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{{#seo:
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|keywords=随机对照试验,干预研究,RCT
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|description=是一种科学实验或干预研究,其目的是在测试新治疗的有效性时减少某些偏倚来源
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{{Short description|Experimental method designed to reduce bias, typically accomplished by randomly allocating subjects to two or more groups, with one being a control group}}
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[[File:Flowchart of Phases of Parallel Randomized Trial - Modified from CONSORT 2010.png|thumb|upright=1.5|据修改的2010年CONSORT (综合报告试验标准)要求,流程图包括:两组平行随机试验分为登记、分配、干预、随访和数据分析四个阶段,在对照试验中,需要其中一项干预作为对照处理措施。 <ref name="Schulz-2010">{{Cite journal | author = Schulz KF, Altman DG, ((Moher D; for the CONSORT Group)) | title = CONSORT 2010 Statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials | journal = Br Med J | volume = 340 | pages = c332 | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.c332 | pmid = 20332509 | pmc = 2844940 }}</ref>]]
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[[File:Flowchart of Phases of Parallel Randomized Trial - Modified from CONSORT 2010.png|thumb|upright=1.5|据修改的2010年CONSORT (综合报告试验标准)要求,流程图包括:两组平行随机试验分为登记、分配、干预、随访和数据分析四个阶段,在对照试验中,需要其中一项干预作为对照处理措施。 <ref name="Schulz-2010">{{Cite journal | author = Schulz KF, Altman DG, ((Moher D; for the CONSORT Group)) | title = CONSORT 2010 Statement: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials | journal = [[Br Med J]] | volume = 340 | pages = c332 | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.c332 | pmid = 20332509 | pmc = 2844940 }}</ref>]]
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'''随机对照试验 Randomized controlled trial(<ref name="Chalmers-1981">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Chalmers TC, ((Smith H Jr)), Blackburn B, Silverman B, Schroeder B, Reitman D, Ambroz A | title = A method for assessing the quality of a randomized control trial | journal = Controlled Clinical Trials | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 31–49 | year = 1981 | doi = 10.1016/0197-2456(81)90056-8 | pmid = 7261638 }}</ref> RCT)'''是一种科学实验(例如:临床试验)或干预研究(区别于观察性研究),其目的是在测试新治疗的有效性时减少某些偏倚来源。通过受试者随机分配到两个或两个以上的组,经过不同的处理,产生的效应再与一个有可控的处理效应相比较。即一组或多组(实验组)接受正在评估的干预措施,而另一组(通常称为对照组)接受替代治疗,如安慰剂或无干预措施。在试验设计的条件下对这些组进行监测,以确定实验干预的有效性,并与对照组进行疗效比较评估。<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nice.org.uk/glossary?letter=r|publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, London, UK|title=Randomised controlled trial|date=2019|access-date=3 June 2019}}</ref>当然这也包括一个以上的治疗组或一个以上的对照组。
随机对照试验 A randomized controlled trial(<ref name="Chalmers-1981">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Chalmers TC, ((Smith H Jr)), Blackburn B, Silverman B, Schroeder B, Reitman D, Ambroz A | title = A method for assessing the quality of a randomized control trial | journal = [[Controlled Clinical Trials]] | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 31–49 | year = 1981 | doi = 10.1016/0197-2456(81)90056-8 | pmid = 7261638 }}</ref> RCT)是一种科学实验(例如:临床试验)或干预研究(区别于观察性研究),其目的是在测试新治疗的有效性时减少某些偏倚来源。通过受试者随机分配到两个或两个以上的组,经过不同的处理,产生的效应再与一个有可控的处理效应相比较。即一组或多组(实验组)接受正在评估的干预措施,而另一组(通常称为对照组)接受替代治疗,如安慰剂或无干预措施。在试验设计的条件下对这些组进行监测,以确定实验干预的有效性,并与对照组进行疗效比较评估。<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nice.org.uk/glossary?letter=r|publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, London, UK|title=Randomised controlled trial|date=2019|access-date=3 June 2019}}</ref>当然这也包括一个以上的治疗组或一个以上的对照组。
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在分配治疗方案时,受试者随机地被分配到不同组。这个随机化过程减少了选择偏差和分配偏差,平衡了已知和未知的预后因素。<ref name="Moher-2010">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Moher D, Hopewell S, Schulz KF, Montori V, Gøtzsche PC, Devereaux PJ, Elbourne D, Egger M, Altman DG | title = CONSORT 2010 explanation and elaboration: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials | journal = [[Br Med J]] | volume = 340 | pages = c869 | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.c869 | pmid = 20332511 | pmc = 2844943 }}</ref>盲法减少了其他形式的实验者和主体偏见。
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在分配治疗方案时,受试者随机地被分配到不同组。这个随机化过程减少了选择偏差和分配偏差,平衡了已知和未知的预后因素。<ref name="Moher-2010">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Moher D, Hopewell S, Schulz KF, Montori V, Gøtzsche PC, Devereaux PJ, Elbourne D, Egger M, Altman DG | title = CONSORT 2010 explanation and elaboration: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials | journal = Br Med J | volume = 340 | pages = c869 | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.c869 | pmid = 20332511 | pmc = 2844943 }}</ref>盲法减少了其他形式的实验者和主体偏见。
