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第1行： − 此词条由Jie翻译+ − 由CecileLi初步审校 − − {{other people}} − {{otheruses|Darwin (disambiguation){{!}}Darwin}} − {{pp-semi|small=yes}} − {{pp-move-indef}} − {{short description|English naturalist and biologist}} − {{EngvarB|date=June 2019}} − {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}} − {{featured article}} − 第288行：
第277行： − + − Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist Richard Owen, who had the facilities of the Royal College of Surgeons to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen's surprising results included other gigantic extinct ground sloths as well as the Megatherium, a near complete skeleton of the unknown Scelidotherium and a hippopotamus-sized rodent-like skull named Toxodon resembling a giant capybara. The armour fragments were actually from Glyptodon, a huge armadillo-like creature as Darwin had initially thought.+ − 查尔斯·莱尔于10月29日首次与达尔文会面，并很快将他介绍给了崭露头角的解剖学家理查德·欧文Richard Owen，欧文可以使用皇家外科医学院的设施，因此他可以处理达尔文收集的化石。后来欧文得出了令人惊讶的结果，包括其他已灭绝的巨大地面树懒以及大地懒，一个近乎完整的伏地懒全骨，和一只河马大小的啮齿动物般的头骨，名为Toxodon，类似于巨大的水豚。还有一些来自雕齿兽盔甲的碎片，达尔文最初以为它是巨大犰狳类动物。所有这些灭绝的生物发现与南美的生物物种有关。 − + − In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his Journal. He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing read it to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological Society. The ornithologist John Gould soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of blackbirds, "gros-beaks" and finches, were, in fact, twelve separate species of finches. On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell's presidential address presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.+ − 同年12月中旬，达尔文寄宿在剑桥，整理他航行中收集的动植物化石标本并重新开始写他的期刊论文。他写的第一篇论文表明了南美大陆正在缓慢上升。他得到了莱尔的热情支持，于1837年1月4日将其发给了伦敦地质学会。当天，他向动物学协会展示了他的哺乳动物和鸟类标本。鸟类学家约翰·古尔德John Gould很快宣布，达尔文认为的加拉帕戈斯鸟类是黑鸟，“喙喙”和十二种雀科的杂交种。2月17日，达尔文被选入理事会地质学会，莱尔的总统发言介绍了欧文关于达尔文化石的发现，并强调了物种的地理连续性可以支撑他的均变论观点。 − + − Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and experts such as Charles Babbage, who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his freethinking brother Erasmus, part of this Whig circle and a close friend of the writer Harriet Martineau, who promoted Malthusianism underlying the controversial Whig Poor Law reforms to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a Unitarian, she welcomed the radical implications of transmutation of species, promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by Geoffroy. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order, but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in John Herschel's letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a natural cause of the origin of new species. The two rheas were also distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.+ − 来年3月初，达尔文搬到伦敦，从事这项工作，加入了莱尔的科学家和专家社交圈，例如查尔斯·巴贝奇Charles Babbage，他将上帝描述为法律程序员。达尔文与自由思想的兄弟伊拉斯谟呆在一起，加入了辉格党的圈子，另外，他和作家哈里埃特·马丁诺Harriet Martineau也是密友，哈里埃特推动了'''<font color="#ff8000"> 马尔萨斯主义Malthusianism</font>'''的改革，以制止因福利造成人口过剩和更多的贫困，这引起了辉格党穷人法Whig Poor Law的争议。作为一神论者，她赞同'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物种演变Transmutation</font>'''的深远影响，这个概念由格兰特和受杰夫罗伊影响的年轻外科医生推广。物种演变这个概念，在当时是英国国教为了捍卫社会秩序极力咒逐的，但是著名的科学家们则愿意公开讨论这个话题。约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel在信中赞扬莱尔，他认为这是用自然原因来寻找新物种起源的一种方法，因此引起了学界广泛的兴趣。 − + − Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagos mockingbirds from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought was a "wren" was also in the finch group. Darwin had not labelled the finches by island, but from the notes of others on the ship, including FitzRoy, he allocated species to islands.[79] The two rheas were also distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.+ − 古尔德Gould后来遇到了达尔文并告诉他，来自不同岛屿的加拉帕戈斯知更鸟是不同的物种，而不仅仅是变种，而且当初达尔文认为的鹪鹩也归属于雀科类。航行中达尔文没有按岛对雀类进行标记，但是从船上其他人（包括菲茨罗伊）的笔记中，他将物种分配到了各个岛上。有两种美洲鸵也是不同的物种，后来3月14日，达尔文宣布其分布向南延申 第322行：
第307行： − + − By mid-March 1837, barely six months after his return to England, Darwin was speculating in his Red Notebook on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal Macrauchenia, which resembled a giant guanaco, a llama relative. Around mid-July, he recorded in his "B" notebook his thoughts on lifespan and variation across generations—explaining the variations he had observed in Galápagos tortoises, mockingbirds, and rheas. He sketched branching descent, and then a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, in which "It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another", discarding Lamarck's idea of independent lineages progressing to higher forms.+ − 到了1837年3月中旬，即返回英国后仅六个月，达尔文就在他的红色笔记本中推测了这种可能性，他认为“一种物种确实会变成另一种物种”，并用其解释生存的物种（例如，美洲大黄鼠）和灭绝的物种（例如，已灭绝的哺乳动物后弓兽）的地理分布，该物种酷似一种巨大的原驼，是美洲驼的亲戚。大约在7月中旬，他在自己的“B”笔记本中记录了他对寿命和跨代变化的看法，解释他在加拉帕戈斯陆龟，知更鸟和美洲鸵中观察到的变化。他画出了后裔分支，并描绘了单个进化树的家谱分支，其中“谈论一种动物高于另一种动物是荒谬的”，他认为应该摒弃了拉马克Lamarck关于独立血统发展为更高形态的想法。 − + − Since 2000, notebooks have been missing from Cambridge University Library that are now believed to have been stolen. One of them contains Darwin's famous Tree of Life sketch (above right), exploring the evolutionary relationship between species. Digitised copies do still exist.+ − − 自2000年以来，剑桥大学图书馆一直缺少达尔文的笔记，现在普遍认为该笔记已被盗。笔记中包含了达尔文著名的生命之树草图（右上图），探索物种之间的进化关系。不过数字副本仍然存在。 第340行：
第322行： − + − While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his Journal, he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, a sum equivalent to about £92,000 in 2018.[83] He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher.[84] As the Victorian era began, Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal, and in August 1837 began correcting printer's proofs.+ − 在深入这项关于演变的研究时，达尔文被工作占据了所有。他仍在重写他的日记并负责编辑和发布其采集化石标本相关的专家报告。同时在汉斯洛的帮助下，他的多卷动物学著作《H.M.S.猎犬号》获得了£1,000的财政部拨款赞助。这本书2018年的总价约为92,000英镑。他节省使用这笔资金，以完成计划中的地质类书刊，并与出版商商定了不切实际的发行日期。后来随着维多利亚时代的开始，达尔文于1837年8月开始更正打印机的样张。 − + − As Darwin worked under pressure, his health suffered. On 20 September he had "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall, Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood, nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in soil formation, which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837.+ − 由于达尔文在强压下工作，他的健康因此受到了影响。9月20日，他的心脏感到“不舒服”，他的医生敦促他“放弃所有工作”，并在该国生活几周。在拜访了什鲁斯伯里之后，他回到了他在斯塔福德郡梅尔大厅的韦奇伍德亲戚家，但发现他们太渴望他的旅行故事，无法给他更多的休息。他有个迷人，聪明，有教养的表姐艾玛·韦奇伍德Emma Wedgwood，比达尔文大九个月，正在照顾他身残的姨妈。他的叔叔约西亚Josiah曾提到过在一块土壤下面消失的煤渣，并暗示这可能是蠕虫的行为，这启发他们思考一个“全新的重要理论”，关于蠕虫在土壤行程中的作用。达尔文于1837年11月1日在地质学会上发表相关论文。 第358行：
第338行： − + − − William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.[87] Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in selective breeding such as farmers and pigeon fanciers.[13][88] Over time, his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.[89] He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an orangutan in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour. − + − The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe [[boil]]s, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of [[Charles Darwin's illness|Darwin's illness]] remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 252, 476, 531}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=119 115]}}</ref> − + − + − On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited [[Glen Roy]] in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine [[raised beach]]es, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a [[proglacial lake]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p= 254}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=377–378}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=86 84]}}</ref> − + − 6月23日，他正好在休假，就在苏格兰进行了“地理信息处理”。他在晴朗的天气里参观了格伦·罗伊Glen Roy，看到平行的“道路”从三个高度切入山坡。后来，他发表了自己的观点，认为这些是海上凸起的海滩，但随后不得不接受它们是冰川湖的海岸线。+ − Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage, career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed ''"Marry"'' and ''"Not Marry"''. Advantages under "Marry" included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=238 232–233]}}</ref> Having decided in favour of marriage, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=256–259}}</ref> − + − 后来待他完全康复，于七月回到什鲁斯伯里。因为他过去有习惯记下有关动物育种的记录，因此我们看到了他在两张纸上也草草地写下了他对于婚姻，职业和前景的漫长思考，其中一栏的标题为“结婚”和“不结婚”。在“结婚”下面写下了其好处为：“长久不变的同伴和朋友……总之比狗好”，坏处是“没有足够的钱买书”和“可怕的时间浪费”。在决定结婚后，他与父亲讨论了结婚事宜，然后于7月29日去拜访表姐爱玛Emma。他没有抽空去准备该如何求婚，而是不顾父亲的劝告，提出了自己对于研究演变的想法计划。+ − + − Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population, and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a geometric progression so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a Malthusian catastrophe. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to de Candolle's "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones."[13][95] This would result in the formation of new species.[13][96] As he later wrote in his Autobiography:+ − 后来达尔文继续在伦敦进行研究，他广泛阅读相关著作，包括马尔萨斯的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人口原理An Essay on the Principle of Population </font>'''》第六版。1838年9月28日，他指出“人类的人口在不受控制的情况下每25年就会增加一倍，或者以几何比例增加”，这种呈几何级数增长的速度，会造成所谓的马尔萨斯灾难，人口很快会超出了粮食供应的极限。达尔文已做好充分的准备，可以将其与坎多尔Candolle的“物种争斗”进行比较，以及野生动植物之间为生存而进行的斗争，这解释了一个物种的数量是如何大致保持稳定。由于物种的繁殖总是超出可用资源，那么有利的变异将使生物能更好地生存下来并将变异传给其后代，而不利的变异将逐渐消失。他写道，“所有楔入的最终原因，必须是找出适当的结构，并使之适应变化”，因此，“有人可能会说有十万个楔形力，试图将各种适应力推向自然经济的缝隙，或者更精确地说通过淘汰弱者来形成这种缝隙。”这最终将导致新物种的形成。正如他后来在自传中写道： 第400行：
第374行： − In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species. Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work...+ − − − By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in [[selective breeding]], and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=63 |title=Darwin transmutation notebook E p. 75 |accessdate=17 March 2009 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628082830/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=63 |archivedate=28 June 2009 }}</ref> thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=61|title=Darwin transmutation notebook E p. 71|accessdate=17 March 2009|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628080656/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=61|archivedate=28 June 2009}}</ref> He later called his theory [[natural selection]], an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding.<ref name=JvW /> − + − 到12月中旬，达尔文观察到农民在育种时往往会选择最佳种群，而马尔萨斯主张的从随机变体中进行选择，以使“新获得的结构的每个部分都完全实用且完善”具有与之相似的逻辑，达尔文认为这两者之间的比较是“他理论中最有力的证据”。后来他称其理论为自然选择，与他所谓的选择性育种的“人工选择”相类似。+ − On 11 November, he returned to [[Maer Hall|Maer]] and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences, also expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife.<ref name=Belief>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/130/125/|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Belief: historical essay|accessdate=25 November 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225124103/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/130/125/ |archivedate=25 February 2009 }}</ref> While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in [[Gower Street (London)|Gower Street]], then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin was [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1839|elected a Fellow of the Royal Society]] (FRS).<ref name=frs /><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 272–279}}</ref> − + − 11月11日，他回到梅尔，向艾玛求婚，再次向她讲述了自己的想法。她接受了他的求婚，然后在交换情书中展示了她如何珍视他的坦诚。他们开始分享彼此的分歧，艾玛也表达了她强烈的一神论信仰，并担心他的坦诚和怀疑可能会导致在来世他们的分开。当他在伦敦寻找房子时，疾病不断发作，艾玛尽力说服让他休息一下，几乎预言到：“直到我能和你在一起照顾你之前，别再生病了。他在高尔街Gower Street找到了他们所谓的“金刚鹦鹉小屋”（由于其华丽的内饰），然后在圣诞节期间将他的“博物馆”搬进了他的家。1839年1月24日，达尔文被选为英国皇家学会FRS的研究员。+ − On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p= 279}}</ref> − + − + − − {{details|Development of Darwin's theory}} 第436行：
