136 |pmid=11615776 |s2cid=6090923}} − − * {{cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |title=The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia |date=1996 |publisher=Curzon Press |isbn=978-0-7007-0314-2}} − − * {{cite web |last1=Phelan |first1=Joseph |title=The Philosopher as Hero: Raphael's The School of Athens |date=September 2002 |url=http://www.artcyclopedia.com/feature-2002-09.html |publisher=ArtCyclopedia |access-date=23 March 2018}} − − * {{cite web |url=https://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/phyllis-and-aristotle |title=Phyllis and Aristotle |date=1 February 2019 |via=Musee du Louvre |ref=CITEREFPhyllis and Aristotle}} − − * {{cite book |last=Pickover |first=Clifford A. |title=The Math Book: From Pythagoras to the 57th Dimension, 250 Milestones in the History of Mathematics |year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrslMKTgSZwC&pg=PA52 |publisher=Sterling |isbn=978-1-4027-5796-9}} − − * {{cite web |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/alexander*/3.html |title=Plutarch – Life of Alexander (Part 1 of 7) |date=1919 |publisher=Loeb Classical Library |website=penelope.uchicago.edu |access-date=31 January 2019 |ref=CITEREFPlutarch1919}} − − * {{cite web |title=Predicate Logic |url=https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~schrum2/cs301k/lec/topic04-predicateLogic.pdf |publisher=University of Texas |access-date=29 March 2018 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329221535/https://www.cs.utexas.edu/~schrum2/cs301k/lec/topic04-predicateLogic.pdf |archivedate=29 March 2018 | url-status=live |ref=CITEREFPredicate Logic}} − − * {{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Frank Harold Trevor |title=Evolution |date=1974 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWGt0bff8agC |publisher=Golden Press |isbn=978-0-307-64360-5}} − − * {{cite book |last=Robbins |first=Lionel |title=A History of Economic Thought: The LSE Lectures |date=2000 |editor1=Medema, Steven G. |editor2=Samuels, Warren J. |publisher=Princeton University Press}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Rorty |first1=Amélie Oksenberg |chapter=Structuring Rhetoric |date=1996 |title=Essays on Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' | editor-last=Rorty | editor-first=Amélie Oksenberg |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20227-6 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vd7fEb1wOmYC&q=Aristotle+deliberative+forensic+and+epideictic&pg=PA6| url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/essaysonaristotl0000unse}} − − * {{cite journal |last1=Rovelli |first1=Carlo |author-link=Carlo Rovelli |title=Aristotle's Physics: A Physicist's Look |year=2015 |pages=23–40 |journal=Journal of the American Philosophical Association |volume=1 |issue=1 |doi=10.1017/apa.2014.11 |arxiv=1312.4057 |s2cid=44193681}} − − * {{cite book |last=Russell |first=Bertrand |title=A history of western philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RZc3AAAAIAAJ |year=1972 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-31400-2}} − − * {{cite book |last=Sedley |first=David |title=Creationism and Its Critics in Antiquity |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SgRuJEfzUG8C |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-25364-3}} − − * {{cite book |last=Shields |first=Christopher |title=The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTVsrl0mnH4C |date=2012 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-518748-9}} − − * {{cite SEP |last=Shields |first=Christopher |title=Aristotle's Psychology |date=2016 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/aristotle/ |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University | editor-last=Zalta | editor-first=Edward N. |edition=Winter 2016}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Shute |first1=Clarence |title=The Psychology of Aristotle: An Analysis of the Living Being |date=1941 |publisher=Columbia University Press |oclc=936606202}} − − * {{cite book |last=Sikka |first=Sonya |title=Forms of Transcendence: Heidegger and Medieval Mystical Theology |year=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNYIDrA0zrYC&pg=PA265 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-3345-4}} − − * {{cite SEP |last=Smith |first=Robin |title=Aristotle's Logic |date=2017 | url-id=aristotle-logic}} − − * {{cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/dictionarygreek09smitgoog |title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology |last=Smith |first=William George | orig-year=1869 |year=2007 |publisher=J. Walton |access-date=30 January 2019 |via=Internet Archive}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Sorabji |first1=R. |title=Aristotle on Memory |date=2006 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=54 |edition=2nd |quote=And this is exactly why we hunt for the successor, starting in our thoughts from the present or from something else, and from something similar, or opposite, or neighbouring. By this means recollection occurs...