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“ RCT”和“随机试验”这两个术语有时被用作同义词,但后一个术语没有提到对照,因此可以描述在没有对照组的情况下相互比较多个治疗组的研究。.<ref name="Ranjith-2005">{{Cite journal | author = Ranjith G | title = Interferon-α-induced depression: when a randomized trial is not a randomized controlled trial | journal = [[Psychother Psychosom]] | volume = 74 | issue = 6 | pages = 387; author reply 387–8 | year = 2005 | doi = 10.1159/000087787 | pmid = 16244516 | s2cid = 143644933 }}</ref>科学文献中常有“随机临床试验”或“随机比较试验”这类引发歧义的术语。<ref name="Peto-1976">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, Breslow NE, Cox DR, Howard SV, Mantel N, McPherson K, Peto J, Smith PG | title = Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. I. Introduction and design | journal = [[Br J Cancer]] | volume = 34 | issue = 6 | pages = 585–612 | year = 1976 | pmc=2025229 | pmid = 795448 | doi = 10.1038/bjc.1976.220 }}</ref><ref name="Peto-1977">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, Breslow NE, Cox DR, Howard SV, Mantel N, McPherson K, Peto J, Smith PG | title = Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. II. Analysis and examples | journal = [[Br J Cancer]] | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–39 | year = 1977 | pmc=2025310 | pmid = 831755 | doi = 10.1038/bjc.1977.1 }}</ref>并非所有的随机临床试验都是随机对照试验(其中一些试验永远不可能成为随机对照试验,因为实施控制是不切实际或不道德的)。随机对照临床试验这个术语是临床研究中使用的另一个术语;<ref name="Wollert-2004">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Wollert KC, Meyer GP, Lotz J, Ringes-Lichtenberg S, Lippolt P, Breidenbach C, Fichtner S, Korte T, Hornig B, Messinger D, Arseniev L, Hertenstein B, Ganser A, Drexler H | title = Intracoronary autologous bone-marrow cell transfer after myocardial infarction: the BOOST randomised controlled clinical trial | journal = [[The Lancet|Lancet]] | volume = 364 | issue = 9429 | pages = 141–8 | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16626-9 | pmid = 15246726 | s2cid = 24361586 }}</ref>然而,随机对照临床试验也被用于其他研究领域,包括许多社会科学。
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“ RCT”和“随机试验”这两个术语有时被用作同义词,但后一个术语没有提到对照,因此可以描述在没有对照组的情况下相互比较多个治疗组的研究。.<ref name="Ranjith-2005">{{Cite journal | author = Ranjith G | title = Interferon-α-induced depression: when a randomized trial is not a randomized controlled trial | journal = Psychother Psychosom | volume = 74 | issue = 6 | pages = 387; author reply 387–8 | year = 2005 | doi = 10.1159/000087787 | pmid = 16244516 | s2cid = 143644933 }}</ref>科学文献中常有“随机临床试验”或“随机比较试验”这类引发歧义的术语。<ref name="Peto-1976">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, Breslow NE, Cox DR, Howard SV, Mantel N, McPherson K, Peto J, Smith PG | title = Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. I. Introduction and design | journal = Br J Cancer | volume = 34 | issue = 6 | pages = 585–612 | year = 1976 | pmc=2025229 | pmid = 795448 | doi = 10.1038/bjc.1976.220 }}</ref><ref name="Peto-1977">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Peto R, Pike MC, Armitage P, Breslow NE, Cox DR, Howard SV, Mantel N, McPherson K, Peto J, Smith PG | title = Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials requiring prolonged observation of each patient. II. Analysis and examples | journal = Br J Cancer | volume = 35 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–39 | year = 1977 | pmc=2025310 | pmid = 831755 | doi = 10.1038/bjc.1977.1 }}</ref>并非所有的随机临床试验都是随机对照试验(其中一些试验永远不可能成为随机对照试验,因为实施控制是不切实际或不道德的)。随机对照临床试验这个术语是临床研究中使用的另一个术语;<ref name="Wollert-2004">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Wollert KC, Meyer GP, Lotz J, Ringes-Lichtenberg S, Lippolt P, Breidenbach C, Fichtner S, Korte T, Hornig B, Messinger D, Arseniev L, Hertenstein B, Ganser A, Drexler H | title = Intracoronary autologous bone-marrow cell transfer after myocardial infarction: the BOOST randomised controlled clinical trial | journal = The Lancet | volume = 364 | issue = 9429 | pages = 141–8 | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16626-9 | pmid = 15246726 | s2cid = 24361586 }}</ref>然而,随机对照临床试验也被用于其他研究领域,包括许多社会科学。
       
== 历史 ==
 
== 历史 ==
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据报道,1747年James Lind进行了第一个临床试验,目的是确定治疗坏血病的方法。<ref>{{cite journal | pmc=1720613 | pmid=9059193 | volume=76 |issue = 1| title=James Lind (1716-94) of Edinburgh and the treatment of scurvy | date=January 1997 | author=Dunn PM | journal=Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. | pages=F64–5 | doi=10.1136/fn.76.1.f64}}</ref>1784年,French Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism进行了第一次盲法实验,以调查催眠术的说法。19世纪下半叶,一篇提倡研究人员失明的早期文章来自Claude Bernard。Bernard建议实验的观察者不要知道正在被测试的假设。这一建议与启蒙时代流行的态度形成鲜明对比,即科学观察只有由受过良好教育、消息灵通的科学家进行才能客观有效。<ref>
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{{cite journal|last=Daston|first=Lorraine | name-list-style = vanc |title=Scientific Error and the Ethos of Belief|journal=Social Research|volume=72|number=1|year=2005|page=18}}</ref>1907年,W. H. R. Rivers和H. N. Webber进行了第一项有记录的盲法研究,研究咖啡因的作用。<ref name="pmid16992882">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rivers WH, Webber HN | title = The action of caffeine on the capacity for muscular work | journal = The Journal of Physiology | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–47 | date = August 1907 | pmid = 16992882 | pmc = 1533733 | doi = 10.1113/jphysiol.1907.sp001215 }}</ref>