第403行： − Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",[97] as his "prime hobby".[103] His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.[13] For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections, and in particular, the barnacles.+ − 达尔文现在有了他的“主要兴趣”，即建立他自然选择理论“工作依据”的框架。他的研究包括广泛的动植物选择性实验育种，寻找证据证明物种非永恒不变，并研究调查许多其他方法以完善和证实他的理论。十五年来，他始终从事地质相关工作，并发表有关小猎犬号收集工作（特别是藤壶）的专家报告。 − + − When FitzRoy's Narrative was published in May 1839, Darwin's Journal and Remarks was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own.[105] Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".+ − 1839年5月，费兹罗伊的《叙事Narrative》出版，达尔文的第三卷《纪录与评论Darwin's Journal and Remarks》取得了巨大的成功，并于当年下半年独立发行。早在1842年，达尔文就向查尔斯·莱尔写下了他的想法，莱尔当时指出他的盟友“否认看到每种生物都有各自的原始祖先”。 − + − Darwin's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection.[107] To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural Down House in September.[108] On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker, writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder".[109][110] Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."+ − 经过三年多的工作，达尔文于1842年5月出版了关于环礁形成理论的《珊瑚礁的结构和分布》一书，然后他完成了自然选择理论第一卷的初稿。后来为了逃避伦敦的压力，一家人于9月搬到农村的Down House。1844年1月11日，达尔文向植物学家约瑟夫·道尔顿·胡克Joseph Dalton Hooker提到了他的理论，并幽默地写着“这就像承认谋杀一样”。胡克回答说：“我认为可能在不同地点确有发生，而且物种也在逐渐变化。我很高兴听到您如何看待这种变化，因为目前没有其他设想能说得通。” 第460行：
第424行： − + − By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely.[113] In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.+ − 同年七月，达尔文将他的“草图”扩大到了230页的“随笔”，如果他英年早逝，他的研究成果也将会被他人进一步扩展。十一月，一本匿名出版的畅销书《自然创造史的遗迹Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation》引起了人们对演变的广泛兴趣。达尔文蔑视其业余地质学和动物学说，但他也仔细审查了自己的论点。后来争议爆发了，尽管科学家轻蔑地驳回了争议，但这本书仍然畅销。 − + − Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures.[116] In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of creation.+ − 后来，达尔文于1846年完成了他的第三本地质著作。因他在格兰特的学生时代对海洋无脊椎动物的专业知识，现在又重新着迷。他通过解剖和分类他在航行中收集的藤壶，观察其内部迷人的结构，开始思考和比较相关同类物种结构。1847年，胡克阅读了达尔文的随笔，并给达尔文表达了他对此的反馈，其观点相对冷静且带有批判性，但的确是达尔文当下需要的。胡可并没有承诺，和质疑达尔文对继续创造行为的反对。 − + − In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully's Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy.[118] Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died.+ − 为了改善自己的慢性病病情，达尔文在1849年去了詹姆斯·古利James Gully医生的莫尔文水疗中心，并惊讶地发现水疗可以带来一些好处。然后，在1851年，他珍爱的女儿安妮Annie生病，重新唤醒了他对自己的病可能是遗传性疾病的恐惧，在经历了一系列病痛后，安妮去世了。 − + − In eight years of work on barnacles (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "homologies" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites, showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes.[120] In 1853, it earned him the Royal Society's Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a biologist.[121] In 1854 he became a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, gaining postal access to its library.[122] He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".+ − − 在藤壶Cirripedia的八年研究中，达尔文的理论帮助他找到了“同源性Homologies”，即轻微地改变某些身体部位构造，以具有能适应新环境的不同功能，在某些生物属中，他发现雌雄同体上寄生有微小的雄性生物，这表明存在不同性别进化的中间阶段。1853年，该研究为他赢得了英国皇家学会的皇家勋章，并因此赢得了生物学家的声誉。1854年，他成为伦敦林奈学会Linnean Society的会员，并获得了其图书馆的邮政访问权。他开始重新评估他的物种理论，并在接下来的11月，意识到后代的性格差异可以通过他们适应“自然经济中的多元化环境”来解释。 − − {{details|Publication of Darwin's theory}} − + − By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace, "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled Natural Selection, which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist Asa Gray a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of Natural Selection, which omitted human origins and sexual selection. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."+ − 到1856年初，达尔文一直在研究卵和种子能够成功地跨越海水将物种传播到另一个大陆。胡克也越来越对传统观点，即物种是恒定不变的，产生怀疑。但是他们的年轻朋友托马斯·亨利·赫黎Thomas Henry Huxley仍然坚决反对物种的演变说。莱文对达尔文的猜测很感兴趣，但却没有意识到其影响。当他阅读到阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace的论文《论规范新物种介绍的法则》时，他看到了与达尔文思想的相似之处，并敦促他发表文章以确立优先地位。尽管达尔文没有看到任何威胁，但他于1856年5月14日开始写一篇简短的论文。寻找能解决困难问题的答案使他反复受挫，他将计划扩展到一本名为《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然选择Natural Selection </font>'''》的“物种全科书”，其中包括他“关于人类的笔记”。他继续他的研究，从全球博物学家那里（包括在婆罗洲工作的华莱士）获得信息和标本。1857年，他添加了一个小节标题；“人类种族理论”，不过他并没有添加相关主题的文字。同年9月5日，达尔文向美国植物学家阿萨·格雷Asa Gray发送了他详细的想法概述，包括《自然选择》一书的摘要，其中省略了人类起源和性别选择。12月，达尔文收到了华莱士的来信，询问这本书是否会研究人类起源。他回答说，他会避免那个“充满偏见”的话题，同时达尔文鼓励华莱士的理论，并补充说“我比你走得更远。” − + − Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace,[126][127] and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever, and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend.+ − 1858年6月18日达尔文收到了华莱士的一篇关于自然选择的论文，当时他的论文才完成了部分。达尔文感到非常震惊，华莱士竟然领先了一步。不过达尔文当天应华莱士的要求将其发送给了莱尔，尽管华莱士没有要求出版，但达尔文建议莱尔将其发送给华莱士选择的任何期刊。他的家人后来因村庄里的孩子死于猩红热而陷入危机，因此他把事情交到了朋友手中。经过一番讨论，莱尔和胡克找不到可靠的方法让华莱士参与进来，他们决定于7月1日在林内学会上联合发表《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 关于物种形成变种的趋势；以及通过自然选择方式使变种和物种永存On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection </font>'''》。6月28日晚上，达尔文的小儿子在经历了近一个星期的严重疾病后死于猩红热，此时达尔文心急如焚，无心参加发表会。 − + − There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries.[129] Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old".[130] Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray.+ − 当时该理论的宣布并没有立即引起注意；林内学会的主席在1859年5月表示，这一年没有任何革命性的发现。只有一项评论足以使达尔文后来回想起来。当时都柏林的塞缪尔·霍顿教授声称“其中所有的新理论都是站不住脚的，而古老的思想才是真理”。达尔文苦苦挣扎了十三个月来完成他的“全科书”的摘要，他虽然身体不好，但受到了科学朋友的不断鼓励而一直持续创作。后来莱尔安排了由约翰·默里出版社出版。 − + − On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.[132] In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections.[133] In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of homologies between humans and other mammals.[134][III] Having outlined sexual selection, he hinted that it could explain differences between human races.[135][IV] He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."[136][IV] His theory is simply stated in the introduction:+ − 当时《物种起源》出人意料地受到欢迎，当它在1859年11月22日出售给书商时，其全部1,250册的库存都被超额认购。在书中，达尔文阐述了“一个长期论点”，表达了其详细的观察，推断和对预期异议的考虑。在为共同祖先这一概念辩护时，他提供了人类与其他哺乳动物之间同源性的证据。在概述了性选择之后，他暗示这可以解释人类之间的差异。他避免了对人类起源的明确讨论，但用句子隐晦地表达了他工作的重要性。“光将照耀着人类的起源及其历史。”引言中他简单地陈述了其理论： − + − As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.+ − − − − − − At the end of the book he concluded that: − − At the end of the book he concluded that: + − There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=508 p. 492]}}</ref>+ − − There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. − − 这种生命观宏伟壮丽，它强而有力，起初以多种形式或一种形式来展现。当这颗“行星“围绕固定不变的万有引力定律旋转时，一切都开始的如此简单明了，随后便以无穷无尽的形式完成，并持续的发生进化演变（evolved），充满精彩和美妙。 − − − − − The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "Evolutionism" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with embryological development, and Darwin first used the word evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of Species.+ − − 第567行：
第503行： − {{details|Reaction to On the Origin of Species}} − − − The book aroused international interest, with less controversy than had greeted the popular and less scientific ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|p=48}}</ref> Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|corresponded on it]] with colleagues worldwide.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=103–104, 379}}</ref> The book did not explicitly discuss human origins,<ref name="light on man" />{{Ref label|D|IV|3}} but included a number of hints about the animal ancestry of humans from which the inference could be made.<ref>{{harvnb|Radick|2013|pp=174–175}}<br />{{harvnb|Huxley|Kettlewell|1965|p=88}}</ref> The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man–what may not a man become?" and said it should be left to theologians as it was too dangerous for ordinary readers.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|p=87}}<br />{{harvnb|Leifchild|1859}}</ref> Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at [[Richard Owen]], leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=477–491}}</ref> In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin,<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=110–112}}</ref> but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. [[Patrick Matthew]] drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=158, 186}}</ref> − − The book aroused international interest, with less controversy than had greeted the popular and less scientific Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation.[141] Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide.[142] The book did not explicitly discuss human origins,[136][IV] but included a number of hints about the animal ancestry of humans from which the inference could be made.[143] The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man–what may not a man become?" and said it should be left to theologians as it was too dangerous for ordinary readers.[144] Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at Richard Owen, leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow.[145] In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin,[146] but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. Patrick Matthew drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea. − 《物种起源》引起了国际上的关注，不过与人们广泛关注《自然创造史的遗迹》相比，争议较少，不过科学性也不及后者。尽管达尔文的疾病使他远离了公开辩论，但他热切地关注科学届的反应，如反馈新闻报道、评论、文章、讽刺作品和漫画等，并与世界各地的同事们进行沟通。该书没有明确讨论人类的起源，但是暗含了一些关于人类动物血统的线索，可以从中进行推断。第一篇书评问道：“如果猴子变成了人，那么人不会变成什么？”，他说应该交给神学家，因为这对普通读者来说太危险了。在早期的积极回应中，赫胥黎的评论抨击了理查德·欧文Richard Owen，后者是赫胥黎试图推翻的科学机构的领导人。4月，欧文的评论攻击了达尔文的朋友，并居高临下地摒弃了他的想法，这激怒了达尔文，但是欧文和其他人开始提倡超自然引导的进化思想。当时帕特里克·马修Patrick Matthew提请注意达尔文1831年的书，该书有一个简短的附录，提出了自然选择的概念，该概念导致了新物种的出现，不过当时他并未提出这个想法。+ + − The [[Church of England]]'s response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors [[Adam Sedgwick|Sedgwick]] and [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] dismissed the ideas, but [[liberal Christianity|liberal clergymen]] interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric [[Charles Kingsley]] seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity".<ref name=Darwinanddesign>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/|title=Darwin and design: historical essay|year=2007|publisher=Darwin Correspondence Project|accessdate=17 September 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615191012/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/ |archivedate=15 June 2009}}</ref> In 1860, the publication of ''[[Essays and Reviews]]'' by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted [[clergy|clerical]] attention from Darwin, with its ideas including [[higher criticism]] attacked by church authorities as [[heresy]]. In it, [[Baden Powell (mathematician)|Baden Powell]] argued that [[miracle]]s broke God's laws, so belief in them was [[atheism|atheistic]], and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 487–488, 500}}</ref> [[Asa Gray]] discussed [[teleology]] with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on [[theistic evolution]], ''Natural Selection is not inconsistent with [[natural theology]]''.