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本词条由栗子CUGB初步翻译

本词条由栗子CUGB初步翻译{{short description| Austrian physicist and philosopher}}

 

{{short description| Austrian physicist and philosopher}}

{{See also|Boltzmann}}

{{See also|Boltzmann}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}

|year=2000

|year=2000

}}</ref> Boltzmann attended high school in [[Linz]], [[Upper Austria]]. When Boltzmann was 15, his father died.<ref name=james2004>{{cite book

}}</ref> Boltzmann attended high school in [[Linz]], [[Upper Austria]]. When Boltzmann was 15, his father died.<ref name="james2004">{{cite book

|title=Remarkable Physicists: From Galileo to Yukawa

|title=Remarkable Physicists: From Galileo to Yukawa

|url=https://archive.org/details/remarkablephysic00jame

|url=https://archive.org/details/remarkablephysic00jame

===Academic career===

===Academic career===

In 1869 at age 25, thanks to a letter of recommendation written by Stefan,<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.kvarkadabra.net/2001/12/ludwig-boltzmann/ |title=Ludwig Boltzmann in prva študentka fizike in matematike slovenskega rodu |language=Slovenian |trans-title=Ludwig Boltzmann and the First Student of Physics and Mathematics of Slovene Descent |date=December 2001 |last=Južnič |first=Stanislav |website=Kvarkadabra.net |issue=12 |accessdate=17 February 2012}}</ref> Boltzmann was appointed full Professor of [[Mathematical Physics]] at the [[University of Graz]] in the province of [[Styria]]. In 1869 he spent several months in [[Heidelberg]] working with [[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Leo Königsberger]] and in 1871 with [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] and [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] in Berlin. In 1873 Boltzmann joined the University of Vienna as Professor of Mathematics and there he stayed until 1876.

In 1869 at age 25, thanks to a letter of recommendation written by Stefan,<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.kvarkadabra.net/2001/12/ludwig-boltzmann/ |title=Ludwig Boltzmann in prva študentka fizike in matematike slovenskega rodu |language=Slovenian |trans-title=Ludwig Boltzmann and the First Student of Physics and Mathematics of Slovene Descent |date=December 2001 |last=Južnič |first=Stanislav |website=Kvarkadabra.net |issue=12 |accessdate=17 February 2012}}</ref> Boltzmann was appointed full Professor of [[Mathematical Physics]] at the [[University of Graz]] in the province of [[Styria]]. In 1869 he spent several months in [[Heidelberg]] working with [[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Leo Königsberger]] and in 1871 with [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] and [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] in Berlin. In 1873 Boltzmann joined the University of Vienna as Professor of Mathematics and there he stayed until 1876.

[[File:Boltzmann-grp.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Ludwig Boltzmann and co-workers in Graz, 1887: (standing, from the left) [[Walther Nernst|Nernst]], [[Heinrich Streintz|Streintz]], [[Svante Arrhenius|Arrhenius]], Hiecke, (sitting, from the left) Aulinger, [[Albert von Ettingshausen|Ettingshausen]], Boltzmann, [[Ignacij Klemenčič|Klemenčič]], Hausmanninger]]

[[File:Boltzmann-grp.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Ludwig Boltzmann and co-workers in Graz, 1887: (standing, from the left) [[Walther Nernst|Nernst]], [[Heinrich Streintz|Streintz]], [[Svante Arrhenius|Arrhenius]], Hiecke, (sitting, from the left) Aulinger, [[Albert von Ettingshausen|Ettingshausen]], Boltzmann, [[Ignacij Klemenčič|Klemenčič]], Hausmanninger|链接=Special:FilePath/Boltzmann-grp.jpg]]

In 1872, long before women were admitted to Austrian universities, he met Henriette von Aigentler, an aspiring teacher of mathematics and physics in Graz. She was refused permission to audit lectures unofficially. Boltzmann supported her decision to appeal, which was successful. On July 17, 1876 Ludwig Boltzmann married Henriette; they had three daughters: Henriette (1880), Ida (1884) and Else (1891); and a son, Arthur Ludwig (1881).<ref>https://www.boltzmann.com/ludwig-boltzmann/biography/</ref> Boltzmann went back to [[Graz]] to take up the chair of Experimental Physics. Among his students in Graz were [[Svante Arrhenius]] and [[Walther Nernst]].<ref name="springer">{{Cite journal |quote=Paul Ehrenfest (1880–1933) along with Nernst, Arrhenius, and Meitner must be considered among Boltzmann's most outstanding students. |last1=Jäger |first1=Gustav |last2=Nabl |first2=Josef |last3=Meyer |first3=Stephan |date=April 1999 |title=Three Assistants on Boltzmann |journal=Synthese |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=69–84 |doi=10.1023/A:1005239104047|s2cid=30499879 }}</ref><ref name="huji">{{cite web |url=http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nernst.htm |title=Walther Hermann Nernst |quote=Walther Hermann Nernst visited lectures by Ludwig Boltzmann |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612133921/http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nernst.htm |archive-date=2008-06-12 }}</ref> He spent 14 happy years in Graz and it was there that he developed his statistical concept of nature.