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The first reported clinical trial was conducted by James Lind in 1747 to identify treatment for scurvy.[10] The first blind experiment was conducted by the French Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism in 1784 to investigate the claims of mesmerism. An early essay advocating the blinding of researchers came from Claude Bernard in the latter half of the 19th century. Bernard recommended that the observer of an experiment should not have knowledge of the hypothesis being tested. This suggestion contrasted starkly with the prevalent Enlightenment-era attitude that scientific observation can only be objectively valid when undertaken by a well-educated, informed scientist.[11] The first study recorded to have a blinded researcher was conducted in 1907 by W. H. R. Rivers and H. N. Webber to investigate the effects of caffeine.[12]
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据报道,1747年James Lind进行了第一个临床试验,目的是确定治疗坏血病的方法。1784年,French Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism进行了第一次盲法实验,以调查催眠术的说法。19世纪下半叶,一篇提倡研究人员失明的早期文章来自Claude Bernard。Bernard建议实验的观察者不要知道正在被测试的假设。这一建议与启蒙时代流行的态度形成鲜明对比,即科学观察只有由受过良好教育、消息灵通的科学家进行才能客观有效。1907年,W. H. R. Rivers和H. N. Webber进行了第一项有记录的盲法研究,研究咖啡因的作用。
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在19世纪80年代,Charles Sanders Peirce和Joseph Jastrow在心理学<ref>{{cite journal| author=Charles Sanders Peirce and Joseph Jastrow|year=1885|title=On Small Differences in Sensation| journal=Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=3|pages=73–83|url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm}} http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm</ref>和教育学<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/354775|first=Ian|last=Hacking|author-link=Ian Hacking | title=Telepathy: Origins of Randomization in Experimental Design|journal=Isis (journal)|series=A Special Issue on Artifact and Experiment|volume=79|issue=3|date=September 1988 |pages=427–451|jstor=234674|mr=1013489|s2cid=52201011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/444032|author=Stephen M. Stigler|title=A Historical View of Statistical Concepts in Psychology and Educational Research| journal=American Journal of Education| volume=101|issue=1|date=November 1992|pages=60–70|s2cid=143685203|author-link=Stephen M. Stigler}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/383850|author=Trudy Dehue|title=Deception, Efficiency, and Random Groups: Psychology and the Gradual Origination of the Random Group Design|journal=Isis (journal)|volume=88|issue=4|date=December 1997|pages=653–673|pmid=9519574|s2cid=23526321|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/71855616/237831.pdf}}</ref>领域引入随机实验。
在19世纪80年代,Charles Sanders Peirce和Joseph Jastrow在心理学<ref>{{cite journal| author=[[Charles Sanders Peirce]] and [[Joseph Jastrow]]|year=1885|title=On Small Differences in Sensation| journal=Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=3|pages=73–83|url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm}} http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm</ref>和教育学<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/354775|first=Ian|last=Hacking|author-link=Ian Hacking | title=Telepathy: Origins of Randomization in Experimental Design|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|series=A Special Issue on Artifact and Experiment|volume=79|issue=3|date=September 1988 |pages=427–451|jstor=234674|mr=1013489|s2cid=52201011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/444032|author=Stephen M. Stigler|title=A Historical View of Statistical Concepts in Psychology and Educational Research| journal=American Journal of Education| volume=101|issue=1|date=November 1992|pages=60–70|s2cid=143685203|author-link=Stephen M. Stigler}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/383850|author=Trudy Dehue|title=Deception, Efficiency, and Random Groups: Psychology and the Gradual Origination of the Random Group Design|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|volume=88|issue=4|date=December 1997|pages=653–673|pmid=9519574|s2cid=23526321|url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/71855616/237831.pdf}}</ref>领域引入随机实验。
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医学上首次发表的随机对照试验出现在1948年题为“Streptomycin treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis”的论文中,这篇论文描述了医学研究理事会的一项调查。<ref name="MRC-1948">{{Cite journal | author = Streptomycin in Tuberculosis Trials Committee | title = Streptomycin treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. A Medical Research Council investigation| journal = [[Br Med J]] | volume = 2 | issue = 4582 | pages = 769–82 | year = 1948 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.4582.769 | pmid = 18890300 | pmc = 2091872 }}</ref><ref name="Brown-1998">{{cite news |title= Landmark study made research resistant to bias |author= Brown D |newspaper= [[Washington Post]] |date=1998-11-02 }}</ref><ref name="Shikata-2006">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Shikata S, Nakayama T, Noguchi Y, Taji Y, Yamagishi H | title = Comparison of effects in randomized controlled trials with observational studies in digestive surgery | journal = [[Ann Surg]] | volume = 244 | issue = 5 | pages = 668–76 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1097/01.sla.0000225356.04304.bc | pmc=1856609 | pmid = 17060757 }}</ref>这篇论文的作者之一是Austin Bradford Hill,被认为是构想出了现代 RCT理论。<ref name="Stolberg-2004">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Stolberg HO, Norman G, Trop I | title = Randomized controlled trials | journal = [[Am J Roentgenol]] | volume = 183 | issue = 6 | pages = 1539–44 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15547188 | doi=10.2214/ajr.183.6.01831539}}</ref>