}} − − * {{cite book |last=Sorabji |first=Richard |title=Aristotle Transformed |date=1990 |author-link=Richard Sorabji |publisher=Duckworth |isbn=978-0-7156-2254-4}} − − * {{cite journal |last1=Staley |first1=Kevin |title=Al-Kindi on Creation: Aristotle's Challenge to Islam |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1989 |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=355–370 |jstor=2709566|doi=10.2307/2709566}} − − * {{cite web |last1=Susskind |first1=Leonard |title=Classical Mechanics, Lectures 2, 3 |date=3 October 2011 |authorlink1=Leonard Susskind |url=http://theoreticalminimum.com/courses/classical-mechanics/2011/fall/lecture-2 |website=The Theoretical Minimum |access-date=11 May 2018}} − − * {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Henry Osborn |chapter=Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology |title=Greek Biology and Medicine |date=1922 |author-link=Henry Osborn Taylor |archivedate=27 March 2006 | chapter-url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html | url-status=dead |access-date=3 January 2017}} − − * {{cite web |title=The School of Athens by Raphael |url=http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/famous-paintings/school-of-athens.htm |publisher=Visual Arts Cork |access-date=22 March 2018 |ref=CITEREFSchool of Athens}} − − * {{cite web |last=Stewart |first=Jessica |title=The Story Behind Raphael's Masterpiece 'The School of Athens' |url=https://mymodernmet.com/school-of-athens-raphael/ |quote=Plato's gesture toward the sky is thought to indicate his Theory of Forms. ... Conversely, Aristotle's hand is a visual representation of his belief that knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism, as it is known, theorizes that humans must have concrete evidence to support their ideas |website=My Modern Met |year=2019 |access-date=29 March 2019}} − − * {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=D'Arcy |author-link=D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson |title=Historia animalium |date=1910 |work=The works of Aristotle translated into English |editor1=Ross, W. D. |editor2=Smith, J. A. |publisher=Clarendon Press |url=https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/history/index.html |oclc=39273217}} − − * {{cite book |last=Warren |first=Howard C. |title=A History of the Association of Psychology |date=1921 |author-link=Howard C. Warren |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D4IXAAAAYAAJ&q=The+history+of+the+association+of+psychology&pg=PA3 |oclc=21010604 <!--dlc-->}} − − * {{cite book |last1=Webb |first1=Wilse |title=Dreamtime and dreamwork: Decoding the language of the night |date=1990 |publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher |isbn=978-0-87477-594-5|url=https://archive.org/details/dreamtimedreamwo00kriprich}} − − * {{cite news |title=When libraries were on a roll |date=19 May 2001 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/4723624/When-libraries-were-on-a-roll.html |publisher=Telegraph Media Group |access-date=29 June 2017 |ref=CITEREFWhen libraries were2001}} − − * {{cite SEP |last=Wildberg | first Christian |title=John Philoponus |date=2016 | url-id=philoponus}} − − * {{cite SEP |title=Aristotle's Influence |date=2018 | url-id=aristotle-influence |edition=Spring 2018 |ref=CITEREFAristotle's Influence2018}} + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + − + − The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.+ − + − 关于亚里士多德的二手文献很多。以下只是一小部分选择。+ − + − ==Further reading==+ − + − The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.+ − + − {{refbegin | 30em}}+ − + − * [[J. L. Ackrill|Ackrill, J. L.]] (1997). ''Essays on Plato and Aristotle'', Oxford University Press.+ − + − *{{cite book |last=Ackrill |first=J.L. |title=Aristotle the Philosopher |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1981}}+ − + − *{{Cite book |last=Adler |first=Mortimer J. |author-link=Mortimer Adler |title=Aristotle for Everybody |publisher=Macmillan |date=1978 | title-link=Aristotle for Everybody}}+ − + − *{{cite book |last=Ammonius | editor1-last=Cohen | editor1-first=S. Marc | editor2-last=Matthews | editor2-first=Gareth B |title=On Aristotle's Categories |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1991 |isbn=978-0-8014-2688-9}} − − *{{cite book |last=Aristotle |title=The Works of Aristotle Translated into English Under the Editorship of W.D. Ross, 12 vols |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |date=1908–1952}} These translations are available in several places online; see External links. − − * Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). ''Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments'', Trafford Publishing{{ISBN | 978-1412048439}} − − *{{Cite book |last=Bocheński |first=I. M. |title=Ancient Formal Logic |publisher=North-Holland |date=1951}} − − * Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. − − * [[Myles Burnyeat|Burnyeat, Myles F.]] ''et al.'' (1979). ''Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy. − − *{{cite book | editor1-last=Cantor | editor1-first=Norman F. | editor2-first=Peter L. | editor2-last=Klein |title=Ancient Thought: Plato and Aristotle |volume=1 |series=Monuments of Western Thought |publisher=Blaisdell |date=1969}} − − *{{cite journal |last1=Chappell |first1=V. |year=1973 |title=Aristotle's Conception of Matter |url= |journal=Journal of Philosophy |volume=70 |issue=19 |pages=679–96 |doi=10.2307/2025076 |jstor=2025076}} − − * Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76. − − *{{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=John |title=Aristotle |url=https://archive.org/details/aristotle0000ferg |url-access=registration |publisher=Twayne Publishers |date=1972 }} − − * De Groot, Jean (2014). ''Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC'', Parmenides Publishing,{{ISBN | 978-1930972834}} − − * Frede, Michael (1987). ''Essays in Ancient Philosophy''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. − − *{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=B.A.G. |author-link=Benjamin_Apthorp_Gould_Fuller |series=History of Greek Philosophy |volume=3 |title=Aristotle |publisher=Cape |date=1923}} − − − − * Gill, Mary Louise (1989). ''Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity''. Princeton University Press. − − *{{Cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W.K.C. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy |volume=6 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1981}} − − * Halper, Edward C. (2009). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha – Delta'', Parmenides Publishing,{{ISBN | 978-1930972216}}. − − − − * [[Terence Irwin|Irwin, Terence H.]] (1988). [http://www.cyjack.com/cognition/Aristotle%27s%20first%20principles.pdf ''Aristotle's First Principles'']. Oxford: Clarendon Press,{{ISBN | 0198242905}}. − − *{{cite book |last=Jaeger |first=Werner |title=Aristotle: Fundamentals of the History of His Development | editor-first=Richard | editor-last=Robinson |edition=2nd |publisher=Clarendon Press |date=1948}} − − * [[Alberto Jori|Jori, Alberto]] (2003). ''Aristotele'', Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "[[International Academy of the History of Science]]"){{ISBN | 978-8842497370}}. − − *{{cite book | editor-last=Kiernan | editor-first=Thomas P. |title=Aristotle Dictionary |publisher=Philosophical Library |date=1962}} − − * Knight, Kelvin (2007). ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'', Polity Press. − − * Lewis, Frank A. (1991). ''Substance and Predication in Aristotle''. Cambridge University Press. − − * Lord, Carnes (1984). ''Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle''. Chicago University Press. − − * Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. − − * Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) ''Reading Aristotle: Physics'' VII. 3: ''What is Alteration?'' ''Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference'', Parmenides Publishing.{{ISBN | 978-1930972735}} − − *{{cite book |last=McKeon |first=Richard |title=Introduction to Aristotle |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=1973}} − − *{{cite journal |last=Owen |first=G. E. L. |year=1965c |title=The Platonism of Aristotle |journal=Proceedings of the British Academy |volume=50 |pages=125–50}} [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). ''Articles on Aristotle'' Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.] − − * {{cite book |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511498282 |title=Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship |year=2002 |last1=Pangle |first1=Lorraine Smith |isbn=9780511498282}} − − *{{cite book |last=Plato |author-link=Plato |title=The Worlds of Plato and Aristotle | editor1-first=Harold Joseph | editor1-last=Allen | editor2-first=James B | editor2-last=Wilbur |publisher=Prometheus Books |date=1979}} − − * Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). ''Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Hackett. − − *{{Cite book |last=Rose |first=Lynn E. |title=Aristotle's Syllogistic |publisher=Charles C Thomas |date=1968}} − − *{{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Sir David |author-link=W. D. Ross |title=Aristotle |publisher=Routledge |edition=6th |date=1995}} − − * Scaltsas, T. (1994). ''Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Cornell University Press. − − * Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's ''Politics''", in ''The City and Man'', Rand McNally. − − *{{Cite book |last=Swanson |first=Judith |title=The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/publicprivateina00swan |url-access=registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1992 }} − − *{{Cite book |last=Veatch |first=Henry B. |author-link=Henry Babcock Veatch |title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation |publisher=Indiana University Press |date=1974}} − − − − {{refend}} − − − − ==External links== − − {{Sister project links | b=no | n=no | s=Author:Aristotle}} − − {{Library resources box | by=yes | onlinebooks=yes | others=yes | about=yes | label=Aristotle − − {{图书馆资源框 | by = yes | online books = yes | others = yes | about = yes | label = Aristotle − − {{Wikisourcelang | el | Αριστοτέλης | Ἀριστοτέλης}} − − | viaf= | lccn= | lcheading= | wikititle= }} − − 2012年10月12日，星期五，星期五，星期五，星期五，星期五，星期五，星期五，星期五，星期五，星期六，星期五，星期六，星期五，星期六，星期六，星期五，星期六，星期六，星期六，星期六, − − {{Library resources box | by=yes | onlinebooks=yes | others=yes | about=yes | label=Aristotle − − | viaf= | lccn= | lcheading= | wikititle= }} − − *{{Britannica |id=34560}} − − − − *{{InPho | thinker | 2553}} − − − − *:{{hlist | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/ Aristotle (general article)] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-bio/ Biology] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-eth/ Ethics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-log/ Logic] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-met/ Metaphysics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-mot/ Motion and its Place in Nature] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-poe/ Poetics] | [https://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/ Politics]}} − − − − − − − − − − *{{cite LotEP |chapter=Aristotle}} − − Collections of works − − 收藏作品 − − − − ;Collections of works − − * At [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology] − − − − *{{Internet Archive author}} − − *{{Librivox author | id=602}} − − *{{OL author | OL22105A}} − − *{{in lang|en|el}} [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle Perseus Project] at [[Tufts University]] − − * At the [https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ University of Adelaide] − − − − − − {{Navboxes|list= − − {导航框 | 列表 = − − − − {{Navboxes|list= − − {{Peripatetics}} − − {{Metaphysics}} − − {{Ethics}} − − {{Natural history}} − − {{History of biology}} − − {{Philosophy of science}} − − {{Philosophy of language}} − − {{Jurisprudence}} − − {{Social and political philosophy}} − − }} − − }} − − {{Ancient Greece topics}} − − }} − − {{Aristotelianism}} − − {{Authority control}}
无编辑摘要
本文大段搬运[https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7 维基百科《亚里士多德》词条]，有删改。
'''亚里士多德'''（希腊语：Αριστοτέλης，Aristotélēs，前384年6月19日－前322年3月7日），古希腊哲学家，柏拉图的学生、亚历山大大帝的老师。他的著作牵涉许多学科，包括了物理学、形而上学、诗歌（包括戏剧）、音乐、生物学、经济学、动物学、逻辑学、政治、政府、以及伦理学。和柏拉图、苏格拉底（柏拉图的老师）一起被誉为西方哲学的奠基者。亚里士多德的著作是西方哲学的第一个广泛系统，包含道德、美学、逻辑和科学、政治和形上学。
亚里士多德关于物理学的思想深刻地塑造了中世纪的学术思想，其影响力延伸到了文艺复兴时期，最终被牛顿物理学取代。在动物科学方面，他的一些意见仅在19世纪被确信是准确的。他的学术领域还包括早期关于形式逻辑理论的研究，最终这些研究在19世纪被合并到了现代形式逻辑理论里。在形而上学方面，亚里士多德的哲学和神学思想在伊斯兰教和犹太教的传统上产生了深远影响，在中世纪，它继续影响着基督教神学，尤其是天主教教会的学术传统。他的伦理学，虽然自始至终都具有深刻的影响，后来也随着新兴现代美德伦理的到来获得了新生。今天亚里士多德的哲学仍然活跃在学术研究的各个方面。在经济学方面，亚里士多德对于经济活动的分类与看法持续影响到中世纪与重农主义，直到被亚当斯密的古典经济学派取代为止。虽然亚里士多德写了许多论文和优雅的对话（西塞罗描述他的文学风格为“金河”），但是大多数人认为他的著作现已失散，只有大约三分之一的原创作品保存了下来。
==基本信息==
{| class="wikitable" width="80%"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! 类别 !! 信息
|-
|-
| 姓名 || 亚里士多德<br>Aristotle<br>Αριστοτέλης
|'''[[Air (classical element)|Air]]'''||{{font color|red|Hot}}||{{font color|green|Wet}}||Up||[[Gas]]
|-
|-
| 出生 || 公元前384年6月19日<br>马其顿王国色雷斯斯塔基拉（位于今希腊哈尔基季基州）
|-
|-
| 逝世 || 公元前322年3月7日（61－62岁）<br>马其顿王国优卑亚岛（位于今希腊）
|-
|-
| 所在机构 || 吕克昂学园、漫步学派
|'''[[Fire (classical element)|Fire]]'''||{{font color|red|Hot}}||{{font color|brown|Dry}}||Up||[[Plasma (physics)|Plasma]]
|-
|-
| 主要研究方向 || 形而上学、逻辑学、伦理学、政治、科学
|-
|-
| 主要贡献 || 与亚里士多德和柏拉图一同开创了西方的学术传统
|-
|'''[[Aether (classical element)|Aether]]'''||(divine<br>substance)||—||Circular<br>(in heavens)||—
|}
|}
==早期生活==
关于亚里士多德的生平我们知之甚少。亚里士多德的名字在古希腊语中意为“最好的目的”，他出生于公元前384年，位于查尔基迪斯的斯塔吉拉，距现代塞萨洛尼基东约55公里（34英里）。他的父亲''尼科马修斯 Nicomachus''是马其顿国王''阿米尼塔斯 Amyntas''的私人医生。亚里士多德的父母均在他十三岁时去世，而来自阿塔尼厄斯的''普罗齐诺斯 Proxenus''成为了他的监护人。尽管关于亚里士多德童年的信息很少，但他可能在马其顿宫殿里呆过一段时间，与马其顿君主政体初次接触。
==教育经历==
在18岁的时候，亚里士多德被送到雅典的柏拉图学院学习，此后20年间亚里士多德一直住在学园，直至老师柏拉图在前347年去世。柏拉图可能对亚里士多德有些不满，而亚里士多德也终于发现柏拉图在重要学说上与他存在分歧，不过他始终对老师充满了敬意。柏拉图去世后，由于学园的新首脑比较喜欢柏拉图哲学中的数学倾向，令亚里士多德无法忍受，便离开雅典。但是从亚里士多德的著作中可以看到，虽然亚里士多德不同意波西普斯等学园新首脑的观点，但依然与他们保持良好的关系。
==任职经历==
公元前335年腓力二世去世，亚里士多德又回到雅典，并在那里建立了自己的学校。学园的名字（Lyceum）以阿波罗神殿附近的杀狼者（吕刻俄斯）来命名。在此期间，亚里士多德边讲课，边撰写了多部哲学著作。亚里士多德讲课时有一个习惯，即边讲课，边漫步于走廊和花园，正是因为如此，学园的哲学被称为“逍遥的哲学”或者“漫步的哲学”，而亚里士多德的追随者也被称为逍遥学派弟子,也就是步行者。亚里士多德的著作在这一期间也有很多，主要是关于自然和物理方面的自然科学和哲学，而使用的语言也要比柏拉图的《对话录》晦涩许多。他的作品很多都是以讲课的笔记为基础，有些甚至是他学生的课堂笔记。因此有人将亚里士多德看作是西方第一个教科书的作者。虽然亚里士多德写下了许多对话录，但这些对话录都只有少数残缺的片段流传下来。被保留最多的作品主要都是论文形式，而亚里士多德最初也没有想过要发表这些论文。一般认为这些论文是亚里士多德讲课时给学生的笔记或课本。
==学术贡献==
亚里士多德不只研究了当时几乎所有的学科，他也对这些学科做出极大的贡献。在科学上，亚里士多德研究了解剖学、天文学、经济学、胚胎学、地理学、地质学、气象学、物理学、和动物学。在哲学上亚里士多德则研究了美学、伦理学、政治、政府、形而上学、心理学、以及神学。亚里士多德也研究教育、文学、以及诗歌。亚里士多德的生平著作加起来几乎就成了一部希腊人知识的百科全书。一些人还认为亚里士多德可能是在那个时代里最后一个精通所有学科和既有智慧的人了<ref>{{cite book
| last =Neill
| first =Alex
| authorlink =
| coauthors =Aaron Ridley
| title =The Philosphy of Art: Readings Ancient and Modern
| publisher =McGraw Hill
| date =1995
| location =
| pages =488
| url =http://www.amazon.com/Philosophy-Art-Readings-Ancient-Modern/dp/0070461929/sr=8-2/qid=1171730928/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2/104-6528968-2841554
| doi =
| id = }}</ref>。
====Motion====
=== 哲学观 ===
亚里士多德将他的哲学定义为一种“原因”，宣称他的哲学是“研究真实宇宙原因的科学”。柏拉图则是将他的哲学定义为“理念的科学”，理念指的是所有现象的基础原理。师徒两人都认为哲学是研究宇宙的科学，不过，亚里士多德是透过研究各种特定事物的实质来研究宇宙，而柏拉图则认为宇宙与其他特定事物都没有相连，在柏拉图来看那些事物都只是宇宙竖立的样本或模型罢了。
对亚里士多德而言，研究哲学意味着从研究特定现象提升为研究事物的实质；但对柏拉图而言，研究哲学则代表着从研究一个普世理念提升为研究这些理念所转化的特定样本。亚里士多德的研究方式既是归纳法的也是演绎的，而柏拉图的研究方式在本质上则是源自于先验的原则（Jori, 2003）。
依照亚里士多德的说法，“自然哲学”一词表示对于自然世界的研究，这包括了运动、光、物理定律。在许多世纪之后这些领域成为了现代科学的根基，被以科学方法加以研究。在现代，“哲学”这一词通常仅被用于形容形而上学的领域，而非那些以物理科学方式观察自然世界的研究。相较之下，在亚里士多德的时代，“哲学”一词包含了所有人类知识的层面。
更广泛的说，亚里士多德将哲学与逻辑推理并立了，他将之称为哲学的“科学”。不过，他所使用的科学一词涵义与现代所谓的科学方法并不相同，“所有的科学（推理）要不是实际性的，就是可想像的、理论性的。”亚里士多德的实际性意味着伦理学和政治—亦即政治学，而可想像的科学则意味着对于诗歌和其他美术的研究，理论性则是对于物理学、数学、以及形而上学的研究。亞里士多德的實際性意味著倫理學和政治—亦即政治學，而可想像的科學則意味著對於詩歌和其他美術的研究，理論性則是對於物理學、數學、以及形而上學的研究。
有关形而上学和哲学，亚里士多德将之定义为“对无形事物的认知”，并称之为“第一哲学”、“理论的科学”、或称为“在最高抽象层次的事物”。而逻辑（或称为“分析”）则被亚里士多德视为是学习哲学的基本阶段，也因此亚里士多德的哲学可以被分为：
# 理论的科学（数学、自然科学和后来被称为形而上学的第一哲学）
# 实践的科学（伦理学、政治学、经济学、战略学和修辞学）
# 创造的科学，即诗学。
在雅典任教的期间，亚里士多德领导了当时大多数的科学研究和思想，这段期间也成为他生涯中最为后人所知的时期。不过，亚里士多德的大半生涯其实都是花在研究自然科学领域上。虽然他的形而上学著作包含了许多对于数字本质的研究，但他对于数学本身并没有做出原创的贡献。不过他的确在许多自然科学领域上做出原创贡献，包括了植物学、动物学、物理学、化学、气象学、以及其他科学学科上。
亚里士多德对于科学的贡献大多是理论性的，而不是数字性的。到了16世纪以后科学家们开始使用数学研究物理科学时，亚里士多德的作品中被发现出许多错误。他的错误主要是来自于对质量、速率、力度以及温度等概念的缺乏，他了解速率以及温度为何，但却缺乏测量它们的数字概念，也只有用过一些基础的实验配备如钟或温度计从事研究。
亚里士多德的著作提供了许多科学的观察和记载，不过这些著作里也有一些奇怪的错误。举例而言，在《动物史 Zoology》一书里亚里士多德主张雄性动物比雌性拥有更多牙齿。同样的，伽利略·伽利莱也指出亚里士多德提出的重物体掉落速度快于轻物体的主张是错误的。
在物理学方面，亚里士多德认为各物体运动方式分两种，一种是自然界的“自然运动”，一种是非自然的“受迫运动”，不同于前者，受迫运动只有在一个不断作用着的推动者直接接触下，才能够保持运动。根据亚里士多德的说法，“真空”是不能存在的，因为空间必须装满物质。这样才能通过直接接触来传递物理作用。后世的物理学家艾萨克·牛顿指出了亚里士多德这一论断的谬误，指出了“力不是保持物体运动的直接原因。力只能改变物体的运动状态。”可以说，在牛顿经典力学体系的大厦没有造起来之前，整个西方世界的科学都以展开亚里士多德的物理学科来进行。