<ref name=Darwinanddesign /><ref name=miles>{{Harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref> The most famous confrontation was at the public [[1860 Oxford evolution debate]] during a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]], where the [[Bishop of Oxford]] [[Samuel Wilberforce]], though not opposed to [[transmutation of species]], argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion.<ref name=Darwinanddesign /><ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=185}}</ref> − The Church of England's response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed the ideas, but liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity".[148] In 1860, the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention from Darwin, with its ideas including higher criticism attacked by church authorities as heresy. In it, Baden Powell argued that miracles broke God's laws, so belief in them was atheistic, and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".[149] Asa Gray discussed teleology with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with natural theology.[148][150] The most famous confrontation was at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, where the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce, though not opposed to transmutation of species, argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion. − 对此英格兰教会的反应好坏参半。达尔文的老剑桥导师塞奇威克Sedgwick和汉斯洛Henslow拒绝接受这些想法，但自由派牧师却将自然选择解释为上帝设计的工具，例如牧师查尔斯·金斯利Charles Kingsley则将其视为“与神一样崇高”。1860年，七位自由派英国国教神学家发表了论文集和评论，转移了牧师对达尔文的关注，包括受到教会当局以异端邪说为由的极端批评。其中，巴登·鲍威尔Baden Powell辩称，是奇迹打破了上帝的律法，所以他们信仰无神论，并称赞“达尔文先生的著作非常透彻精妙，它为自然具有自我进化能力的基本原则提供了支持”。阿萨·格雷Asa Gray与达尔文讨论了'''<font color="#ff8000"> 目的论Teleology </font>'''，达尔文引入并分发了格雷关于神导进化论的小册子。自然选择与自然神学并不矛盾。另外最著名的交锋是在英国科学促进协会内部的一次会议上，在公开的1860年牛津进化辩论中，牛津大学的主教塞缪尔·威尔伯福斯Samuel Wilberforce虽然不反对物种演变，但他仍然驳斥达尔文对人类是猿类后裔这一解释。而约瑟夫·胡克则强烈主张达尔文，还有托马斯·赫胥黎，他最著名的反驳是，他宁愿是猿猴的后代，也不愿是滥用礼物的人，该比喻象征着科学战胜了宗教。+ + − Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education,<ref name=Darwinanddesign /> aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen's claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate [[order (biology)|biological order]] from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the "[[Great Hippocampus Question]]", and discredited Owen.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=156–159}}</ref> − Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education,[148] aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen's claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate biological order from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the "Great Hippocampus Question", and discredited Owen. − 尽管达尔文的密友格雷、胡克、赫胥黎和莱尔仍然表示了对他理论的各种保留观点，但也给予了大力支持，另外许多人，尤其是年轻的博物学家也表示了支持。格雷和莱尔在寻求其与信仰能和谐存在的方式，而赫胥黎则描绘了宗教与科学之间的两极分化。他带有挑衅地反对神职人员在教育方面的权威，旨在推翻欧文领导下的牧师和贵族倾向者的统治，转而采用新一代的专业科学家。当时欧文想通过大脑解剖来证明了人类是与猿完全独立的物种，而赫胥黎在关于金斯利Kingsley提出的“海马体问题”的长期争议中证明了欧文的主张是错误的，并使欧文名誉扫地。+ + − [[Darwinism]] became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's ''[[Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man]]'' popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's ''[[Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature]]'' showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then ''[[The Naturalist on the River Amazons]]'' by [[Henry Walter Bates]] provided empirical evidence of natural selection.<ref name=B217>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=217–226}}</ref> Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's [[Copley Medal]], awarded on 3 November 1864.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4652.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 4652 – Falconer, Hugh to Darwin, C. R., 3 Nov (1864)|accessdate=1 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084616/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4652.html|archivedate=5 December 2008}}</ref> That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential "[[X Club]]" devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas".<ref name=Letter4807>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4807.html#mark-4807.f8|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 4807 – Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., (7–8 Apr 1865)|accessdate=1 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084621/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4807.html#mark-4807.f8|archivedate=5 December 2008}}</ref> By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=196}}</ref> − + − + − The ''Origin of Species'' was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=507–508}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=128–129, 138}}</ref> Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time{{Ref label|E|V|none}} and became a key fixture of popular culture.{{Ref label|F|VI|none}} Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an [[ape]] helped to identify all forms of [[evolutionism]] with Darwinism.<ref name=b373>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=373–379}}</ref> − + − 后来《物种起源》被翻译成了多种语言，成为一种非常重要的科学读物，引起了各行各业的关注，包括当时涌向赫胥黎演讲的“劳动者”。达尔文的理论在当时也引起了各种运动的共鸣，并成为流行文化的重要组成部分。漫画家们通过夸张地演绎古老的动物祖先，以展示人类也具有动物的特征。在英国，这些滑稽的图像以一种毫无威胁的方式推广了达尔文的理论。在1862年生病期间，达尔文开始留胡子。1866年当他重新露面时，他的猿猴漫画帮助了他将达尔文主义所有形式的进化论定义出来。+
无编辑摘要
此词条由Jie翻译，由CecileLi初步审校，AvecSally 审校{{Infobox scientist
{{Infobox scientist
|name = Charles Darwin
|name = Charles Darwin
|honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|FRGS|FLS|FZS|size=100%}}
|honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|FRGS|FLS|FZS|size=100%}}
Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist [[Richard Owen]], who had the facilities of the [[Royal College of Surgeons of England|Royal College of Surgeons]] to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen's surprising results included other gigantic extinct [[ground sloth]]s as well as the ''[[Megatherium]]'', a near complete skeleton of the unknown ''[[Scelidotherium]]'' and a [[hippopotamus]]-sized [[rodent]]-like skull named ''[[Toxodon]]'' resembling a giant [[capybara]]. The armour fragments were actually from ''[[Glyptodon]]'', a huge armadillo-like creature as Darwin had initially thought.<ref>{{Harvnb|Owen|1840|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=26 16], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=83 73], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=116 106]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref><ref name=k206 /> These extinct creatures were related to living species in South America.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 201–205}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=349–350}}</ref>
Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist [[Richard Owen]], who had the facilities of the [[Royal College of Surgeons of England|Royal College of Surgeons]] to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen's surprising results included other gigantic extinct [[ground sloth]]s as well as the ''[[Megatherium]]'', a near complete skeleton of the unknown ''[[Scelidotherium]]'' and a [[hippopotamus]]-sized [[rodent]]-like skull named ''[[Toxodon]]'' resembling a giant [[capybara]]. The armour fragments were actually from ''[[Glyptodon]]'', a huge armadillo-like creature as Darwin had initially thought.<ref name=":44">{{Harvnb|Owen|1840|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=26 16], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=83 73], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=116 106]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref><ref name=k206 /> These extinct creatures were related to living species in South America.<ref name=":45">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 201–205}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=349–350}}</ref>
查尔斯·莱尔于10月29日首次与达尔文会面，并很快将他介绍给了崭露头角的解剖学家理查德·欧文Richard Owen，欧文可以使用皇家外科医学院的设施，因此他可以处理达尔文收集的化石。欧文也在随后发现了令人惊讶的成果，包括已灭绝的巨大地面树懒以及大地懒，一个近乎完整的伏地懒全骨，和一只河马大小的啮齿动物般的头骨，名为Toxodon，类似于巨大的水豚。还有一些来自雕齿兽盔甲的碎片--达尔文最初以为它是巨大犰狳类动物<ref name=":44" /><ref name="k206" />。所有这些灭绝的生物发现与南美的生物物种有关。<ref name=":45" />
In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his ''Journal''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=345–347}}</ref> He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing read it to the [[Geological Society of London]] on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the [[Zoological Society of London|Zoological Society]]. The ornithologist [[John Gould]] soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of [[Common blackbird|blackbirds]], "[[Grosbeak|gros-beaks]]" and [[finch]]es, were, in fact, twelve [[Darwin's finches|separate species of finches]]. On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell's presidential address presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 207–210}}<br />{{Harvnb|Sulloway|1982|pp=20–23}}</ref>
In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his ''Journal''.<ref name=":46">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=345–347}}</ref> He wrote his first paper, showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing read it to the [[Geological Society of London]] on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the [[Zoological Society of London|Zoological Society]]. The ornithologist [[John Gould]] soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of [[Common blackbird|blackbirds]], "[[Grosbeak|gros-beaks]]" and [[finch]]es, were, in fact, twelve [[Darwin's finches|separate species of finches]]. On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell's presidential address presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.<ref name=":47">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 207–210}}<br />{{Harvnb|Sulloway|1982|pp=20–23}}</ref>
同年12月中旬，达尔文寄宿在剑桥，整理他航行中收集的动植物化石标本并重新开始写他的期刊论文<ref name=":46" />。他写的第一篇论文表明了南美大陆正在缓慢上升。他得到了莱尔的热情支持，于1837年1月4日将其发给了伦敦地质学会。当天，他向动物学协会展示了他的哺乳动物和鸟类标本。鸟类学家约翰·古尔德John Gould很快宣布，达尔文认为的加拉帕戈斯鸟类是黑鸟 -- “喙喙”和十二种雀科的杂交种。2月17日，达尔文被选入理事会地质学会，莱尔的总统发言介绍了欧文关于达尔文化石的发现，并强调了物种的地理连续性可以支撑他的均变论观点。<ref name=":47" />
Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and [[expert]]s such as [[Charles Babbage]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837|accessdate=19 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192201/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}} proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,<br />Darwin's Journal ({{harvnb|Darwin|2006|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1–76&pageseq=22 12 verso]}}) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837</ref> who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his [[freethought|freethinking]] brother Erasmus, part of this [[British Whig Party|Whig]] circle and a close friend of the writer [[Harriet Martineau]], who promoted [[Malthusianism]] underlying the controversial Whig [[Poor Law Amendment Act 1834|Poor Law reforms]] to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], she welcomed the [[radicalism (historical)|radical]] implications of [[transmutation of species]], promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy]]. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=201, 212–221}}</ref> but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in [[John Herschel]]'s letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a [[Physical law|natural cause]] of the origin of new species.<ref name=Rascals />
Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and [[expert]]s such as [[Charles Babbage]],<ref name=":48">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837|accessdate=19 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192201/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}} proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837,<br />Darwin's Journal ({{harvnb|Darwin|2006|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1–76&pageseq=22 12 verso]}}) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837</ref> who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his [[freethought|freethinking]] brother Erasmus, part of this [[British Whig Party|Whig]] circle and a close friend of the writer [[Harriet Martineau]], who promoted [[Malthusianism]] underlying the controversial Whig [[Poor Law Amendment Act 1834|Poor Law reforms]] to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], she welcomed the [[radicalism (historical)|radical]] implications of [[transmutation of species]], promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy]]. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,<ref name=":49">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=201, 212–221}}</ref> but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in [[John Herschel]]'s letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a [[Physical law|natural cause]] of the origin of new species.<ref name=Rascals />
来年3月初，达尔文搬到伦敦，从事这项工作，加入了莱尔的科学家和专家社交圈，例如查尔斯·巴贝奇Charles Babbage<ref name=":48" />，他将上帝描述为法律程序员。达尔文与自由思想的兄弟伊拉斯谟呆在一起，加入了辉格党的圈子，另外，他和作家哈里埃特·马丁诺Harriet Martineau也是密友，哈里埃特推动了'''<font color="#ff8000">马尔萨斯主义Malthusianism</font>'''的改革，以制止因福利造成人口过剩和更多的贫困，这引起了辉格党穷人法Whig Poor Law的争议。作为一神论者，她赞同'''<font color="#ff8000"> 物种演变Transmutation</font>'''的深远影响，这个概念由格兰特和受杰夫罗伊影响的年轻外科医生推广。物种演变<ref name=":49" />这个概念，在当时是英国国教为了捍卫社会秩序极力咒逐的，但是著名的科学家们则愿意公开讨论这个话题。约翰·赫歇尔John Herschel在信中赞扬莱尔，他认为这是用自然原因来寻找新物种起源的一种方法，因此引起了学界广泛的兴趣。<ref name="Rascals" />
Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagos [[mockingbird]]s from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought was a "[[wren]]" was also [[Warbler-finch|in the finch group]]. Darwin had not labelled the finches by island, but from the notes of others on the ship, including FitzRoy, he allocated species to islands.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sulloway|1982|pp=9, 20–23}}</ref> The two [[rhea (bird)|rheas]] were also distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=360}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1643&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|title=Darwin, C. R. (Read 14 March 1837) Notes on Rhea americana and Rhea darwinii, ''Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London''|accessdate=17 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210085710/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1643&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|archivedate=10 February 2009}}</ref>
Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagos [[mockingbird]]s from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought was a "[[wren]]" was also [[Warbler-finch|in the finch group]]. Darwin had not labelled the finches by island, but from the notes of others on the ship, including FitzRoy, he allocated species to islands.<ref name=":50">{{Harvnb|Sulloway|1982|pp=9, 20–23}}</ref> The two [[rhea (bird)|rheas]] were also distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.<ref name=":51">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=360}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1643&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|title=Darwin, C. R. (Read 14 March 1837) Notes on Rhea americana and Rhea darwinii, ''Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London''|accessdate=17 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210085710/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1643&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|archivedate=10 February 2009}}</ref>
古尔德Gould后来遇到了达尔文并告诉他，来自不同岛屿的加拉帕戈斯知更鸟是不同的物种，而不仅仅是变种，而且当初达尔文认为的鹪鹩也归属于雀科类。航行中达尔文没有按岛对雀类进行标记，但是从船上其他人（包括菲茨罗伊）的笔记中，他将物种分配到了各个岛上<ref name=":50" />。有两种美洲鸵也是不同的物种，后来3月14日，达尔文宣布其分布向南延伸。<ref name=":51" />
By mid-March 1837, barely six months after his return to England, Darwin was speculating in his ''Red Notebook'' on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal ''[[Macrauchenia]]'', which resembled a giant [[guanaco]], a llama relative. Around mid-July, he recorded in his "B" notebook his thoughts on lifespan and variation across generations—explaining the variations he had observed in [[Galápagos tortoise]]s, mockingbirds, and rheas. He sketched branching descent, and then a [[genealogical]] branching of a single [[tree of life (science)|evolutionary tree]], in which "It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another", discarding Lamarck's idea of independent [[lineage (evolution)|lineages]] progressing to higher forms.<ref>{{harvnb|Herbert|1980|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1583e&pageseq=9 7–10]}}<br />{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|p=44}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1837|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&pageseq=1 1–13, 26, 36, 74]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=229–232}}</ref>
By mid-March 1837, barely six months after his return to England, Darwin was speculating in his ''Red Notebook'' on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal ''[[Macrauchenia]]'', which resembled a giant [[guanaco]], a llama relative. Around mid-July, he recorded in his "B" notebook his thoughts on lifespan and variation across generations—explaining the variations he had observed in [[Galápagos tortoise]]s, mockingbirds, and rheas. He sketched branching descent, and then a [[genealogical]] branching of a single [[tree of life (science)|evolutionary tree]], in which "It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another", discarding Lamarck's idea of independent [[lineage (evolution)|lineages]] progressing to higher forms.<ref name=":52">{{harvnb|Herbert|1980|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1583e&pageseq=9 7–10]}}<br />{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|p=44}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1837|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&pageseq=1 1–13, 26, 36, 74]}}<br />{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=229–232}}</ref>
到了1837年3月中旬，即返回英国后仅六个月，达尔文就在他的红色笔记本中推测了这种可能性，他认为“一种物种确实会变成另一种物种”，并用其解释生存的物种（例如，美洲大黄鼠）和灭绝的物种（例如，已灭绝的哺乳动物后弓兽）的地理分布，该物种酷似一种巨大的原驼，是美洲驼的亲戚。大约在7月中旬，他在自己的“B”笔记本中记录了他对寿命和跨代变化的看法，解释他在加拉帕戈斯陆龟，知更鸟和美洲鸵中观察到的变化。他画出了后裔分支，并描绘了单个进化树的家谱分支，其中“谈论一种动物高于另一种动物是荒谬的”，他认为应该摒弃了拉马克Lamarck关于独立血统发展为更高形态的想法。<ref name=":52" />
Since 2000, notebooks have been missing from [[Cambridge University Library]] that are now believed to have been stolen. One of them contains Darwin's famous Tree of Life sketch (above right), exploring the evolutionary relationship between species. Digitised copies do still exist.<ref>https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-55044129</ref>
Since 2000, notebooks have been missing from [[Cambridge University Library]] that are now believed to have been stolen. One of them contains Darwin's famous Tree of Life sketch (above right), exploring the evolutionary relationship between species. Digitised copies do still exist.<ref name=":53">https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-55044129</ref>
自2000年以来，剑桥大学图书馆一直缺少达尔文的笔记，该笔记已被盗。笔记中包含了达尔文著名的生命之树草图（右上图），探索物种之间的进化关系。不过数字副本仍然存在。<ref name=":53" />
=== Overwork, illness, and marriage 劳累，疾病和婚姻 ===
=== Overwork, illness, and marriage 劳累，疾病和婚姻 ===
{{See also|Charles Darwin's health}}
{{See also|Charles Darwin's health}}
While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his ''Journal'', he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of [[pound sterling|£]]1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume ''[[Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle]]'', a sum equivalent to about £{{formatnum:{{inflation|UK|1000|1837|r=-3}}}} in {{#expr:{{CURRENTYEAR}}-2}}.{{inflation-fn|UK}} He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=367–369}}</ref> As the [[Victorian era]] began, Darwin pressed on with writing his ''Journal'', and in August 1837 began correcting [[Galley proof|printer's proofs]].<ref>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=21 xix]}}</ref>
While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his ''Journal'', he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of [[pound sterling|£]]1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume ''[[Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle]]'', a sum equivalent to about £{{formatnum:{{inflation|UK|1000|1837|r=-3}}}} in {{#expr:{{CURRENTYEAR}}-2}}.{{inflation-fn|UK}} He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher.<ref name=":54">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=367–369}}</ref> As the [[Victorian era]] began, Darwin pressed on with writing his ''Journal'', and in August 1837 began correcting [[Galley proof|printer's proofs]].<ref name=":55">{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=21 xix]}}</ref>
在深入这项关于演变的研究时，达尔文被工作占据了所有。他仍在重写他的日记并负责编辑和发布其采集化石标本相关的专家报告。同时在汉斯洛的帮助下，他的多卷动物学著作《H.M.S.猎犬号》获得了£1,000的财政部拨款赞助。这本书2018年的总价约为92,000英镑。他节省使用这笔资金，以完成计划中的地质类书刊，并与出版商商定了不切实际的发行日期<ref name=":54" />。后来随着维多利亚时代的开始，达尔文于1837年8月开始更正打印机的样张。<ref name=":55" />
As Darwin worked under pressure, his health suffered. On 20 September he had "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at [[Maer Hall]], Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]], nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle [[Josiah Wedgwood II|Josiah]] pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under [[loam]] and suggested that this might have been the work of [[earthworm]]s, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in [[pedogenesis|soil formation]], which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 233–234}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-404.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 404 – Buckland, William to Geological Society of London, 9 Mar 1838|accessdate=23 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192234/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-404.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}}</ref>