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医学上首次发表的随机对照试验出现在1948年题为“Streptomycin treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis”的论文中,这篇论文描述了医学研究理事会的一项调查。<ref name="MRC-1948">{{Cite journal | author = Streptomycin in Tuberculosis Trials Committee | title = Streptomycin treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. A Medical Research Council investigation| journal = Br Med J | volume = 2 | issue = 4582 | pages = 769–82 | year = 1948 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.4582.769 | pmid = 18890300 | pmc = 2091872 }}</ref><ref name="Brown-1998">{{cite news |title= Landmark study made research resistant to bias |author= Brown D |newspaper= Washington Post |date=1998-11-02 }}</ref><ref name="Shikata-2006">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Shikata S, Nakayama T, Noguchi Y, Taji Y, Yamagishi H | title = Comparison of effects in randomized controlled trials with observational studies in digestive surgery | journal = Ann Surg | volume = 244 | issue = 5 | pages = 668–76 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1097/01.sla.0000225356.04304.bc | pmc=1856609 | pmid = 17060757 }}</ref>这篇论文的作者之一是Austin Bradford Hill,被认为是构想出了现代 RCT理论。<ref name="Stolberg-2004">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Stolberg HO, Norman G, Trop I | title = Randomized controlled trials | journal = Am J Roentgenol | volume = 183 | issue = 6 | pages = 1539–44 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15547188 | doi=10.2214/ajr.183.6.01831539}}</ref>
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<p>20世纪80年代进行的大规模 ISIS 心脏病治疗试验进一步影响了试验设计。<ref>{{cite web| author1=Georgina Ferry |title= Peter Sleight Obituary |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/nov/02/peter-sleight-obituary |website=The Guardian |date=2 November 2020 |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref>
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20世纪80年代进行的大规模 ISIS 心脏病治疗试验进一步影响了试验设计。<ref>{{cite web| author1=Georgina Ferry |title= Peter Sleight Obituary |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/nov/02/peter-sleight-obituary |website=The Guardian |date=2 November 2020 |access-date=3 November 2020}}</ref>
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<p>By the late 20th century, RCTs were recognized as the standard method for "rational therapeutics" in medicine.[24] As of 2004, more than 150,000 RCTs were in the Cochrane Library.[22] To improve the reporting of RCTs in the medical literature, an international group of scientists and editors published Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) Statements in 1996, 2001 and 2010, and these have become widely accepted.[1][4] Randomization is the process of assigning trial subjects to treatment or control groups using an element of chance to determine the assignments in order to reduce the bias.
 
<p>By the late 20th century, RCTs were recognized as the standard method for "rational therapeutics" in medicine.[24] As of 2004, more than 150,000 RCTs were in the Cochrane Library.[22] To improve the reporting of RCTs in the medical literature, an international group of scientists and editors published Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) Statements in 1996, 2001 and 2010, and these have become widely accepted.[1][4] Randomization is the process of assigning trial subjects to treatment or control groups using an element of chance to determine the assignments in order to reduce the bias.
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<p>到20世纪后期,随机对照试验被公认为医学“合理疗法”的标准方法。截至2004年,美国 Cochrane图书馆有超过15万本随机对照试验的参考资料。为了改进医学文献中对随机对照试验的报道,一个由科学家和编辑组成的国际小组在1996年、2001年和2010年发布了Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT)声明,这些声明已被广泛接受。随机化是将试验受试者分配到治疗组或对照组的过程,使用机会因素来确定分配,以减少偏差。
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到20世纪后期,随机对照试验被公认为医学“合理疗法”的标准方法。<ref name="Meldrum-2000">{{Cite journal | author = Meldrum ML | title = A brief history of the randomized controlled trial. From oranges and lemons to the gold standard | journal = Hematol Oncol Clin North Am | volume = 14 | issue = 4 | pages = 745–60, vii | year = 2000 | doi = 10.1016/S0889-8588(05)70309-9  | pmid = 10949771 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1260107 }}</ref>截至2004年,美国 Cochrane图书馆有超过15万本随机对照试验的参考资料。<ref name="Stolberg-2004"/> 为了改进医学文献中对随机对照试验的报道,一个由科学家和编辑组成的国际小组在1996年、2001年和2010年发布了Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT)声明,这些声明已被广泛接受。<ref name="Schulz-2010"/><ref name="Moher-2010"/>随机化是将试验受试者分配到治疗组或对照组的过程,使用机会因素来确定分配,以减少偏差。
       