不过，亚里士多德在科学理论上犯下的一些错误并不能抵销他对于科学领域的重要贡献。举例而言，他主张将逻辑学及生物学提升为正式的学科，并立下了至今的研究基础。他也提出了对于自然的基本概念，主张研究自然事物可以提供有用的知识。亚里士多德的《Phusikes Akroaseos》（英文《Physics》，中文通常译为《物理学》）一书最为正确的翻译是《自然哲学》，他所讲的物理学不同于现在的物理学，该书是一本哲学著作，但不是如《形而上学 Metaphysics》一般的纯哲学著作，而是研究自然现象的自然哲学，它包括了今天物理学的一些内容，还容纳了化学、生物学、天文学、地学等等。该书研究自然界的总原则和物质世界的运动变化总规律。这种将现象上升到哲学高度的方法和思想，即从事物中提取出共有特征，是划时代的。
=== 逻辑学 ===
亚里士多德提出的逻辑概念成为了支配逻辑学界的理论，这一直要到19世纪才被数理逻辑取代。埃马纽埃尔·康德在《纯粹理性批判》中指出亚里士多德的逻辑理论是完全以演绎推理的方式架构而成的。
亚里士多德自称在他之前，逻辑领域都还没有人认真研究过（Bocheński, 1951）。不过，柏拉图曾透露在亚里士多德之前便已有人开始研究语法学，探索对词汇使用的逻辑。逻辑似乎是从辩证法里衍生出来的，更早期的哲学家便已会使用反证法概念来讨论哲学，但却从没有认真探索其中的逻辑意义。即使是柏拉图在逻辑研究上也有所障碍，虽然他大致了解要如何建构一套演绎推理的体系，但却从没有真正投入建构过。柏拉图只依赖于他的反证法，将不同的科学和研究方法混合在一起（Bocheński, 1951）。柏拉图认为逻辑演绎只是从假说上衍生而出的，因此他只专注于提出清楚正确的假说，认为以此便能得到正确的结论。后来柏拉图才认识到在演绎中的过程可能对于取得结论大有帮助，不过他从来没有以这种方法成功研究过，虽然他曾将他的尝试经验和研究方式记载于《智士篇》里（Rose, 1968）。
亚里士多德提出的逻辑理论在现代通常被称为“亚里士多德逻辑”，不过亚里士多德自己则将之称为“分析学”，“逻辑”一词在那时代表的仅是传统的辩证法。许多亚里士多德的著作可能都已遭后人修改，尤其是被当时他的学生和后来的教师。亚里士多德提出的逻辑理论在1世纪时被编纂为一套六本的《工具论 Organon》出版：
*《范畴篇 Categories》
*《解释篇 On Interpretation》
*《先验分析篇 Prior Analytics》
*《后验分析篇 Posterior Analytics》
*《论题篇 Topics》
*《辩谬篇 On Sophistical Refutations》
六本书撰写的顺序（以及他们用于教学的时间）并不确定，不过这个列表是在研究亚里士多德的著作后才列出的。一开始是逻辑的基础，介绍一些简单名词的范畴。接下来则是对于越来越复杂的研究，包括了逻辑的形式—三段论（在分析前后篇里）以及反证法（在题旨篇和谬误论证篇里）。除此之外亚里士多德有一本讨论逻辑的著作并没有列在这六本书里：《形而上学》的第四篇（Bocheński, 1951）。
亚里士多德也透过逻辑的模态（模态逻辑）创造出了三段论。模态一词代表的意思是“模型”，模态逻辑所要研究的就是“真理”的模型。亚里士多德也提出了“可能的”与“必然的”两种研究假说的差异概念，并且建构了一套逻辑的研究方式，以探索那些难以被解读出来的真相。（Rose, 1968）
=== 自然哲学 ===
==== 五大元素 ====
亚里士多德认为“没有和物质分离的虚空”、“没有物体里的虚空”。世界由五大元素构成：
*土：又冷又干燥，对应现代固体概念。
*水：又冷又潮湿，对应现代液体概念。
*火：又热又干燥，对应现代热量概念。
*空气：又热又潮湿，对应现代气体概念。
*以太：构成天球和天体（恒星和行星）的神圣物质。
地球上的四种元素都有其自然的地方；地球是宇宙的中心，接着是水、空气、然后是火。这些元素也会进行自然的运动，不需任何外界的动力。因此人的躯体会沉入水中、水会随着空气蒸发、蒸发后的水汽随着雨降下、火可以在空气中燃烧，这些元素有着永恒的运动循环。
==== 因果关系与四因说 ====
亚里士多德认为自然界有一种“原因”关系的存在。这种“原因”观念不同于近代以来的“因果”观念，“原因”与“为什么”相对应，并不与“结果”相对应。即“目的因”、“物质因”、“动力因”和“形式因”。
;“物质因”（Material Cause）
代表了一个事物从一堆零件、成分、基础、或是原料所组成的存在形式，将物质的构成追溯至零件的部分（要素、成分），接着形成一个完整的（系统、架构、混合、综合、复合、或结合）。举例而言，形成一尊大理石雕像的大理石等原料便是物质因。
;“形式因”（Formal Cause）
可以告诉我们一个事物是由怎样的定义、形式、形状、本质、综合、或原形所构成的，解释了构成一个事物的基本原则或法则，这只是整个事物（整套原因关系）的其中一部分（宏观结构）。举例而言，雕塑一尊大理石雕像的草稿或设计图就是其形式因。
;“动力因”（Efficient Cause）
指的是改变事物的动力及起因，研究“是什么改变了什么、而又是什么造成了这个改变”，范围包括了所有事物间的媒介，包括有生命的或无生命的、动力的起源或是被改变的事物。举例而言，将大理石雕刻为雕像的艺术家就是动力因。
;“目的因”（Final Cause）
指的则是一件事物存在的原因、或是改变的原因，包括了有目的的行动和活动。一件事物的目的因是它之所以存在的原因，或者说是它之所以改变的原因。这也解释了现代所谓的心理动机，包括了意志、需求、动机、理性、非理性、伦理，所有这些动机都是创造行为的来源。举例而言，一尊完成了的大理石雕像就是艺术家的目的因（目的论）。
除此之外，事物彼此之间可以互相影响，造成结果的改变，例如勤劳工作可以获得美好生活、或反之亦然，虽然没有相同的原因过程或是功能，一件事物是整套因果关系的开端，而另一件事物则是结果。亚里士多德最初便提出一套交互性的或循环性的原因关系，解释事物间的互动对彼此的影响。不过亚里士多德也指出同样的事物可以被用于制造相反的结果，而在原因关系中一件事物的存在与否也会影响结果。
亚里士多德指出两种原因关系的模型：传统的（既有的）原因关系、以及意外的（改变的）原因关系。所有的原因，无论是传统的或意外的，都可以被当作潜在的、或实际的、特定的、或一般的性质。这也可以套用至原因关系的影响上，一般的影响可以归类为一般的原因、特定的影响可以归类为特定的原因、行动的影响可以归类为实际的原因。在实质上，原因关系并不代表原因和结果两者之间必然存有时间性的互动关系。
对于原因关系的进一步研究则将各种原因划分适合的等级，例如“目的>动力>物质>形式”（托马斯•阿奎纳），或者是将所有原因关系限制为物质和动力原因之间的互动、或是只有动力原因（决定论或机会）、或是仅限于一系列的和一连串的自然现象互动（自然科学是解释事物如何发生、而不是解释为什么发生和发生后的情形）。
==== 机会和自发性 ====
机会和自发性都是事物改变的原因。机会是造成一件事物改变的意外原因，它是“来自于自发性的”（但要注意的是自发性并不会来自于机会）。更明确的说，亚里士多德所谓的“机会”就像是一般所说的“巧合”。一个人为了达成某项目标而做出某些动作，但他同时也可能（非预期中的）改变了其他事物。举例而言，一个人试图筹募捐款，他可能会找到另一个愿意捐出一定数量金钱的人。但如果这个募款者并不是真的为了收集金钱而进行募款行动，而是带有其他的目标，那么亚里士多德便会将捐款给他的人带来的金钱归类为“机会”的结果。因为机会而发生的事情并不常见，换句话说，如果一件事经常发生、或是总是发生，那么我们便不能将之归类为机会。
不过，机会只能用于人类身上，它是属于道德行为的领域。依据亚里士多德的说法，机会必须要包含人类抉择的成分（也因此会经过思考），而只有人类才有办法思考和抉择，“不具行动能力的东西便不具有获得机会的能力”（Physics, 2.6）。
=== 宇宙论 ===
亚里士多德认为由于宇宙的中心是土原素的自然地点（natural place），地球必然位于宇宙的中心。它是一个静止的球体，有多层的天体环绕它运行，最接近地球的是月球，之后是太阳和五个行星，最后是无数固定的星星。更清楚地说，这些天体是依附在多个以地球为中心转动的透明球体上运行的。距离地球最远的星星只有一个天球，至于其他天体，每一个都需要一组天球才能解释它复杂的实际运行情况。
亚里士多德认为在月球和地球之间，存在不同的区域，每一个区域主要由一种原素（element）组成。最接近月球的是火原素的区域，其中有闪电、流星、彗星等物体。下面是气原素的区域（即大气层），接着是水原素的区域（即海洋湖泊），最后是土原素的区域（即土地）。月球下面的所有物体都是以这四种元素以不同的比例组成的，而其中的主要原素决定了它们表现的各种特性。例如石头的主要成分是土，而土有自然向宇宙中心移动的本性，因此当我们放手的时候，原本拿在手中的石头便会立刻在空气中下坠。与土相反，火的本性是远离宇宙的中心移动，因此火永远是向上走的。气和水的本性则介乎两者之间，气与火相近而水则较接近土，这解释了为什么月球和地球之间有不同的区域。月球下面的物体，不论是生物还是非生物，都不断变化，组成万物的四种元素也不断互相转化和转换位置，在每一个元素区域都不断有别的元素产生，它们出现后便立刻按着它们的本性向上或向下移动。
月球以上的天体，与它下面的物体有根本的不同的特性，它们是永恒不变地进行均速圆周运动的。亚里士多德由此推断，天体和天球是由另一种元素组成，他把这第五种元素称为以太（ether）。我们能看见天体，是因为组成它们的以太是密集的，能反射太阳的光。与其他原素向上或向下的自然移动不同，以太的本性是进行圆周运动的。此外，以太不能与其他元素互相转变，也不能与它们转换位置，因此天上永远只能有以太这种元素存在。这解释了为什么天体能永恒不变地进行均速圆周运动。
为了确保月球下面的物体能不断地变化，亚里士多德认为必须有一个永恒的首动者，而能担当此重任者则非天体莫属。由于天体所依附的球体永恒不变地转动，与它们直接接触的由火和气组成的球体也不断地被驱使转动起来。因此天体对于下面的物体是有单向影响力的。
最后，亚里士多德认为要完满地解释天体的复杂运行，需要有思想和渴望的心灵作为最终的原因，因此，他认为天体是有智慧和生命的。
=== 形而上学 ===
亚里士多德定义[[形而上学]]为“[[非物质主义|非物质]]存在”或“最高程度抽象的存在”的知识。他把形而上学和神学一起称为“第一哲学”。
《形而上学》该书名为后期编辑所加，原意为“［亚里士多德］在物理学课程之后［所讲授的内容］”，现流传的古希腊文标题为τὰ μετὰ τὰ φυσικά，或来自Ἀριστοτέλους τῶν μεταφυσικῶν，或来自 Ἀριστοτέλους τῶν μετὰ τὰ φυσικά<ref>{{cite book |author1=Bonitz, Hermann (Übers.) |title=Aristoteles' Metaphysik mit Einleitung und Kommentar hrsg. von Horst Seidl. Griechischer Text in der Edition von Wilhelm Christ. Bd. I |date=1989 |publisher=Meiner Verlag |location=Hamburg |edition=3.Aufl.}}</ref>。例如陈康教授曾将此书名翻译为《物理学之后诸篇》<ref>{{cite book |author1=陈康 |coauthors=编辑：汪子嵩、王太庆 |title=陈康：论希腊哲学 |date=1990 |publisher=商务印书馆 |location=北京 |page=247}}</ref>。
亚里士多德定义形而上学为“非物质存在”或“最高程度抽象的存在”的知识。他把形而上学和神学一起称为“第一哲学”。
==== 实体、潜能性、和实际性 ====
亚里士多德在他的《形而上学》一书中检验了“实体”（ousia）的概念，他指出一个特定事物的实体是来自于形式和质料两者的结合。在第八卷中他总结道实体的“质料”是来自于构成它的结构或材质，例如构成房屋的质料便是砖块、石头、木材等等，或者任何可能用于建构房屋的材料。而“形式”指的则是真正的一栋房屋，亦即一栋可以用于“遮掩身体和家当”的建筑，或是其他任何带有同样含意的事物。组成这栋房屋的成分是属于“质料”的部分，而这栋房屋本身则是属于“形式”的部分。