As Darwin worked under pressure, his health suffered. On 20 September he had "an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at [[Maer Hall]], Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]], nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle [[Josiah Wedgwood II|Josiah]] pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under [[loam]] and suggested that this might have been the work of [[earthworm]]s, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in [[pedogenesis|soil formation]], which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837.<ref name=":56">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 233–234}}<br />{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-404.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 404 – Buckland, William to Geological Society of London, 9 Mar 1838|accessdate=23 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192234/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-404.html|archivedate=29 June 2009}}</ref>
由于达尔文在强压下工作，他的健康因此受到了影响。9月20日，他的心脏感到“不舒服”，他的医生敦促他“放弃所有工作”，并在该国生活几周。在拜访了什鲁斯伯里之后，他回到了他在斯塔福德郡梅尔大厅的韦奇伍德亲戚家，但发现他们太渴望他的旅行故事，无法给他更多的休息。他有个迷人，聪明，有教养的表姐艾玛·韦奇伍德Emma Wedgwood，比达尔文大九个月，正在照顾他身残的姨妈。他的叔叔约西亚Josiah曾提到过在一块土壤下面消失的煤渣，并暗示这可能是蠕虫的行为，这启发他们思考一个“全新的重要理论” -- 关于蠕虫在土壤行程中的作用，达尔文于1837年11月1日在地质学会上发表相关论文。<ref name=":56" />
[[William Whewell]] pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 233–236}}.</ref> Despite the grind of writing and editing the ''Beagle'' reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in [[selective breeding]] such as farmers and [[pigeon keeping|pigeon fanciers]].<ref name=JvW /><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 241–244, 426}}</ref> Over time, his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=xii}}</ref> He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an [[orangutan]] in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 241–244}}</ref>
[[William Whewell]] pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.<ref name=":57">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 233–236}}.</ref> Despite the grind of writing and editing the ''Beagle'' reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in [[selective breeding]] such as farmers and [[pigeon keeping|pigeon fanciers]].<ref name=JvW /><ref name=":58">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 241–244, 426}}</ref> Over time, his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.<ref name=":59">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=xii}}</ref> He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an [[orangutan]] in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour.<ref name=":60">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 241–244}}</ref>
博学通才的著名科学家，哲学家威廉·惠威尔William Whewell敦促达尔文担任地质学会秘书。最初他拒绝了这项工作，但达尔文于1838年3月接受了该职位。尽管在撰写和编辑《H.M.S.猎犬号》时非常不顺利，然而达尔文在演变方面取得了显著进步。他抓住一切机会，向专家，博物学家，以及那些非常规的但是在选育方面有实践经验的人（如农民和鸽友）提问。他的研究开始借鉴他的亲戚，孩子，管家，邻居，殖民者，甚至前船友收集的信息。而且从一开始，他就将人类包括在内。1838年3月28日，他在动物园里看到猩猩时，便注意到了它们的幼稚行为。
博学通才的著名科学家，哲学家威廉·惠威尔William Whewell敦促达尔文担任地质学会秘书。最初他拒绝了这项工作，但达尔文于1838年3月接受了该职位<ref name=":57" />。尽管在撰写和编辑《H.M.S.猎犬号》时非常不顺利，然而达尔文在演变方面取得了显著进步。他抓住一切机会，向专家，博物学家，以及那些非常规的但是在选育方面有实践经验的人（如农民和鸽友）提问<ref name="JvW" /><ref name=":58" />。他的研究开始借鉴他的亲戚，孩子，管家，邻居，殖民者，甚至前船友收集的信息<ref name=":59" />。而且从一开始，他就将人类包括在内。1838年3月28日，他在动物园里看到猩猩时，便注意到了它们的幼稚行为<ref name=":60" />。
The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of Darwin's illness remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success.
The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe [[boil]]s, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of [[Charles Darwin's illness|Darwin's illness]] remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success.<ref name=":61">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 252, 476, 531}}<br />{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=119 115]}}</ref>
过度劳累造成了他一身的疾病，直至6月，他因胃病，头痛和心脏病不得不连续数天休息。在他的余生中，他也屡次因病痛而丧失行动能力，包括胃痛，呕吐，疖疮,、心悸颤抖和其他症状，尤其是在紧张的时期，例如参加会议或社交访问的时候。达尔文病灶仍然未知，那些治疗尝试只能暂时缓解他的病痛。
过度劳累造成了他一身的疾病，直至6月，他因胃病，头痛和心脏病不得不连续数天休息。在他的余生中，他也屡次因病痛而丧失行动能力，包括胃痛，呕吐，疖疮,、心悸颤抖和其他症状，尤其是在紧张的时期，例如参加会议或社交访问的时候。达尔文病灶仍然未知，那些治疗尝试只能暂时缓解他的病痛。<ref name=":61" />
On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine raised beaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a proglacial lake.
On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited [[Glen Roy]] in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine [[raised beach]]es, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a [[proglacial lake]].<ref name=":62">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p= 254}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=377–378}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=86 84]}}</ref>
6月23日，他正好在休假，顺便苏格兰进行了“地理信息处理”。他在晴朗的天气里参观了格伦·罗伊Glen Roy，看到平行的“道路”从三个高度切入山坡。后来，他发表了自己的观点，认为这些是海上凸起的海滩，但随后不得不接受它们是冰川湖的海岸线。<ref name=":62" />
Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage, career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed "Marry" and "Not Marry". Advantages under "Marry" included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time." Having decided in favour of marriage, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.
Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage, career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed ''"Marry"'' and ''"Not Marry"''. Advantages under "Marry" included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time."<ref name=":63">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=238 232–233]}}</ref> Having decided in favour of marriage, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.<ref name=":64">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=256–259}}</ref>
后来待他完全康复，于七月回到什鲁斯伯里。因为他过去有习惯记下有关动物育种的记录，因此我们看到了他在两张纸上也草草地写下了他对于婚姻，职业和前景的漫长思考，其中一栏的标题为“结婚”和“不结婚”。在“结婚”下面写下了其好处为：“长久不变的同伴和朋友……总之比狗好”，坏处是“没有足够的钱买书”和“可怕的时间浪费”<ref name=":63" />。在决定结婚后，他与父亲讨论了结婚事宜，然后于7月29日去拜访表姐爱玛Emma。他没有抽空去准备该如何求婚，而是不顾父亲的劝告，提出了自己对于研究演变的想法计划。<ref name=":64" />
=== Malthus and natural selection 马尔萨斯与自然选择 ===
=== Malthus and natural selection 马尔萨斯与自然选择 ===
Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of [[Malthus]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'', and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a [[geometric progression]] so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a [[Malthusian catastrophe]]. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to [[A. P. de Candolle|de Candolle]]'s "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones."<ref name=JvW /><ref name="134e">{{cite web | title = Darwin transmutation notebook D pp. 134e–135e | url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | accessdate = 4 June 2012 | url-status=live | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120718105154/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | archivedate = 18 July 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> This would result in the formation of new species.<ref name=JvW /><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 264–265}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp= 385–388}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=39 7]}}</ref> As he later wrote in his ''[[The Autobiography of Charles Darwin|Autobiography]]'':
Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of [[Malthus]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'', and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a [[geometric progression]] so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a [[Malthusian catastrophe]]. Darwin was well prepared to compare this to [[A. P. de Candolle|de Candolle]]'s "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones."<ref name=JvW /><ref name="134e">{{cite web | title = Darwin transmutation notebook D pp. 134e–135e | url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | accessdate = 4 June 2012 | url-status=live | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120718105154/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | archivedate = 18 July 2012 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> This would result in the formation of new species.<ref name=JvW /><ref name=":65">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 264–265}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp= 385–388}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=39 7]}}</ref> As he later wrote in his ''[[The Autobiography of Charles Darwin|Autobiography]]'':
后来达尔文继续在伦敦进行研究，他广泛阅读相关著作，包括马尔萨斯的《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 人口原理An Essay on the Principle of Population </font>'''》第六版。1838年9月28日，他指出“人类的人口在不受控制的情况下每25年就会增加一倍，或者以几何比例增加”，这种呈几何级数增长的速度，会造成所谓的马尔萨斯灾难，人口很快会超出了粮食供应的极限。达尔文已做好充分的准备，可以将其与坎多尔Candolle的“物种争斗”进行比较，以及野生动植物之间为生存而进行的斗争，这解释了一个物种的数量是如何大致保持稳定。由于物种的繁殖总是超出可用资源，那么有利的变异将使生物能更好地生存下来并将变异传给其后代，而不利的变异将逐渐消失。他写道，“所有楔入的最终原因，必须是找出适当的结构，并使之适应变化”，因此，“有人可能会说有十万个楔形力，试图将各种适应力推向自然经济的缝隙，或者更精确地说通过淘汰弱者来形成这种缝隙。”<ref name="JvW" /><ref name="134e" /> 这最终将导致新物种的形成。<ref name="JvW" /><ref name=":65" /> 正如他后来在自传中写道：
In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species. Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work...<ref name="autobio 120">{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=124 120]}}</ref>
In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species. Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work...<ref name="autobio 120">{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=124 120]}}</ref>
在1838年10月，也就是我开始进行系统性调查的15个月后，我碰巧读了马尔萨斯的《人口原理》，通过长期不断地观察动植物的习性，做好了充分的准备去欣赏生物为生存而奋斗的过程。令我惊讶的是，我发现在这种情况下，生物倾向于保留有利的变化，而摈弃掉不利的变化。其结果将可能是形成一个新物种。然后基于这个假设，我终于产生了一个可以为之展开研究的理论...<ref name="autobio 120" />
在1838年10月，也就是我开始进行系统性调查的15个月后，我碰巧读了马尔萨斯的《人口原理》，通过长期不断地观察动植物的习性，做好了充分的准备去欣赏生物为生存而奋斗的过程。令我惊讶的是，我发现在这种情况下，生物倾向于保留有利的变化，而摈弃掉不利的变化。其结果将可能是形成一个新物种。然后基于这个假设，我终于产生了一个可以为之展开研究的理论...
By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected",[98] thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory".[99] He later called his theory natural selection, an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding.
By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in [[selective breeding]], and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected",<ref name=":66">{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=63 |title=Darwin transmutation notebook E p. 75 |accessdate=17 March 2009 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628082830/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=63 |archivedate=28 June 2009 }}</ref> thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory".<ref name=":67">{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=61|title=Darwin transmutation notebook E p. 71|accessdate=17 March 2009|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628080656/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=61|archivedate=28 June 2009}}</ref> He later called his theory [[natural selection]], an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding.<ref name=JvW />
到12月中旬，达尔文观察到农民在育种时往往会选择最佳种群，而马尔萨斯主张的从随机变体中进行选择，以使“新获得的结构的每个部分都完全实用且完善”<ref name=":66" />具有与之相似的逻辑，达尔文认为这两者之间的比较是“他理论中最有力的证据”<ref name=":67" />。后来他称其理论为自然选择，与他所谓的选择性育种的“人工选择”相类似。<ref name="JvW" />
On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences, also expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife.[100] While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in Gower Street, then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS).