== 伦理 ==
 
== 伦理 ==
 
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尽管临床平衡原则<ref name="Freedman-1987">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1056/NEJM198707163170304 | author = Freedman B | title = Equipoise and the ethics of clinical research | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 317 | issue = 3 | pages = 141–5 | year = 1987 | pmid = 3600702 }}</ref>已经被广泛应用于RCT,但随机对照试验的伦理问题具有特殊性。首先,有人认为平衡本身不足以证明随机对照试验的合理性。<ref name="Gifford-1995">{{Cite journal | author = Gifford F | title = Community-equipoise and the ethics of randomized clinical trials | journal = Bioethics (journal) | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 127–48 | year = 1995 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8519.1995.tb00306.x | pmid = 11653056 }}</ref>另一方面,“集体均势”可能与缺乏个人均势相冲突(例如,个人认为干预是有效的)。<ref name="Edwards-1998">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Edwards SJ, Lilford RJ, Hewison J | title = The ethics of randomised controlled trials from the perspectives of patients, the public, and healthcare professionals | journal = Br Med J | volume = 317 | issue = 7167 | pages = 1209–12 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9794861 | pmc = 1114158 | doi=10.1136/bmj.317.7167.1209}}</ref> 最后,Zelen 的设计已经被用于一些随机试验,在受试者提供知情同意之前随机化,这对于筛选和选择性治疗的随机试验来说可能是合乎道德的,但是对于“大多数治疗试验”来说可能是不道德的。<ref name="Zelen-1979">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1056/NEJM197905313002203 | author = Zelen M | title = A new design for randomized clinical trials | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 300 | issue = 22 | pages = 1242–5 | year = 1979 | pmid = 431682 }}</ref><ref name="Torgerson-1998">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Torgerson DJ, Roland M | title = What is Zelen's design? | journal = Br Med J | volume = 316 | issue = 7131 | page = 606 | year = 1998 | pmid = 9518917 | pmc = 1112637 | doi=10.1136/bmj.316.7131.606}}</ref>
Although the principle of clinical equipoise ("genuine uncertainty within the expert medical community... about the preferred treatment") common to clinical trials[25] has been applied to RCTs, the ethics of RCTs have special considerations. For one, it has been argued that equipoise itself is insufficient to justify RCTs.[26] For another, "collective equipoise" can conflict with a lack of personal equipoise (e.g., a personal belief that an intervention is effective).[27] Finally, Zelen's design, which has been used for some RCTs, randomizes subjects before they provide informed consent, which may be ethical for RCTs of screening and selected therapies, but is likely unethical "for most therapeutic trials."[28][29]
  −
 
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尽管临床平衡原则已经被广泛应用于RCT,但随机对照试验的伦理问题具有特殊性。首先,有人认为平衡本身不足以证明随机对照试验的合理性。另一方面,“集体均势”可能与缺乏个人均势相冲突(例如,个人认为干预是有效的)。最后,Zelen 的设计已经被用于一些随机试验,在受试者提供知情同意之前随机化,这对于筛选和选择性治疗的随机试验来说可能是合乎道德的,但是对于“大多数治疗试验”来说可能是不道德的。
        −
一般来说,受试者要为参加随机对照试验提交了知情同意书,但1982年以来的研究记录表明,随机对照试验的受试者可能认为他们肯定会接受对他们个人最好的治疗; 也就是说,他们不理解研究和治疗之间的区别。<ref name="Appelbaum-1982">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Appelbaum PS, Roth LH, Lidz C | title = The therapeutic misconception: informed consent in psychiatric research | journal = [[Int J Law Psychiatry]] | volume = 5 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 319–29 | year = 1982 | doi = 10.1016/0160-2527(82)90026-7 | pmid = 6135666 }}</ref><ref name="Henderson-2007">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Henderson GE, Churchill LR, Davis AM, Easter MM, Grady C, Joffe S, Kass N, King NM, Lidz CW, Miller FG, Nelson DK, Peppercorn J, Rothschild BB, Sankar P, Wilfond BS, Zimmer CR | title = Clinical trials and medical care: defining the therapeutic misconception | journal = [[PLoS Med]] | volume = 4 | issue = 11 | pages = e324 | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040324 | pmid = 18044980 | pmc = 2082641 }}</ref> 需要进一步研究,以确定这种”治疗性误解”的流行程度和解决方法。<ref name="Henderson-2007" />
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一般来说,受试者要为参加随机对照试验提交了知情同意书,但1982年以来的研究记录表明,随机对照试验的受试者可能认为他们肯定会接受对他们个人最好的治疗; 也就是说,他们不理解研究和治疗之间的区别。<ref name="Appelbaum-1982">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Appelbaum PS, Roth LH, Lidz C | title = The therapeutic misconception: informed consent in psychiatric research | journal = Int J Law Psychiatry]| volume = 5 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 319–29 | year = 1982 | doi = 10.1016/0160-2527(82)90026-7 | pmid = 6135666 }}</ref><ref name="Henderson-2007">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Henderson GE, Churchill LR, Davis AM, Easter MM, Grady C, Joffe S, Kass N, King NM, Lidz CW, Miller FG, Nelson DK, Peppercorn J, Rothschild BB, Sankar P, Wilfond BS, Zimmer CR | title = Clinical trials and medical care: defining the therapeutic misconception | journal = PLoS Med | volume = 4 | issue = 11 | pages = e324 | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040324 | pmid = 18044980 | pmc = 2082641 }}</ref> 需要进一步研究,以确定这种”治疗性误解”的流行程度和解决方法。<ref name="Henderson-2007" />