In 1872, long before women were admitted to Austrian universities, he met Henriette von Aigentler, an aspiring teacher of mathematics and physics in Graz. She was refused permission to audit lectures unofficially. Boltzmann supported her decision to appeal, which was successful. On July 17, 1876 Ludwig Boltzmann married Henriette; they had three daughters: Henriette (1880), Ida (1884) and Else (1891); and a son, Arthur Ludwig (1881).<ref>https://www.boltzmann.com/ludwig-boltzmann/biography/</ref> Boltzmann went back to [[Graz]] to take up the chair of Experimental Physics. Among his students in Graz were [[Svante Arrhenius]] and [[Walther Nernst]].<ref name="springer">{{Cite journal |quote=Paul Ehrenfest (1880–1933) along with Nernst, Arrhenius, and Meitner must be considered among Boltzmann's most outstanding students. |last1=Jäger |first1=Gustav |last2=Nabl |first2=Josef |last3=Meyer |first3=Stephan |date=April 1999 |title=Three Assistants on Boltzmann |journal=Synthese |volume=119 |issue=1–2 |pages=69–84 |doi=10.1023/A:1005239104047|s2cid=30499879 }}</ref><ref name="huji">{{cite web |url=http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nernst.htm |title=Walther Hermann Nernst |quote=Walther Hermann Nernst visited lectures by Ludwig Boltzmann |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612133921/http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/nernst.htm |archive-date=2008-06-12 }}</ref> He spent 14 happy years in Graz and it was there that he developed his statistical concept of nature.

Boltzmann's most important scientific contributions were in [[kinetic theory of gases|kinetic theory]], including for motivating the [[Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution]] as a description of molecular speeds in a gas. [[Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics]] and the [[Boltzmann distribution]] remain central in the foundations of [[classical mechanics|classical]] statistical mechanics. They are also applicable to other [[phenomenon|phenomena]] that do not require [[Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics#Limits of applicability|quantum statistics]] and provide insight into the meaning of [[thermodynamic temperature|temperature]].

Boltzmann's most important scientific contributions were in [[kinetic theory of gases|kinetic theory]], including for motivating the [[Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution]] as a description of molecular speeds in a gas. [[Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics]] and the [[Boltzmann distribution]] remain central in the foundations of [[classical mechanics|classical]] statistical mechanics. They are also applicable to other [[phenomenon|phenomena]] that do not require [[Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics#Limits of applicability|quantum statistics]] and provide insight into the meaning of [[thermodynamic temperature|temperature]].

[[File:Boltzmanns-molecule.jpg|225px|thumb|right|Boltzmann's 1898 I₂ molecule diagram showing atomic "sensitive region" (α, β) overlap.]]

[[File:Boltzmanns-molecule.jpg|225px|thumb|right|Boltzmann's 1898 I₂ molecule diagram showing atomic "sensitive region" (α, β) overlap.|链接=Special:FilePath/Boltzmanns-molecule.jpg]]

[[History of chemistry#The dispute about atomism|Most]] [[chemistry|chemists]], since the discoveries of [[John Dalton]] in 1808, and [[James Clerk Maxwell]] in Scotland and [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]] in the United States, shared Boltzmann's belief in [[atom]]s and [[molecule]]s, but much of the [[physics]] establishment did not share this belief until decades later. Boltzmann had a long-running dispute with the editor of the preeminent German physics journal of his day, who refused to let Boltzmann refer to atoms and molecules as anything other than convenient [[Theory#Science|theoretical]] constructs. Only a couple of years after Boltzmann's death, [[Jean Baptiste Perrin|Perrin's]] studies of [[colloid]]al suspensions (1908–1909), based on [[Albert Einstein|Einstein's]] [[Albert Einstein#Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics|theoretical studies]] of 1905, confirmed the values of [[Avogadro's number]] and [[Boltzmann constant|Boltzmann's constant]], convincing the world that the tiny particles [[Atomic theory#History|really exist]].

[[History of chemistry#The dispute about atomism|Most]] [[chemistry|chemists]], since the discoveries of [[John Dalton]] in 1808, and [[James Clerk Maxwell]] in Scotland and [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]] in the United States, shared Boltzmann's belief in [[atom]]s and [[molecule]]s, but much of the [[physics]] establishment did not share this belief until decades later. Boltzmann had a long-running dispute with the editor of the preeminent German physics journal of his day, who refused to let Boltzmann refer to atoms and molecules as anything other than convenient [[Theory#Science|theoretical]] constructs. Only a couple of years after Boltzmann's death, [[Jean Baptiste Perrin|Perrin's]] studies of [[colloid]]al suspensions (1908–1909), based on [[Albert Einstein|Einstein's]] [[Albert Einstein#Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics|theoretical studies]] of 1905, confirmed the values of [[Avogadro's number]] and [[Boltzmann constant|Boltzmann's constant]], convincing the world that the tiny particles [[Atomic theory#History|really exist]].

==Boltzmann equation==

==Boltzmann equation==

[[File:Ludwig Boltzmann at U Vienna.JPG|thumb|Boltzmann's bust in the courtyard arcade of the main building, University of Vienna.]]

[[File:Ludwig Boltzmann at U Vienna.JPG|thumb|Boltzmann's bust in the courtyard arcade of the main building, University of Vienna.|链接=Special:FilePath/Ludwig_Boltzmann_at_U_Vienna.JPG]]

{{main|Boltzmann equation}}

{{main|Boltzmann equation}}

==Second thermodynamics law as a law of disorder==

==Second thermodynamics law as a law of disorder==

[[File:Zentralfriedhof Vienna - Boltzmann.JPG|thumb|right|Boltzmann's grave in the [[Zentralfriedhof]], Vienna, with bust and entropy formula.]]

[[File:Zentralfriedhof Vienna - Boltzmann.JPG|thumb|right|Boltzmann's grave in the [[Zentralfriedhof]], Vienna, with bust and entropy formula.|链接=Special:FilePath/Zentralfriedhof_Vienna_-_Boltzmann.JPG]]

The idea that the [[second law of thermodynamics]] or "entropy law" is a law of disorder (or that dynamically ordered states are "infinitely improbable") is due to Boltzmann's view of the second law of thermodynamics.

The idea that the [[second law of thermodynamics]] or "entropy law" is a law of disorder (or that dynamically ordered states are "infinitely improbable") is due to Boltzmann's view of the second law of thermodynamics.