On 11 November, he returned to [[Maer Hall|Maer]] and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences, also expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife.<ref name=Belief>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/130/125/|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Belief: historical essay|accessdate=25 November 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225124103/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/130/125/ |archivedate=25 February 2009 }}</ref> While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in [[Gower Street (London)|Gower Street]], then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin was [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1839|elected a Fellow of the Royal Society]] (FRS).<ref name=frs /><ref name=":68">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 272–279}}</ref>
11月11日，他回到梅尔，向艾玛求婚，再次向她讲述了自己的想法。她接受了他的求婚，然后在交换情书中展示了她如何珍视他的坦诚。他们开始分享彼此的分歧，艾玛也表达了她强烈的一神论信仰，并担心他的坦诚和怀疑可能会导致在来世<ref name="Belief" />他们的分开。当他在伦敦寻找房子时，疾病不断发作，艾玛尽力说服让他休息一下，几乎预言到：“直到我能和你在一起照顾你之前，别再生病了。他在高尔街Gower Street找到了他们所谓的“金刚鹦鹉小屋”（由于其华丽的内饰），然后在圣诞节期间将他的“博物馆”搬进了他的家。1839年1月24日，达尔文被选为英国皇家学会FRS的研究员。<ref name="frs" /><ref name=":68" />
On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.
On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.<ref name=":69">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p= 279}}</ref>
1月29日，达尔文和艾玛·韦奇伍德在梅尔的一神论者英国国教仪式中结婚，然后立即乘火车前往他们在伦敦的新家。
1月29日，达尔文和艾玛·韦奇伍德在梅尔的一神论者英国国教仪式中结婚，然后立即乘火车前往他们在伦敦的新家。<ref name=":69" />
=== Geology books, barnacles, evolutionary research 地质书籍，藤壶，进化研究 ===
=== Geology books, barnacles, evolutionary research 地质书籍，藤壶，进化研究 ===
[[文件:Charles-Darwin-and-William-Darwin,-1842.png|缩略图|右|1842年，达尔文与长子威廉·伊拉斯谟·达尔文William Erasmus Darwin。]]
[[文件:Charles-Darwin-and-William-Darwin,-1842.png|缩略图|右|1842年，达尔文与长子威廉·伊拉斯谟·达尔文William Erasmus Darwin。]]
Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",<ref name="autobio 120" /> as his "prime hobby".<ref name=Letter419>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 419 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (15 June 1838)|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070904124133/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html|archivedate=4 September 2007}}</ref> His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.<ref name=JvW /> For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the ''Beagle'' collections, and in particular, the barnacles.<ref name=vw186>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=10 186–192]}}</ref>
Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",<ref name="autobio 120" /> as his "prime hobby".<ref name=Letter419>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 419 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (15 June 1838)|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070904124133/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html|archivedate=4 September 2007}}</ref> His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.<ref name=JvW /> For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the ''Beagle'' collections, and in particular, the barnacles.<ref name=vw186>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=10 186–192]}}</ref>
达尔文现在有了他的“主要兴趣”<ref name="Letter419" />，即建立他自然选择理论“工作依据”<ref name="autobio 120" />的框架。他的研究包括广泛的动植物选择性实验育种，寻找证据证明物种非永恒不变，并研究调查许多其他方法以完善和证实他的理论<ref name="JvW" />。十五年来，他始终从事地质相关工作，并发表有关小猎犬号收集工作（特别是藤壶）的专家报告。<ref name="vw186" />
When FitzRoy's ''Narrative'' was published in May 1839, Darwin's ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Journal and Remarks]]'' was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|loc=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=32 p. 32.]}}</ref> Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to [[Charles Lyell]], who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=292}}</ref>
When FitzRoy's ''Narrative'' was published in May 1839, Darwin's ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle|Journal and Remarks]]'' was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own.<ref name=":70">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1887|loc=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=39003&pageno=32 p. 32.]}}</ref> Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to [[Charles Lyell]], who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".<ref name=":71">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=292}}</ref>
1839年5月，费兹罗伊的《叙事Narrative》出版，达尔文的第三卷《纪录与评论Darwin's Journal and Remarks》取得了巨大的成功，并于当年下半年独立发行<ref name=":70" />。早在1842年，达尔文就向查尔斯·莱尔写下了他的想法，莱尔当时指出他的盟友“否认看到每种生物都有各自的原始祖先”。<ref name=":71" />
Darwin's book ''[[The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs]]'' on his theory of [[atoll]] formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=292–293}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1556&pageseq=18 xvi–xvii]}}</ref> To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural [[Down House]] in September.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=118 114]}}</ref> On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder".<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=7 183–184]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 729 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (11 January 1844)|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307235150/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|archivedate=7 March 2008}}</ref> Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 734 – Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., 29 January 1844|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226141303/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|archivedate=26 February 2009}}</ref>
Darwin's book ''[[The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs]]'' on his theory of [[atoll]] formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection.<ref name=":72">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=292–293}}<br />{{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1556&pageseq=18 xvi–xvii]}}</ref> To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural [[Down House]] in September.<ref name=":73">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=118 114]}}</ref> On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder".<ref name=":74">{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=7 183–184]}}</ref><ref name=":75">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 729 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (11 January 1844)|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307235150/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|archivedate=7 March 2008}}</ref> Hooker replied "There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."<ref name=":76">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 734 – Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., 29 January 1844|accessdate=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226141303/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|archivedate=26 February 2009}}</ref>
经过三年多的工作，达尔文于1842年5月出版了关于环礁形成理论的《珊瑚礁的结构和分布》一书，然后他完成了自然选择理论<ref name=":72" />第一卷的初稿。后来为了逃避伦敦的压力，一家人于9月搬到农村的Down House<ref name=":73" />。1844年1月11日，达尔文向植物学家约瑟夫·道尔顿·胡克Joseph Dalton Hooker提到了他的理论<ref name=":74" /><ref name=":75" />，并幽默地写着“这就像承认谋杀一样”。胡克回答说：“我认为可能在不同地点确有发生，而且物种也在逐渐变化。我很高兴听到您如何看待这种变化，因为目前没有其他设想能说得通。”<ref name=":76" />
By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|p= 188}}</ref> In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'' brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=461–465}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-814.html#back-mark-814.f5|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 814 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (7 Jan 1845)|accessdate=24 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084645/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-814.html#back-mark-814.f5|archivedate=5 December 2008}}</ref>
By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely.<ref name=":77">{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|p= 188}}</ref> In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'' brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.<ref name=":78">{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=461–465}}</ref><ref name=":79">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-814.html#back-mark-814.f5|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 814 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (7 Jan 1845)|accessdate=24 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084645/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-814.html#back-mark-814.f5|archivedate=5 December 2008}}</ref>
同年七月，达尔文将他的“草图”扩大到了230页的“随笔”，如果他英年早逝<ref name=":77" />，他的研究成果也将会被他人进一步扩展。十一月，一本匿名出版的畅销书《自然创造史的遗迹Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation》引起了人们对演变的广泛兴趣。达尔文蔑视其业余地质学和动物学说，但他也仔细审查了自己的论点。后来争议爆发了，尽管科学家轻蔑地驳回了争议，但这本书仍然畅销。<ref name=":78" /><ref name=":79" />
Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in [[marine invertebrates]], dating back to his student days with [[Robert Edmond Grant|Grant]], by dissecting and classifying the [[barnacle]]s he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=190–191}}</ref> In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of [[creation myth|creation]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 320–323, 339–348}}</ref>
Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in [[marine invertebrates]], dating back to his student days with [[Robert Edmond Grant|Grant]], by dissecting and classifying the [[barnacle]]s he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures.<ref name=":80">{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=190–191}}</ref> In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of [[creation myth|creation]].<ref name=":81">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 320–323, 339–348}}</ref>
达尔文于1846年完成了他的第三本地质著作。他又重拾了在格兰特的学生时代对海洋无脊椎动物的热爱。他通过解剖和分类他在航行中收集的藤壶，观察其内部迷人的结构，开始思考和比较相关同类物种结构<ref name=":80" />。1847年，胡克阅读了达尔文的随笔，并给达尔文表达了他对此的反馈，其观点相对冷静且带有批判性，但的确是达尔文当下需要的。胡可并没有承诺，和质疑达尔文对继续创造行为的反对。<ref name=":81" />
In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. [[James Manby Gully|James Gully]]'s [[Great Malvern|Malvern]] spa and was surprised to find some benefit from [[hydrotherapy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-1236.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 1236 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., 28 Mar 1849|accessdate=24 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207005457/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-1236.html|archivedate=7 December 2008}}</ref> Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter [[Anne Darwin|Annie]] fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=498–501}}</ref>
In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. [[James Manby Gully|James Gully]]'s [[Great Malvern|Malvern]] spa and was surprised to find some benefit from [[hydrotherapy]].<ref name=":82">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-1236.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 1236 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., 28 Mar 1849|accessdate=24 November 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207005457/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-1236.html|archivedate=7 December 2008}}</ref> Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter [[Anne Darwin|Annie]] fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary, and after a long series of crises she died.<ref name=":83">{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=498–501}}</ref>