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=== 结果(效力 vs 效果) ===
 
=== 结果(效力 vs 效果) ===
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随机对照试验可分为“解释性”或“实用性”。<ref name="Zwarenstein-2008">{{Cite journal | author = Zwarenstein M, Treweek S, Gagnier JJ, Altman DG, Tunis S, Haynes B, Oxman AD, Moher D; CONSORT group; Pragmatic Trials in Healthcare (Practihc) group | title = Improving the reporting of pragmatic trials: an extension of the CONSORT statement | journal = BMJ | volume = 337 | pages = a2390 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.a2390 | pmid = 19001484 | pmc=3266844}}</ref> Explanatory RCTs test [[Efficacy#Medicine|efficacy]] in a research setting with highly selected participants and under highly controlled conditions.<ref name="Zwarenstein-2008"/>解释性随机对照试验在高度选定的参与者和高度受控的条件下测试有效性。相比之下,实用性随机对照测验 pragmatic RCTs(pRCT)在相对未经选择的参与者和灵活的条件下,在日常实践中检验有效性,这样,实用随机对照测验可以“为实践决策提供信息”。<ref name="Zwarenstein-2008"/>
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随机对照试验可分为“解释性”或“实用性”。<ref name="Zwarenstein-2008">{{Cite journal | author = Zwarenstein M, Treweek S, Gagnier JJ, Altman DG, Tunis S, Haynes B, Oxman AD, Moher D; CONSORT group; Pragmatic Trials in Healthcare (Practihc) group | title = Improving the reporting of pragmatic trials: an extension of the CONSORT statement | journal = BMJ | volume = 337 | pages = a2390 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.a2390 | pmid = 19001484 | pmc=3266844}}</ref> Explanatory RCTs test Efficacy in a research setting with highly selected participants and under highly controlled conditions.<ref name="Zwarenstein-2008"/>解释性随机对照试验在高度选定的参与者和高度受控的条件下测试有效性。相比之下,实用性随机对照测验 pragmatic RCTs(pRCT)在相对未经选择的参与者和灵活的条件下,在日常实践中检验有效性,这样,实用随机对照测验可以“为实践决策提供信息”。<ref name="Zwarenstein-2008"/>
       
=== 假设(优越性 vs 非优越性 vs 等价性) ===
 
=== 假设(优越性 vs 非优越性 vs 等价性) ===
   −
随机对照试验的另一种分类是“优越性试验”、“非劣性试验”和“等效性试验”,它们在方法和报告上有所不同。<ref name="Piaggio-2006">{{Cite journal | author = Piaggio G, Elbourne DR, [[Doug Altman|Altman DG]], [[Stuart Pocock|Pocock SJ]], Evans SJ; CONSORT Group | title = Reporting of noninferiority and equivalence randomized trials: an extension of the CONSORT statement | journal = JAMA | volume = 295 | issue = 10 | pages = 1152–60 |  year = 2006 | doi = 10.1001/jama.295.10.1152 | pmid = 16522836 | url = http://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/12069/1/Reporting%20of%20Noninferiority%20and%20Equivalence%20Randomized%20Trials.pdf }}</ref> 大多数随机对照试验都是优势试验,其中一种干预措施被假设在统计学意义上优于另一种干预措施。<ref name="Piaggio-2006"/> 一些随机对照试验是非劣效性试验,“以确定一种新的治疗方法是否比一种参考治疗方法更差。”<ref name="Piaggio-2006"/>其他随机对照试验是等效试验,其中的假设是两种干预措施彼此不可区分。<ref name="Piaggio-2006"/>
+
随机对照试验的另一种分类是“优越性试验”、“非劣性试验”和“等效性试验”,它们在方法和报告上有所不同。<ref name="Piaggio-2006">{{Cite journal | author = Piaggio G, Elbourne DR, Doug Altman, Stuart Pocock, Evans SJ; CONSORT Group | title = Reporting of noninferiority and equivalence randomized trials: an extension of the CONSORT statement | journal = JAMA | volume = 295 | issue = 10 | pages = 1152–60 |  year = 2006 | doi = 10.1001/jama.295.10.1152 | pmid = 16522836 | url = http://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/12069/1/Reporting%20of%20Noninferiority%20and%20Equivalence%20Randomized%20Trials.pdf }}</ref> 大多数随机对照试验都是优势试验,其中一种干预措施被假设在统计学意义上优于另一种干预措施。<ref name="Piaggio-2006"/> 一些随机对照试验是非劣效性试验,“以确定一种新的治疗方法是否比一种参考治疗方法更差。”<ref name="Piaggio-2006"/>其他随机对照试验是等效试验,其中的假设是两种干预措施彼此不可区分。<ref name="Piaggio-2006"/>
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* '''最小化选择偏差'''。如果调查人员可以有意识或无意识地在治疗之间优先招募患者,就可能发生这种情况。一个好的随机化过程是不可预测的,因此研究人员不能根据先前的治疗分配来猜测下一个受试者的分组。当已知以前的治疗方案时(如在非盲法研究中)或可以猜到(如果一种药物有明显的副作用),选择偏倚的风险最高。
 
* '''最小化选择偏差'''。如果调查人员可以有意识或无意识地在治疗之间优先招募患者,就可能发生这种情况。一个好的随机化过程是不可预测的,因此研究人员不能根据先前的治疗分配来猜测下一个受试者的分组。当已知以前的治疗方案时(如在非盲法研究中)或可以猜到(如果一种药物有明显的副作用),选择偏倚的风险最高。
   −
* '''最小化分配偏差(或混淆)'''。当影响结果的协变量在治疗组之间分布不均,并且治疗效果与协变量的效果混淆时(即“偶然偏差”),可能会出现这种情况。<ref name="SchulzGrimes2002"/><ref name="Buyse-1989">{{Cite journal | author = Buyse ME | title = Analysis of clinical trial outcomes: some comments on subgroup analyses | journal = [[Controlled Clinical Trials]] | volume = 10 | issue = 4 Suppl | pages = 187S–194S | year = 1989 | pmid = 2605967 |  doi = 10.1016/0197-2456(89)90057-3 }}</ref>如果随机化程序导致与各组结果相关的协变量失衡,如果不对协变量进行调整,效果估计可能会有偏差(这可能无法测量,因此无法调整)。
+
* '''最小化分配偏差(或混淆)'''。当影响结果的协变量在治疗组之间分布不均,并且治疗效果与协变量的效果混淆时(即“偶然偏差”),可能会出现这种情况。<ref name="SchulzGrimes2002"/><ref name="Buyse-1989">{{Cite journal | author = Buyse ME | title = Analysis of clinical trial outcomes: some comments on subgroup analyses | journal = Controlled Clinical Trials | volume = 10 | issue = 4 Suppl | pages = 187S–194S | year = 1989 | pmid = 2605967 |  doi = 10.1016/0197-2456(89)90057-3 }}</ref>如果随机化程序导致与各组结果相关的协变量失衡,如果不对协变量进行调整,效果估计可能会有偏差(这可能无法测量,因此无法调整)。
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==== 简单 ====
 
==== 简单 ====
   −