考虑到事物的改变（kinesis）以及其原因关系，亚里士多德将改变的种类分为：（1）成长或缩小，有关数量的变动、（2）运动，有关空间的变动、（3）改变，整体质量的变化。配合形式与质量的假设，亚里士多德在这里提出了“潜在性”（dynamis）和“现实性”（entelecheia）的概念，
所谓“潜在性”指的是特定事物有能力达成的改变，假设在没有遭到任何外力阻挠的情况下。举例而言，一粒埋在田地土壤里的种子是潜在的（dynamei）农作物，假设它不被其他事物干扰，它就会顺利生成农作物。潜在的事物可以是“行动的”（poiein）或是“被行动的”（paschein），其潜在性也可以是与生俱来的、或经由行动或学习而达成的。举例而言，眼睛带有看见事物的潜在性（与生俱来的、被行动的），而演奏长笛的能力则是透过学习而来的（练习、行动的）。
所谓“现实性”指的则是潜在性被发挥后的成果，成果（telos）是所有事物改变的基本原则，潜在性也是为了要达成结果才存在的，因此现实性本身就是成果。回到上述的田地例子，种子开花结果出的农作物便是其“现实性”。
总而言之，一栋房屋的“质料”是其“潜在性”，而房屋的“形式”则是其“现实性”。提出房屋设计图的形式因（aitia）、以及将潜在性建构为真实一栋房屋的则是房屋建造者的理性（logos），而建构完成的房屋本身则是原因关系的结尾—“目的因”。亚里士多德总结指出现实性在公式上是比潜在性更早存在的，在时间上和实体上都是如此。
在定义了特定实体（形式和质料）之后，亚里士多德试着研究事物为何构成的问题：例如是什么东西构成了人类？如果依据柏拉图的概念，这个问题只会得到两个解答：动物和两只脚，但这并不能让人构成一体。然而依据亚里士多德的概念，潜在的事物（质料）以及真实的事物（形式）其实是同一样东西，两者是合为一体的。（Metaphysics VIII 1045a-b）
==== 普遍性和特殊性 ====
亚里士多德的老师柏拉图争论说所有事物都有一个普遍形式，它可以要么是一个性质，要么是与其他事物的一种关系。比如，当我们看一个苹果的时候，并且我们还可以分析出一个苹果的形式。在这种区分中，有一个特定的苹果和一个苹果的普遍形式。此外，我们可以把一个苹果放置在一本书的旁边，那么我们可以说这本书和这个苹果二者是相互靠近的。
柏拉图争论说有着并非特定事物的一部分的某些普遍形式。例如，有可能没有特例的好人存在，但“好人”仍是一个真正的普遍性形式。伯特兰·罗素是赞成柏拉图的“未示例的普遍性”的当代哲学家。
亚里士多德在这个问题上不赞同柏拉图，他论说所有普遍者都是有示例的。亚里士多德争论说没有不能联系于存在事物的普遍者。遵照亚里士多德，如果普遍者存在，它要么作为一个特定者要么作为一种关系，那么在过去、现在或未来，必定有可以断定为这个普遍者的某个事物。作为结论，遵照亚里士多德，如果某个普遍者无法被断定为存在于某个时期的一个客体，那么它不存在。
当代哲学家认同这个立场的一种方式是通过断言埃利亚原理。
此外，亚里士多德在普遍者的位置上不赞成柏拉图。因为柏拉图谈论了形式的世界，这是所有形式存留的位置，亚里士多德主张普遍者们存在于被断定为每个普遍者的每个事物内。所以遵照亚里士多德，苹果的形式存在于每个苹果内，而不是在形式的世界内。
=== 伦理学 ===
虽然亚里士多德的许多著作都讨论到了伦理学，但在这方面最主要的著作是《尼各马可伦理学》一书，这本书也被认为是亚里士多德最伟大的著作之一。亚里士多德认为伦理知识并非一种“精确的”知识，伦理也因此与逻辑或数学都大不相同，而是类似像对于营养和运动的知识一般的“常识”。而且，由于伦理是一种实践的学科而非只是理论性的，亚里士多德认为一个人若要成为“好人”，便不能只研读美德为何，而要亲身实践美德才行。举例而言，一个人要成为好的足球员，并不能只依靠研读理论，而是必须要付诸实际练习。亚里士多德首先提出了美德的标准，他先假设人的任何行为都是有所目标的、而这些目标是“好的”。而被他称之为“至善”的最终目标则是：幸福（希腊语为eudaimonia—有时也可以翻译为“活的很好”）。
亚里士多德主张幸福并不能只依靠快乐感、或是单纯的名声和荣誉而获得。在“研究了人类的各种特定功能后”，亚里士多德终于找出他认为幸福的来源。他分析人的心灵并且将其画分为三个部分：营养的心灵（包含农作物、田地、和人类）、知觉的心灵（动物和人类）、以及理性的心灵（只有人类）。也因此，一个人类的功能就是去做人类应该做的事情去、做那些让人类之所以特殊的事情：使用理性的能力。作出这样事情的人类就会快乐，因为他们达成了属于理性心灵的目标或本质。取决于人们追求理性心灵的程度，亚里士多德将人类划分为四种等级：道德的、自制的、不自制的、以及邪恶的。
亚里士多德相信所有伦理美德都是来自于达成“过度”与“贫乏”之间的平衡点。不过，这并不表示亚里士多德相信道德相对主义。他将几种情绪（如恨、羡慕、忌妒等）以及几种行为（如通奸、偷窃、谋杀等）归类为错误的一边，无论这些情绪及行为是在怎样的情况下产生亦然。
在《尼各马可伦理学》中，亚里士多德通常专注于在各种领域中找出介于两个极端之间的平衡点；例如正义、勇气、财富等等。举例而言，勇气是两种感觉（恐惧和自信）之间的平衡点，并以此平衡点为基础采取的行动（勇气的行动）。太多恐惧、太少自信会导致懦弱，而太少恐惧、太多自信则会导致草率、愚蠢的抉择。亚里士多德说找出事物的平衡点是找出幸福的关键，而幸福本身则是最终的至善形式。介于两者之间的那个平衡点也常被称为中庸之道（Golden Mean）。
亚里士多德也写下他对于正义的概念。他将正义定义为两个部分：一般的正义和特别的正义。一般的正义是亚里士多德所提出的正义形式，只有在一个完美的社会里才可能存在。特别的正义则是对于特定的犯罪或非正义行为施加惩罚。也是在这里亚里士多德主张人需要受过训练的判断能力，以判断特定事件正义与否。亚里士多德说发展好的习惯可以培养出好的人类，而练习奉行中庸之道则可以让一个人活的更健康、快乐。
亚里士多德的伦理学根基于早期的希腊伦理学，尤其是来自于他的老师柏拉图和柏拉图的老师苏格拉底。苏格拉底本身并没有留下任何著作，柏拉图留下的著作主要是为广大群众撰写的，亚里士多德则留下较多学术性的作品。与柏拉图不同的是，亚里士多德对于自己提出的整体理论较常抱持保留态度，并且在伦理学上较不会坚持其理论的正确性。不过这些哲学家的整体思想，还是相当接近的。
苏格拉底是第一个专注于研究伦理学的希腊哲学家，这种努力或许是为了解决诡辩的出现，当时强调修辞学、道德相对主义、以及违逆雅典传统诸神的诡辩技巧盛行一时（他们也用诡辩技巧违逆其他许多传统）。诡辩者可以对当前的社会提出大量的问题，但却没有提供解答。
苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里士多德全都有着立场分明的伦理学系统，人们可以选择追求美德以获得幸福和繁荣。他们都认为美德的行为是可以透过教导和练习的，他们也都认为伦理学是建基于理性上，而且奉行美德也有其理性的原因。这与诡辩者所强调的道德相对主义形成强烈对比，他们认为许多不同的行为在不同的社会里也有不同的标准。事实上，同样的论点在现代的伦理学界依然是存在争议的话题。
除了这些基本的相同点外，苏格拉底、柏拉图、与亚里士多德三人之间的伦理学差异并不大。主要的差异在于苏格拉底和柏拉图认为懂得美德的行为为何便已足够让一般人过着美德的生活，没有懂得美德的人或做出邪恶的事情。亚里士多德则认为（以及后世大多数哲学家都同意这点）许多人了解自己做的事情是坏事，但由于意志的脆弱而仍从事之。柏拉图只列出几样标准的美德：智慧、勇气、节制、和正义，亚里士多德所列出的则远远不只这些。
=== 政治学 ===
除了致力于个人的伦理学著作之外，亚里士多德还在标题为《政治学》的著作中致力于城邦。亚里士多德的城邦概念是非常有组织的，他被认为是以这种方式构想城邦的第一人。<ref>{{cite book
| last =Ebenstein
| first =Alan
| authorlink =
| coauthors =William Ebenstein
| title =Introduction to Political Thinkers
| publisher =Wadsworth Group
| date =2002
| location =
| pages =59
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}</ref>亚里士多德认为城邦应是自然共同体。此外，他认为城邦应当先于家族，而家族又先于个人，就是说在生成次序中最后，而在存在次序中最先（1253a19-24）。他还著名于他的论述“人本质上是政治动物”(Men is by nature a political animal.）。亚里士多德把政治构想为更像生物而非机器的存在，是离开其他部分就不能存在的多个部分的搜集。某些人批评亚里士多德的政治理论，因为某些思想家比如胡安·吉恩斯·德·塞普尔韦达用他的天然奴隶的想法来证明欧洲人对印地安人的统治是正当的。
应当注意到现代理解的政治共同体是国家。但是，国家不适合于亚里士多德，他提及的政治共同体是城邦。亚里士多德把城邦理解为在政治上“合伙”，而不在社会契约之下，也不是马基维利所理解的政治共同体。随后，建立城邦不是为了避免不公平或为了经济稳定（1280b29-31），而是为了过良好的生活：“政治上合伙必须被尊重，它是为了高尚行为而存在的，而不是为了生活在一起而存在的”（1281a1-3）。这可以区别于社会契约理论，它声称个人由于“畏惧暴死”或“厌恶麻烦”而放弃自然状态。
这也使亚里士多德成为将伦理学与政治学区分开来的第一人，是古代政治学的开创者。
== 影响 ==
亚里士多德留下的著作成为最完整而又最具影响力的哲学系统之一，或许高过史上任何的一个思想家<ref>{{cite book |last= Durant |first=Will |coauthors= |title=The Story of Philosophy |year=1926 (2006) |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc. |location=United States |isbn=9780671739164 |pages= 92}}</ref>。他单独创立了逻辑学、生物学、以及心理学，某种程度上他被认为是科学研究方法之父。他也在两千年前的《政治学》一书中预言了工业革命的来临：“如果每个机器都能制造其各自的零件，服从人类的指令和计划…如果梭子会自己来回飞动、如果弦拨会自己弹奏竖琴，完全不需人手操控，工头将不再需要领导工人，奴隶主也不再需要指挥奴隶了。”<ref>{{cite book |last= Durant |first=Will |coauthors= |title=The Story of Philosophy |year=1926 (2006) |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc. |location=United States |isbn=9780671739164 |pages= 82}}</ref>
经院哲学的思想家如托马斯·阿奎纳将亚里士多德称为“哲学家”，这些思想家将亚里士多德的哲学与基督教思想混合，将古希腊的哲学带入中世纪。不过，在混合的过程中他们也不得不抛弃了一些亚里士多德的科学和美术原则，以免基督教思想与现代科学法则和观察法则产生冲突。中世纪的英国诗人乔叟便曾描写道他的学生：
<blockquote>
at his beddes heed<br/>
Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,</br>
Of aristotle and his philosophie
在他的床上有着<br />
二十本黑色或红色封面的书<br />
藏着亚里士多德和他的哲学。
</blockquote>
意大利诗人但丁则将亚里士多德布置在第一层地狱里：
<blockquote>
vidi 'l maestro di color che sanno<br />
seder tra filosofica famiglia.<br />
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:<br />
quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone<br />
che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;
seder tra filosofica famiglia.
Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno:
quivi vid'ïo Socrate e Platone
che 'nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;</poem>||<poem>
I saw the Master there of those who know,<br />
Amid the philosophic family,<br />
By all admired, and by all reverenced;<br />
There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,<br />
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.
我看见了熟习各种技艺的人们，<br />
在哲学家的圈子里，<br />
</poem>
带着我的钦佩和崇敬，<br />
我看见了柏拉图，也看见了苏格拉底<br />
</诗歌 >
他就站在离柏拉图旁边最近的位置。
</blockquote>
</poem>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170px">
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170px">
后来的德国哲学家尼采曾表示他的哲学思想几乎完全来自于亚里士多德<ref>{{cite book |last= Durant |first=Will |coauthors= |title=The Story of Philosophy |year=1926 (2006) |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc. |location=United States |isbn=9780671739164 |pages= 86 fn}} </ref>。亚里士多德的伦理和道德原则也被一些现代哲学家如艾茵·兰德所吸收和发扬。
== 著作 ==
虽然亚里士多德写下许多经典的论文和对话录（西塞罗曾称赞亚里士多德的作品是“一系列的黄金”）<ref>{{cite web
| last =Cicero
| first =Marcus Tullius
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title ="flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles"
| work =Acadmeica
| publisher =
| date =106BC-43BC
| url =http://www2.cddc.vt.edu/gutenberg/1/4/9/7/14970/14970-h/14970-h.htm#BkII_119
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate =2007-01-25
| deadurl =yes
| archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20070913194838/http://www2.cddc.vt.edu/gutenberg/1/4/9/7/14970/14970-h/14970-h.htm#BkII_119
| archivedate =2007-09-13
}}</ref>，大多数他的著作在今天都已经遗失，而少数保留下来的著作的真实性也经常受到质疑。亚里士多德的作品在历史上曾遭遗失而又重新寻获数次，一般认为目前保留下来的作品数量只有全部原始作品的五分之一而已。
有关亚里士多德作品的下落，斯特拉博曾经在他的《地理学》和《普鲁塔克传》书里提起，依据他的说法，作品的原稿在亚里士多德死后被传给他的学生泰奥弗拉斯托斯，泰奥弗拉斯托斯又把原稿交给弟子纳留（Neleus），纳留接着将它们从雅典带回瑟柏雪（Scepsis），在纳留去世后他的家人们将原稿收在地窖里，使得原稿逐渐腐烂。原稿直到1世纪才被来自提奥斯的收藏家阿佩利孔（Apellicon）发现并买下，将它们带回雅典。依据这个说法，阿佩利孔试着修复一些原稿在地窖存放期间蒙受的损害，但也使得一些文字产生错误。当卢基乌斯·科尔内利乌斯·苏拉在公元86年占领雅典时，他将阿佩利孔的原稿带至罗马，原稿在60年被文法家第勒尼昂（Tyrranion）出版，接着又被逍遥学派的哲学家安德罗尼克斯出版。
不过，现代学者Carnes Lord则认为这个故事谣传已久只不过是因为它反映出“对消遥学派在第三世纪中快速衰退的最合理解释，以及解释亚里士多德著作里的大量知识在雅典时代后的遗失，同时也反映出亚里士多德学派在第一世纪的突然兴起。”<ref>Lord, Introduction, 11.</ref>，他认为这个故事的真实性并不可靠。首先他指出当时原稿的状态若在经过那么多年的耗损后，不可能被阿佩利孔的外行技术所修复。他也指出亚里士多德的许多著作在这个谣言据称藏于地窖的时期便已在雅典四处流传。另外，亚里士多德原稿的出版时间与谣传中安德罗尼克斯的出版时间不合，古代图书馆分类记载中亚里士多德文集出现的时间也早于那个时候。Lord认为《政治学》等书曾被后亚里士多德学派的成员所窜改，不过他也认为这些作品相对来说保留至今较为完整。
在罗马时期结束后，亚里士多德的作品又在西方世界遭受第二次大量遗失。不过这次有许多东方的穆斯林学者和哲学家将他的作品保留下来，之中许多人还对他的作品进行广泛的研究和评论。亚里士多德的作品成为伊斯兰哲学中法尔萨法运动的重要基础，也影响了阿维森纳、亚维侯等人的思想。
当法尔萨法运动的影响力传至西方世界时，克雷莫纳的翻译家杰拉德开始翻译亚里士多德的作品。来自穆尔贝克的威廉也将一些作品翻译为拉丁文。当托马斯·阿奎纳撰写他的神学思想时，他开始阅读穆尔贝克的翻译，接着对于亚里士多德思想的兴趣和研究开始在西方世界复苏，亚里士多德学派于是得以在欧洲重现。
=== 主要作品 ===
[[File:Bust of Aristotle.jpg|thumb|在西方世界裡，亞里士多德的半身雕像幾乎已成了高雅文化的象徵之一。]]
亚里士多德的广泛作品在《亚里士多德文集》（Corpus Aristotelicum）中被分为五大类。以下的编号是依据牛津大学翻译版本设下的标准所排列的<ref>''The Complete Works of Aristotle'', edited by Jonathan Barnes, 2 vols., Princeton University Press, 1984.</ref>。以下有些作品的真实性仍有争议，不同书中对于亚里士多德的身份、他的学生、以及书中的观点也不完全一致。有些作品例如《雅典政制》则被大多数学者认为是亚里士多德“学派”在亚里士多德指导下所撰写并编辑的。其他的作品如《论颜色》则可能是亚里士多德的学生所著，例如泰奥弗拉斯托斯。一些作品例如《论植物》则可能是以亚里士多德名义由他人撰写的。以下的分类删去了最后一个包括中世纪占星术、魔法的分类，因为这些伪作会套用亚里士多德之名纯粹是为美化和宣传之用。以下作品中真实性有极大争议的会以星状符号“*”表示。
==== 逻辑学著作 ====
* <small>《工具论》（有关逻辑的著作收藏）：</small>
** <small>（1a）《范畴篇》—Categoriae</small>
** <small>（16a）《解释篇》—On Interpretation</small>
** <small>（24a）《前分析篇》—Analytica Priora</small>
** <small>（71a）《后分析篇》—Analytica Posteriora</small>
** <small>（100b）《论题篇》—Topica</small>
** <small>（164a）《诡辩篇》—De Sophisticis Elenchis</small>
==== 物理学和科学著作 ====
* <small>（184a）《物理学》—Physica</small>
* <small>（268a）《论天》—De Caelo</small>
* <small>（314a）《论产生和毁灭》（也叫《论生灭》）—De Generatione et Corruptione</small>
* <small>（338a）《天象论》—Meteorologica</small>
* <small>（391a）《宇宙论》—De Mundo*</small>
* <small>（402a）《论灵魂》—De Anima</small>
* <small>（436a）《自然诸短篇》—Parva Naturalia：</small>
** <small>《感觉与所感觉到的》—De Sensu et Sensibilibus</small>
** <small>《论记忆》—De Memoria et Reminiscentia</small>
** <small>《论睡眠》—De Somno et Vigilia</small>
** <small>《论梦》—De Insomniis</small>
** <small>《论睡眠占卜》—De Divinatione per Somnum</small>
** <small>《论生命长短》—De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae</small>
** <small>《论幼年、老年、生命和死亡、和呼吸》—De Juventute et Senectute, De Vita et Morte, De Respiratione</small>
* <small>（481a）《论呼吸》—De Spiritu*</small>
* <small>（486a）《动物志》—Historia Animalium</small>
* <small>（639a）《论动物的部分》—De Partibus Animalium</small>
* <small>（698a）《论动物运动》—De Motu Animalium</small>
* <small>（704a）《论动物前进》—De Incessu Animalium</small>
* <small>（715a）《动物史》—De Generatione Animalium</small>
* <small>（791a）《论颜色》—De Coloribus*</small>
* <small>（800a）《论听觉》—De audibilibus*</small>
* <small>（805a）《论向面》—Physiognomonica*</small>
* <small>《论植物》—De Plantis*</small>
* <small>（830a）《论非凡听觉》—De mirabilibus auscultationibus*</small>
* <small>（847a）《论力学》—Mechanica*</small>
* <small>（859a）《论问题》—Problemata</small>
==== 形而上学著作 ====
* <small>（980a）《形而上学》—''Metaphysica''</small>
==== 伦理学著作 ====
* <small>（1094a）《尼各马可伦理学》—Ethica Nicomachea</small>
* <small>（1181a）《大伦理学》—Great Ethics*</small>
* <small>（1214a）《欧代米艾伦理学》—Ethica Eudemia</small>
* <small>（1249a）《论美德和邪恶》—De Virtutibus et Vitiis Libellus*</small>
* <small>（1252a）《政治学》—Politica</small>
* <small>（1343a）《经济学》—Oeconomica</small>
==== 美学著作 ====
* <small>（1354a）《修辞学》—Ars Rhetorica</small>
* <small>《亚历山大修辞学》—Rhetorica ad Alexandrum*</small>
* <small>（1447a）《诗学》—Ars Poetica</small>
=== 《亚里士多德文集》以外的作品 ===
* <small>《雅典政制》—''Athenaion Politeia''</small>
== 参考文献 ==
=== 注脚 ===
{{Reflist|30em}}
=== 来源 ===
{{refbegin}}
* Ackrill J. L. 2001. Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, USA
* {{cite book |last = Adler |first = Mortimer J. |title = Aristotle for Everybody |url = https://archive.org/details/aristotleforever00adle |publisher = Macmillan |location = New York |year = 1978 }} A popular exposition for the general reader.
* Bakalis Nikolaos. 2005. Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4120-4843-9.
* Barnes J. 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, Cambridge University Press
* {{cite book |last = Bocheński |first = I. M. |title = Ancient Formal Logic |publisher = North-Holland Publishing Company |location = Amsterdam |year = 1951 }}
* Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle’s Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
* Burnyeat, M. F. et al. 1979. Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy
* Chappell, V. 1973. Aristotle's Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679-696
* Code, Alan. 1995. Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76
* Frede, Michael. 1987. Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
* Gill, Mary Louise. 1989. Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton: Princeton University Press
* {{cite book |last = Guthrie |first = W. K. C. |title = A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |year = 1981 }}
* Halper, Edward C. (2005) ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, The Central Books''. Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6