为了改善自己的慢性病病情，达尔文在1849年去了詹姆斯·古利James Gully医生的莫尔文水疗中心<ref name=":82" />，并惊讶地发现水疗可以带来一些好处。然后，在1851年，他珍爱的女儿安妮Annie生病，重新唤醒了他对自己的病可能是遗传性疾病的恐惧，在经历了一系列病痛后，安妮去世了。<ref name=":83" />
In eight years of work on [[barnacle]]s (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "[[homology (biology)|homologies]]" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some [[genus|genera]] he found minute males [[parasitism|parasitic]] on [[hermaphrodite]]s, showing an [[Androdioecy|intermediate stage]] in evolution of [[Gonochorism|distinct sexes]].<ref name=barlowbio117>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=121 117–118]}}</ref> In 1853, it earned him the [[Royal Society]]'s Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a [[biology|biologist]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 383–387}}</ref> In 1854 he became a Fellow of the [[Linnean Society of London]], gaining postal access to its library.<ref>{{harvnb|Freeman|2007|pp=107, 109}}</ref> He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 419–420}}</ref>
In eight years of work on [[barnacle]]s (Cirripedia), Darwin's theory helped him to find "[[homology (biology)|homologies]]" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some [[genus|genera]] he found minute males [[parasitism|parasitic]] on [[hermaphrodite]]s, showing an [[Androdioecy|intermediate stage]] in evolution of [[Gonochorism|distinct sexes]].<ref name=barlowbio117>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=121 117–118]}}</ref> In 1853, it earned him the [[Royal Society]]'s Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a [[biology|biologist]].<ref name=":84">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 383–387}}</ref> In 1854 he became a Fellow of the [[Linnean Society of London]], gaining postal access to its library.<ref name=":85">{{harvnb|Freeman|2007|pp=107, 109}}</ref> He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".<ref name=":86">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 419–420}}</ref>
在藤壶Cirripedia的八年研究中，达尔文的理论帮助他找到了“同源性Homologies”，即轻微地改变某些身体部位构造，以具有能适应新环境的不同功能，在某些生物属中，他发现雌雄同体上寄生有微小的雄性生物，这表明存在不同性别进化的中间阶段<ref name="barlowbio117" />。1853年，该研究为他赢得了英国皇家学会的皇家勋章，并因此赢得了生物学家的声誉<ref name=":84" />。1854年，他成为伦敦林奈学会Linnean Society的会员，并获得了其图书馆的邮政访问权<ref name=":85" />。他也开始重新评估他的物种理论，并在接下来的11月，意识到后代的性格差异可以通过他们适应“自然经济中的多元化环境”来解释。<ref name=":86" />
=== Publication of the theory of natural selection 自然选择理论的公开发表 ===
=== Publication of the theory of natural selection 自然选择理论的公开发表 ===
[[文件:Charles Darwin by Maull and Polyblank, 1855-crop.png|缩略图|左|查尔斯·达尔文1855年现年46岁，当时他正致力于发表他的自然选择理论。他写信给约瑟夫·胡克，说：“如果我的表情真的像照片上那样糟糕，我怎么能有一个令人惊讶的朋友。”]]
[[文件:Charles Darwin by Maull and Polyblank, 1855-crop.png|缩略图|左|查尔斯·达尔文1855年现年46岁，当时他正致力于发表他的自然选择理论。他写信给约瑟夫·胡克，说：“如果我的表情真的像照片上那样糟糕，我怎么能有一个令人惊讶的朋友。”]]
By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and [[seed]]s could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled ''[[Natural Selection (manuscript)|Natural Selection]]'', which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|obtaining information]] and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in [[Borneo]]. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist [[Asa Gray]] a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of ''Natural Selection'', which omitted [[human evolution|human origins]] and [[sexual selection]]. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 412–441, 457–458, 462–463}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | pp=283–284, 290–292, 295}}</ref>
By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and [[seed]]s could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence. Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled ''[[Natural Selection (manuscript)|Natural Selection]]'', which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his researches, [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|obtaining information]] and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in [[Borneo]]. In mid-1857 he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist [[Asa Gray]] a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of ''Natural Selection'', which omitted [[human evolution|human origins]] and [[sexual selection]]. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."<ref name=":87">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 412–441, 457–458, 462–463}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | pp=283–284, 290–292, 295}}</ref>
到1856年初，达尔文一直在研究卵和种子能够成功地跨越海水将物种传播到另一个大陆。胡克也越来越对传统观点 -- 即物种是恒定不变的 -- 产生怀疑。但是他们的年轻朋友托马斯·亨利·赫黎Thomas Henry Huxley仍然坚决反对物种的演变说。莱文对达尔文的猜测很感兴趣，但却没有意识到其影响。当他阅读到阿尔弗雷德·罗素·华莱士Alfred Russel Wallace的论文《论规范新物种介绍的法则》时，他看到了与达尔文思想的相似之处，并敦促他发表文章以确立优先地位。尽管达尔文没有看到任何威胁，但他于1856年5月14日开始写一篇简短的论文。寻找能解决困难问题的答案使他反复受挫，他将计划扩展到一本名为《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 自然选择Natural Selection </font>'''》的“物种全科书”，其中包括他“关于人类的笔记”。他继续他的研究，从全球博物学家那里（包括在婆罗洲工作的华莱士）获得信息和标本。1857年，他添加了一个小节标题；“人类种族理论”，不过他并没有添加相关主题的文字。同年9月5日，达尔文向美国植物学家阿萨·格雷Asa Gray发送了他详细的想法概述，包括《自然选择》一书的摘要，其中省略了人类起源和性别选择。12月，达尔文收到了华莱士的来信，询问这本书是否会研究人类起源。他回答说，他会避免那个“充满偏见”的话题，同时达尔文鼓励华莱士的理论，并补充说“我比你走得更远。”<ref name=":87" />
Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace,<ref>Ball, P. (2011). Shipping timetables debunk Darwin plagiarism accusations: Evidence challenges claims that Charles Darwin stole ideas from Alfred Russel Wallace. Nature. [http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222191430/http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 |date=22 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01808.x|title=A new theory to explain the receipt of Wallace's Ternate Essay by Darwin in 1858|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=105|pages=249–252|year=2012|last1=Van Wyhe|first1=John|last2=Rookmaaker|first2=Kees|doi-access=free}}</ref> and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of [[scarlet fever]], and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the [[Linnean Society of London|Linnean Society]] on 1 July of ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 466–470}}</ref>
Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace,<ref name=":88">Ball, P. (2011). Shipping timetables debunk Darwin plagiarism accusations: Evidence challenges claims that Charles Darwin stole ideas from Alfred Russel Wallace. Nature. [http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222191430/http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 |date=22 February 2012 }}</ref><ref name=":89">{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01808.x|title=A new theory to explain the receipt of Wallace's Ternate Essay by Darwin in 1858|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=105|pages=249–252|year=2012|last1=Van Wyhe|first1=John|last2=Rookmaaker|first2=Kees|doi-access=free}}</ref> and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of [[scarlet fever]], and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the [[Linnean Society of London|Linnean Society]] on 1 July of ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend.<ref name=":90">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 466–470}}</ref>
1858年6月18日达尔文收到了华莱士的一篇关于自然选择的论文，当时他的论文才完成了部分。达尔文感到非常震惊，华莱士竟然领先了一步。不过达尔文当天应华莱士的要求将其发送给了莱尔<ref name=":88" /><ref name=":89" /> ，尽管华莱士没有要求出版，但达尔文建议莱尔将其发送给华莱士选择的任何期刊。他的家人后来因村庄里的孩子死于猩红热而陷入危机，因此他把事情交到了朋友手中。经过一番讨论，莱尔和胡克找不到可靠的方法让华莱士参与进来，他们决定于7月1日在林内学会上联合发表《'''<font color="#ff8000"> 关于物种形成变种的趋势；以及通过自然选择方式使变种和物种永存On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection </font>'''》。6月28日晚上，达尔文的小儿子在经历了近一个星期的严重疾病后死于猩红热，此时达尔文心急如焚，无心参加发表会。<ref name=":90" />
There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=40–42, 48–49}}</ref> Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor [[Samuel Haughton]] of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=126 122]}}</ref> Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 374–474}}</ref>
There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries.<ref name=":91">{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=40–42, 48–49}}</ref> Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor [[Samuel Haughton]] of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old".<ref name=":92">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=126 122]}}</ref> Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]].<ref name=":93">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 374–474}}</ref>
当时该理论的宣布并没有立即引起注意；林内学会的主席在1859年5月表示，这一年没有任何革命性的发现。只有一项评论足以使达尔文后来回想起来。当时都柏林的塞缪尔·霍顿教授声称“其中所有的新理论<ref name=":91" />都是站不住脚的，而古老的思想才是真理”<ref name=":92" />。达尔文苦苦挣扎了十三个月来完成他的“全科书”的摘要，他虽然身体不好，期间受到了科学朋友的不断鼓励而一直持续创作，最终莱尔安排了由约翰·默里出版社出版。<ref name=":93" />
''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p= 477}}</ref> In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=477 p. 459]}}</ref> In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of [[Homology (biology)|homologies]] between humans and other mammals.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2008}}{{Ref label|C|III|none}} Having outlined [[sexual selection]], he hinted that it could explain differences between [[Race (human categorization)|human races]].<ref name=SS_man>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=217&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 199]}}<br />{{harvnb | Darwin |Costa | 2009 | p=199}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | p=310}}</ref>{{Ref label|D|IV|1}} He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."<ref name="light on man">{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F373&pageseq=506 488]}}<br />{{harvnb | Darwin |Costa | 2009 | pp=199, 488}}<br />{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}</ref>{{Ref label|D|IV|2}} His theory is simply stated in the introduction:
''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.<ref name=":94">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p= 477}}</ref> In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=477 p. 459]}}</ref> In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of [[Homology (biology)|homologies]] between humans and other mammals.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2008}}{{Ref label|C|III|none}} Having outlined [[sexual selection]], he hinted that it could explain differences between [[Race (human categorization)|human races]].<ref name=SS_man>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|p= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=217&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 199]}}<br />{{harvnb | Darwin |Costa | 2009 | p=199}}<br />{{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | p=310}}</ref>{{Ref label|D|IV|1}} He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."<ref name="light on man">{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F373&pageseq=506 488]}}<br />{{harvnb | Darwin |Costa | 2009 | pp=199, 488}}<br />{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}</ref>{{Ref label|D|IV|2}} His theory is simply stated in the introduction:
当时《物种起源》出人意料地受到欢迎，当它在1859年11月22日出售给书商时，其全部1,250册的库存都被超额认购。在书中，达尔文阐述了“一个长期论点”，表达了其详细的观察，推断和对预期异议的考虑<ref name=":94" />。在为共同祖先这一概念辩护时，他提供了人类与其他哺乳动物之间同源性的证据<ref name="SS_man" />。在概述了性选择之后，他暗示这可以解释人类之间的差异。他避免了对人类起源的明确讨论，但用句子隐晦地表达了他工作的重要性<ref name="light on man" />。“光将照耀着人类的起源及其历史。”引言中他简单地陈述了其理论：
As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be ''naturally selected''. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=20 p. 5]}}</ref>
As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be ''naturally selected''. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.<ref name=":95">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=20 p. 5]}}</ref>
每个物种出生的个体比存活的个体多得多。因此，每个个体都在为生存而进行反复的斗争，随之而来的是，在复杂的，时而变化的环境下，任何个体只要以某种对自己有利的方式进行变化，这样即能获得更高的生存机会，因此自然而然地被选择了。根据强大的遗传原则，任何经过自然选择的物种都倾向于传播其全新经过改进的形态。<ref name=":95" />