这是一个常用且直观的程序,类似于“反复公平抛硬币”,<ref name="SchulzGrimes2002"/>也被称为“完全”或“无限制”随机化,它对选择和意外偏差都是稳健的。然而,它的主要缺点是在小的随机对照试验中群体规模不平衡的可能性。因此,建议仅用于受试者超过200人时进行随机对照试验。<ref name="Lachin-1988b">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Lachin JM, Matts JP, Wei LJ | title = Randomization in clinical trials: conclusions and recommendations | journal = [[Controlled Clinical Trials]] | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 365–74 | year = 1988 | pmid = 3203526 |  doi = 10.1016/0197-2456(88)90049-9 | hdl = 2027.42/27041 | url = https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/27041/1/0000029.pdf | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
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这是一个常用且直观的程序,类似于“反复公平抛硬币”,<ref name="SchulzGrimes2002"/>也被称为“完全”或“无限制”随机化,它对选择和意外偏差都是稳健的。然而,它的主要缺点是在小的随机对照试验中群体规模不平衡的可能性。因此,建议仅用于受试者超过200人时进行随机对照试验。<ref name="Lachin-1988b">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Lachin JM, Matts JP, Wei LJ | title = Randomization in clinical trials: conclusions and recommendations | journal = Controlled Clinical Trials | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 365–74 | year = 1988 | pmid = 3203526 |  doi = 10.1016/0197-2456(88)90049-9 | hdl = 2027.42/27041 | url = https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/27041/1/0000029.pdf | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
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传统上,盲法随机对照试验分为“单盲”、“双盲”或“三盲”;然而,2001年和2006年的两项研究表明,这些术语对不同的人有不同的含义。<ref name="Devereaux-2001">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Devereaux PJ, Manns BJ, Ghali WA, Quan H, Lacchetti C, Montori VM, Bhandari M, Guyatt GH | title = Physician interpretations and textbook definitions of blinding terminology in randomized controlled trials | journal = [[J Am Med Assoc]] | volume = 285 | issue = 15 | pages = 2000–3 | year = 2001 | doi =  10.1001/jama.285.15.2000| pmid = 11308438 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Haahr-2006">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Haahr MT, Hróbjartsson A | title = Who is blinded in randomized clinical trials? A study of 200 trials and a survey of authors | journal = Clin Trials | volume = 3 | issue = 4 | pages = 360–5 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1177/1740774506069153 | pmid = 17060210 | s2cid = 23818514 }}</ref>2010年CONSORT 声明明确指出,作者和编辑不应使用”单盲”、”双盲”和”三盲”等术语;相反,关于盲法 RCT 的报告应讨论”如果完成,干预分配后谁被“蒙面”了(例如,参与者、护理提供者、评估结果的人员)以及其原因”。<ref name="Moher-2010"/>
+
传统上,盲法随机对照试验分为“单盲”、“双盲”或“三盲”;然而,2001年和2006年的两项研究表明,这些术语对不同的人有不同的含义。<ref name="Devereaux-2001">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Devereaux PJ, Manns BJ, Ghali WA, Quan H, Lacchetti C, Montori VM, Bhandari M, Guyatt GH | title = Physician interpretations and textbook definitions of blinding terminology in randomized controlled trials | journal = J Am Med Assoc | volume = 285 | issue = 15 | pages = 2000–3 | year = 2001 | doi =  10.1001/jama.285.15.2000| pmid = 11308438 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Haahr-2006">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Haahr MT, Hróbjartsson A | title = Who is blinded in randomized clinical trials? A study of 200 trials and a survey of authors | journal = Clin Trials | volume = 3 | issue = 4 | pages = 360–5 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1177/1740774506069153 | pmid = 17060210 | s2cid = 23818514 }}</ref>2010年CONSORT 声明明确指出,作者和编辑不应使用”单盲”、”双盲”和”三盲”等术语;相反,关于盲法 RCT 的报告应讨论”如果完成,干预分配后谁被“蒙面”了(例如,参与者、护理提供者、评估结果的人员)以及其原因”。<ref name="Moher-2010"/>
      −
没有盲法的随机对照试验被称为“未盲法”,<ref name="Marson-2007">{{Cite journal  |vauthors=Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M, Appleton R, Baker GA, Chadwick DW, etal | title = The SANAD study of effectiveness of valproate, lamotrigine, or topiramate for generalised and unclassifiable epilepsy: an unblinded randomised controlled trial | journal = [[The Lancet|Lancet]] | volume = 369 | issue = 9566 | pages = 1016–26 | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60461-9 | pmid = 17382828 | pmc = 2039891 }}</ref>也称“开放”,<ref name="Chan-1995">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Chan R, Hemeryck L, O'Regan M, Clancy L, Feely J | title = Oral versus intravenous antibiotics for community acquired lower respiratory tract infection in a general hospital: open, randomised controlled trial | journal = [[BMJ]] | volume = 310 | issue = 6991 | pages = 1360–2 | year = 1995 | pmid = 7787537 | pmc = 2549744 | doi=10.1136/bmj.310.6991.1360}}</ref>或者(如果干预是一种药物)“开放标签”。<ref name="Fukase-2008">{{Cite journal | author = Fukase K, Kato M, Kikuchi S, Inoue K, Uemura N, Okamoto S, Terao S, Amagai K, Hayashi S, Asaka M; Japan Gast Study Group | title = Effect of eradication of Helicobacter pylori on incidence of metachronous gastric carcinoma after endoscopic resection of early gastric cancer: an open-label, randomised controlled trial | journal = Lancet | volume = 372 | issue = 9636 | pages = 392–7 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61159-9 | pmid = 18675689 | hdl = 2115/34681 | s2cid = 13741892 | url = https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/34681/1/asaka.pdf | hdl-access = free }}</ref>2008年的一项研究得出结论,只有当随机对照试验的结果是主观的而不是客观的时候,非盲法随机对照试验的结果往往偏向于有益的结果;<ref name="Wood-2008"/>例如,在RCT多发性硬化症的治疗中,未盲的神经学家认为治疗是有益的。<ref name="Noseworthy-1994">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Noseworthy JH, Ebers GC, Vandervoort MK, Farquhar RE, Yetisir E, Roberts R | author-link1=John H. Noseworthy|title = The impact of blinding on the results of a randomized, placebo-controlled multiple sclerosis clinical trial | journal = Neurology | volume = 44 | issue = 1 | pages = 16–20 | year = 1994 | url = http://www.neurology.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/1/16 | pmid = 8290055 | doi=10.1212/wnl.44.1.16| s2cid=2663997}}</ref>在实用的随机对照试验中,尽管参与者和提供者往往是非盲的,但是”仍然需要并且往往可能使评估者“蒙面”,以获得评估结果的客观数据来源”。<ref name="Zwarenstein-2008"/>