* Irwin, T. H. 1988. Aristotle's First Principles. Oxford: Clarendon Press
* Jori, Alberto. 2003. ''Aristotele'', Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science") ISBN 978-88-424-9737-0
* Knight, Kelvin. 2007. ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'', Polity Press.
* Lewis, Frank A. 1991. ''Substance and Predication in Aristotle''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Lloyd, G. E. R. 1968. ''Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought''. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., ISBN 978-0-521-09456-6.
* Lord, Carnes. 1984. Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
* Loux, Michael J. 1991. Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
* {{cite book | last = Melchert | first = Norman | title=The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy | url = https://archive.org/details/greatconversatio00norm | publisher=McGraw Hill | year=2002 |ISBN = 978-0-19-517510-3 }}
* Owen, G. E. L. 1965c. The Platonism of Aristotle, Proceedings of the British Academy 50 125-150. Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji (eds.), Articles on Aristotle, Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth (1975). 14-34
* Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). ''Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship.
* Reeve, C. D. C. 2000. Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett.
* {{cite book | last = Rose | first = Lynn E. | title = Aristotle's Syllogistic | publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher | location = Springfield | year = 1968 }}
* {{cite book | last = Ross | first = Sir David | title = Aristotle | publisher=Routledge | edition = 6<sup>th</sup> ed. | location = London | year = 1995 }} An classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923.
* Scaltsas, T. 1994. Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
* Strauss, Leo. "On Aristotle's ''Politics''" (1964), in ''The City and Man'', Chicago; Rand McNally.
* {{cite book |last = Taylor |first = Henry Osborn |url = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html |title = Greek Biology and Medicine |year = 1922 |chapter = Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology |chapterurl = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061206164720/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html |archivedate = 2006-12-06 |access-date = 2006-11-13 }}
* {{cite book |last = Veatch |first = Henry B. |title = Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation |publisher = Indiana U. Press |location = Bloomington |year = 1974 }} For the general reader.
* Woods, M. J. (1991b). “Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics”. Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy supplement. pp. 41-56.
{{refend}}
{{refend}}
== 外部链接 ==
* [http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_ante04/Aristoteles/ari_intr.html 一些亚里士多德的著作（希腊语原文）]
*余纪元：[http://www.aisixiang.com/data/51183-4.html 〈「活得好」与「做得好」：亚里士多德幸福概念的两重含义〉]{{Wayback|url=http://www.aisixiang.com/data/51183-4.html |date=20140715035058 }}（2012）
* 斯坦福哲学百科：
** [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/aristotle-biology/ 生物学]—by James Lennox.
** [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/aristotle-causality/ 因果关系]—by Andrea Falcon.
** [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/aristotle-ethics/ 伦理学]—by Richard Kraut.
** [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/aristotle-logic/ 逻辑学]—by Robin Smith.
** [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/aristotle-mathematics/ 数学]—by Henry Mendell.
** [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ 形而上学]—by S. Marc Cohen.
** [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/aristotle-natphil/ 自然哲学]—Istvan Bodnar.
** [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/aristotle-politics/ 政治思想]—by Fred Miller.
** [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/aristotle-psychology/ 心理学]—by Christopher Shields.
** [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ 修辞学]—by Cristof Rapp.
* [[天主教百科全书]]："[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01713a.htm 亚洲里士多德]"—by William Turner.
* 网络哲学百科："[http://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/ 亚里士多德]".
* [http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0505172 Aristotle and Indian logic]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070210021952/http://www.greektexts.com/library/Aristotle/index.html 亚里士多德著作的收藏]
* [[Eugene Gendlin|Gendlin, Eugene T.]] (2012). ''[http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327012857/http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ |date=27 March 2017 }}'', Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.
* Halper, Edward C. (2005). ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books'', Parmenides Publishing,{{ISBN | 978-1930972056}}.
*{{cite book |last=Woods |first=M. J. |year=1991b |chapter=Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics |series=[[Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy]] |title=Aristotle and the Later Tradition |volume=Suppl |pages=41–56}}
*{{PhilPapers|category|aristotle}}
* At the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]:
* At the [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index.html Internet Classics Archive]
* From the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]:
*:{{hlist | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle Aristotle (general article)] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/ Aristotle in the Renaissance] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/ Biology] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/ Causality] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/ Commentators on Aristotle] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Ethics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ Logic] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/ Mathematics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ Metaphysics] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/ Natural philosophy] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/ Non-contradiction] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/ Political theory] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ Psychology] | [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ Rhetoric]}}
*{{cite CE1913 | first=William | last=Turner | wstitle=Aristotle | volume=1 | short=x}}
*{{Gutenberg author | id=2747}}
*{{in lang|el|fr}} [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm P. Remacle]
* The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ([http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ PDF]{{dot}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20050816192647/http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/ DJVU])