每个物种出生的个体比存活的个体多得多。因此，每个个体都在为生存而进行反复的斗争，随之而来的是，在复杂的，时而变化的环境下，任何个体只要以某种对自己有利的方式进行变化，这样即能获得更高的生存机会，因此自然而然地被选择了。根据强大的遗传原则，任何经过自然选择的物种都倾向于传播其全新经过改进的形态。
在这本书的结尾，他总结道：
在这本书的结尾，他总结道：
<blockquote>''There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.<ref name=":96">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc= [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=508 p. 492]}}</ref>''</blockquote><blockquote>''这种生命观宏伟壮丽，它强而有力，起初以多种形式或一种形式来展现。当这颗“行星“围绕固定不变的万有引力定律旋转时，一切都开始的如此简单明了，随后便以无穷无尽的形式完成，并持续的发生进化演变，充满精彩和美妙。<ref name=":96" />''</blockquote>
The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "[[Evolutionism]]" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with [[Prenatal development (biology)|embryological development]], and Darwin first used the word [[evolution]] in ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]'' in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of ''The Origin of Species''.<ref name=":97">{{harvnb|Browne|2002|p=59}}, {{harvnb|Freeman|1977|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=80&itemID=A1&viewtype=text 79–80]}}</ref>
The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "[[Evolutionism]]" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with [[Prenatal development (biology)|embryological development]], and Darwin first used the word [[evolution]] in ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]'' in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of ''The Origin of Species''.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|p=59}}, {{harvnb|Freeman|1977|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=80&itemID=A1&viewtype=text 79–80]}}</ref>
在该书的前五个版本中，最后一个词“进化evolved”是唯一修改过的。当时的“进化论”与其他概念有关，最常见的是与胚胎学发展有关，达尔文于1871年在《人类的由来The Descent of Man》中首次使用了进化一词，随后于1872年将其加入《物种起源》的第六版。<ref name=":97" />
在该书的前五个版本中，最后一个词“进化evolved”是唯一修改过的。当时的“进化论”与其他概念有关，最常见的是与胚胎学发展有关，达尔文于1871年在《人类的由来The Descent of Man》中首次使用了进化一词，随后于1872年将其加入《物种起源》的第六版。
=== Responses to publication 《物种起源》的反响===
=== Responses to publication 《物种起源》的反响===
The book aroused international interest, with less controversy than had greeted the popular and less scientific ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]''.<ref name=":98">{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|p=48}}</ref> Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|corresponded on it]] with colleagues worldwide.<ref name=":99">{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=103–104, 379}}</ref> The book did not explicitly discuss human origins,<ref name="light on man" />{{Ref label|D|IV|3}} but included a number of hints about the animal ancestry of humans from which the inference could be made.<ref name=":100">{{harvnb|Radick|2013|pp=174–175}}<br />{{harvnb|Huxley|Kettlewell|1965|p=88}}</ref> The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man–what may not a man become?" and said it should be left to theologians as it was too dangerous for ordinary readers.<ref name=":101">{{harvnb|Browne|2002|p=87}}<br />{{harvnb|Leifchild|1859}}</ref> Amongst early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at [[Richard Owen]], leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow.<ref name=":102">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=477–491}}</ref> In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin,<ref name=":103">{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=110–112}}</ref> but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. [[Patrick Matthew]] drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea.<ref name=":104">{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=158, 186}}</ref>
《物种起源》引起了国际上的关注，不过与人们广泛关注《自然创造史的遗迹》相比<ref name=":98" />，争议较少，不过科学性也不及后者。尽管达尔文的疾病使他远离了公开辩论，但他仍然热切地关注科学届的反应，如反馈新闻报道、评论、文章、讽刺作品和漫画等，并与世界各地的同事们进行沟通<ref name=":99" />。该书没有明确讨论人类的起源<ref name="light on man" />，但是暗含了一些关于人类动物血统的线索，可以从中进行推断。第一篇书评问道：“如果猴子变成了人，那么人不会变成什么？”，他说应该交给神学家，因为这对普通读者<ref name=":101" />来说太危险了<ref name=":100" />。在早期的积极回应中，赫胥黎的评论抨击了理查德·欧文Richard Owen，后者是赫胥黎试图推翻的科学机构的领导人<ref name=":102" />。4月，欧文的评论攻击了达尔文的朋友，并居高临下地摒弃了他的想法，这激怒了达尔文<ref name=":103" />，但是欧文和其他人开始提倡超自然引导的进化思想。当时帕特里克·马修Patrick Matthew提请注意达尔文1831年的书，该书有一个简短的附录，提出了自然选择的概念，该概念导致了新物种的出现，不过当时他并未提出这个想法。<ref name=":104" />
The [[Church of England]]'s response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors [[Adam Sedgwick|Sedgwick]] and [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] dismissed the ideas, but [[liberal Christianity|liberal clergymen]] interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric [[Charles Kingsley]] seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity".<ref name=Darwinanddesign>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/|title=Darwin and design: historical essay|year=2007|publisher=Darwin Correspondence Project|accessdate=17 September 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615191012/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/ |archivedate=15 June 2009}}</ref> In 1860, the publication of ''[[Essays and Reviews]]'' by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted [[clergy|clerical]] attention from Darwin, with its ideas including [[higher criticism]] attacked by church authorities as [[heresy]]. In it, [[Baden Powell (mathematician)|Baden Powell]] argued that [[miracle]]s broke God's laws, so belief in them was [[atheism|atheistic]], and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".<ref name=":105">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp= 487–488, 500}}</ref> [[Asa Gray]] discussed [[teleology]] with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on [[theistic evolution]], ''Natural Selection is not inconsistent with [[natural theology]]''.<ref name=Darwinanddesign /><ref name=miles>{{Harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref> The most famous confrontation was at the public [[1860 Oxford evolution debate]] during a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]], where the [[Bishop of Oxford]] [[Samuel Wilberforce]], though not opposed to [[transmutation of species]], argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion.<ref name=Darwinanddesign /><ref name=":106">{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=185}}</ref>
对此英格兰教会的反应好坏参半。达尔文的老剑桥导师塞奇威克Sedgwick和汉斯洛Henslow拒绝接受这些想法，但自由派牧师却将自然选择解释为上帝设计的工具，例如牧师查尔斯·金斯利Charles Kingsley则将其视为“与神一样崇高”<ref name="Darwinanddesign" />。1860年，七位自由派英国国教神学家发表了论文集和评论，转移了牧师对达尔文的关注，包括受到教会当局以异端邪说为由的极端批评。其中，巴登·鲍威尔Baden Powell辩称，是奇迹打破了上帝的律法，所以他们信仰无神论，并称赞“达尔文先生的著作非常透彻精妙，它为自然具有自我进化能力的基本原则提供了支持”<ref name=":105" />。阿萨·格雷Asa Gray与达尔文讨论了'''<font color="#ff8000"> 目的论Teleology </font>'''，达尔文引入并分发了格雷关于神导进化论的小册子。自然选择与自然神学并不矛盾。另外最著名的交锋是在英国科学促进协会内部的一次会议上，在公开的1860年牛津进化辩论中，牛津大学的主教塞缪尔·威尔伯福斯Samuel Wilberforce虽然不反对物种演变，但他仍然驳斥达尔文对人类是猿类后裔这一解释。而约瑟夫·胡克则强烈主张达尔文，还有托马斯·赫胥黎，他最著名的反驳是，他宁愿是猿猴的后代，也不愿是滥用礼物的人，该比喻象征着科学战胜了宗教。<ref name="Darwinanddesign" /><ref name=":106" />
Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education,<ref name=Darwinanddesign /> aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen's claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate [[order (biology)|biological order]] from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the "[[Great Hippocampus Question]]", and discredited Owen.<ref name=":107">{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=156–159}}</ref>
尽管达尔文的密友格雷、胡克、赫胥黎和莱尔仍然表示了对他理论的各种保留观点，但也给予了大力支持，另外许多人，尤其是年轻的博物学家也表示了支持。格雷和莱尔在寻求其与信仰能和谐存在的方式，而赫胥黎则描绘了宗教与科学之间的两极分化。他带有挑衅地反对神职人员在教育方面的权威<ref name="Darwinanddesign" />，旨在推翻欧文领导下的牧师和贵族倾向者的统治，转而采用新一代的专业科学家。当时欧文想通过大脑解剖来证明了人类是与猿完全独立的物种，而赫胥黎在关于金斯利Kingsley提出的“海马体问题”的长期争议中证明了欧文的主张是错误的，并使欧文名誉扫地。<ref name=":107" />
Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection.[153] Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, awarded on 3 November 1864.[154] That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential "X Club" devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas".[155] By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection
[[Darwinism]] became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863 Lyell's ''[[Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man]]'' popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's ''[[Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature]]'' showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then ''[[The Naturalist on the River Amazons]]'' by [[Henry Walter Bates]] provided empirical evidence of natural selection.<ref name="B217">{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=217–226}}</ref> Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's [[Copley Medal]], awarded on 3 November 1864.<ref name=":108">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4652.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 4652 – Falconer, Hugh to Darwin, C. R., 3 Nov (1864)|accessdate=1 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084616/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4652.html|archivedate=5 December 2008}}</ref> That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential "[[X Club]]" devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas".<ref name="Letter4807">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4807.html#mark-4807.f8|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 4807 – Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., (7–8 Apr 1865)|accessdate=1 December 2008|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084621/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4807.html#mark-4807.f8|archivedate=5 December 2008}}</ref> By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection.<ref name=":109">{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=196}}</ref>
其影响促使出现了达尔文主义，并成为涵盖广泛进化思想的运动。1863年，莱尔的《人类古代地质证据》普及了史前史，尽管他对进化论的谨慎使达尔文感到失望。几周后，赫胥黎的书《人类在自然界的位置》表明了证据，从解剖学上讲，人是猿，然后亨利·沃尔特·贝茨Henry Walter Bates的《亚马逊河上的博物学家》提供了自然选择的经验依据。游说运动后来为达尔文带来了英国最高等级的科学荣誉，即皇家学会的科普利勋章，于1864年11月3日颁发。那天，赫胥黎举行了第一次会议，这次会议成为了颇具影响力的“X俱乐部”，该俱乐部致力于宣扬“科学，纯净，自由，不受宗教教条约束”。到本世纪末，大多数科学家同意进化理论，但是只有少数人支持达尔文的观点，即主要机制是自然选择。
其影响促使出现了达尔文主义，并成为涵盖广泛进化思想的运动。1863年，莱尔的《人类古代地质证据》普及了史前史，尽管他对进化论的谨慎使达尔文感到失望。几周后，赫胥黎的书《人类在自然界的位置》表明了证据，从解剖学上讲，人是猿，然后亨利·沃尔特·贝茨Henry Walter Bates的《亚马逊河上的博物学家》提供了自然选择<ref name="B217" />的经验依据。游说运动后来为达尔文带来了英国最高等级的科学荣誉，即皇家学会的科普利勋章，于1864年11月3日颁发<ref name=":108" />。那天，赫胥黎举行了第一次会议，这次会议成为了颇具影响力的“X俱乐部”，该俱乐部致力于宣扬“科学，纯净，自由，不受宗教教条约束”<ref name="Letter4807" />。到本世纪末，大多数科学家同意进化理论，但是只有少数人支持达尔文的观点，即主要机制是自然选择。<ref name=":109" />
The Origin of Species was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures.[157] Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time[V] and became a key fixture of popular culture.[VI] Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an ape helped to identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism.
The ''Origin of Species'' was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures.<ref name=":110">{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=507–508}}<br />{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=128–129, 138}}</ref> Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time{{Ref label|E|V|none}} and became a key fixture of popular culture.{{Ref label|F|VI|none}} Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an [[ape]] helped to identify all forms of [[evolutionism]] with Darwinism.<ref name=b373>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=373–379}}</ref>
后来《物种起源》被翻译成了多种语言，成为一种非常重要的科学读物，引起了各行各业的关注，包括当时涌向赫胥黎演讲的“劳动者”。达尔文的理论在当时也引起了各种运动的共鸣，并成为流行文化的重要组成部分<ref name=":110" />。漫画家们通过夸张地演绎古老的动物祖先，以展示人类也具有动物的特征。在英国，这些滑稽的图像以一种毫无威胁的方式推广了达尔文的理论。在1862年生病期间，达尔文开始留胡子。1866年当他重新露面时，他的猿猴漫画帮助了他将达尔文主义所有形式的进化论定义出来。<ref name="b373" />
=== ''Descent of Man'', sexual selection, and botany 人类的由来，性别选择和植物学 ===
=== ''Descent of Man'', sexual selection, and botany 人类的由来，性别选择和植物学 ===