+
没有盲法的随机对照试验被称为“未盲法”,<ref name="Marson-2007">{{Cite journal  |vauthors=Marson AG, Al-Kharusi AM, Alwaidh M, Appleton R, Baker GA, Chadwick DW, etal | title = The SANAD study of effectiveness of valproate, lamotrigine, or topiramate for generalised and unclassifiable epilepsy: an unblinded randomised controlled trial | journal = The Lancet|| volume = 369 | issue = 9566 | pages = 1016–26 | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60461-9 | pmid = 17382828 | pmc = 2039891 }}</ref>也称“开放”,<ref name="Chan-1995">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Chan R, Hemeryck L, O'Regan M, Clancy L, Feely J | title = Oral versus intravenous antibiotics for community acquired lower respiratory tract infection in a general hospital: open, randomised controlled trial | journal = BMJ | volume = 310 | issue = 6991 | pages = 1360–2 | year = 1995 | pmid = 7787537 | pmc = 2549744 | doi=10.1136/bmj.310.6991.1360}}</ref>或者(如果干预是一种药物)“开放标签”。<ref name="Fukase-2008">{{Cite journal | author = Fukase K, Kato M, Kikuchi S, Inoue K, Uemura N, Okamoto S, Terao S, Amagai K, Hayashi S, Asaka M; Japan Gast Study Group | title = Effect of eradication of Helicobacter pylori on incidence of metachronous gastric carcinoma after endoscopic resection of early gastric cancer: an open-label, randomised controlled trial | journal = Lancet | volume = 372 | issue = 9636 | pages = 392–7 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61159-9 | pmid = 18675689 | hdl = 2115/34681 | s2cid = 13741892 | url = https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/34681/1/asaka.pdf | hdl-access = free }}</ref>2008年的一项研究得出结论,只有当随机对照试验的结果是主观的而不是客观的时候,非盲法随机对照试验的结果往往偏向于有益的结果;<ref name="Wood-2008"/>例如,在RCT多发性硬化症的治疗中,未盲的神经学家认为治疗是有益的。<ref name="Noseworthy-1994">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Noseworthy JH, Ebers GC, Vandervoort MK, Farquhar RE, Yetisir E, Roberts R | author-link1=John H. Noseworthy|title = The impact of blinding on the results of a randomized, placebo-controlled multiple sclerosis clinical trial | journal = Neurology | volume = 44 | issue = 1 | pages = 16–20 | year = 1994 | url = http://www.neurology.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/1/16 | pmid = 8290055 | doi=10.1212/wnl.44.1.16| s2cid=2663997}}</ref>在实用的随机对照试验中,尽管参与者和提供者往往是非盲的,但是”仍然需要并且往往可能使评估者“蒙面”,以获得评估结果的客观数据来源”。<ref name="Zwarenstein-2008"/>
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* 对于二元结果数据,可以使用逻辑回归(例如,预测接受聚乙二醇干扰素α-2a治疗丙型肝炎后的持续病毒学应答<ref name="Manns-2001">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Manns MP, McHutchison JG, Gordon SC, Rustgi VK, Shiffman M, Reindollar R, Goodman ZD, Koury K, Ling M, Albrecht JK | title = Peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin compared with interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin for initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C: a randomised trial | journal = [[The Lancet|Lancet]] | volume = 358 | issue = 9286 | pages = 958–65 | year = 2001 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06102-5 | pmid = 11583749 | s2cid = 14583372 }}</ref>)和其他方法。
 
* 对于二元结果数据,可以使用逻辑回归(例如,预测接受聚乙二醇干扰素α-2a治疗丙型肝炎后的持续病毒学应答<ref name="Manns-2001">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Manns MP, McHutchison JG, Gordon SC, Rustgi VK, Shiffman M, Reindollar R, Goodman ZD, Koury K, Ling M, Albrecht JK | title = Peginterferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin compared with interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin for initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C: a randomised trial | journal = [[The Lancet|Lancet]] | volume = 358 | issue = 9286 | pages = 958–65 | year = 2001 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06102-5 | pmid = 11583749 | s2cid = 14583372 }}</ref>)和其他方法。
   −
* 对于连续的结果数据,协方差分析(例如,急性冠状动脉综合征后接受阿托伐他汀后血脂水平的变化<ref name="Schwartz-2001">{{Cite journal | author = Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Ezekowitz MD, Ganz P, Oliver MF, Waters D, Zeiher A, Chaitman BR, Leslie S, Stern T; Myocardial Ischemia Reduction with Aggressive Cholesterol Lowering (MIRACL) Study Investigators | title = Effects of atorvastatin on early recurrent ischemic events in acute coronary syndromes: the MIRACL study: a randomized controlled trial | journal = [[J Am Med Assoc]] | volume = 285 | issue = 13 | pages = 1711–8 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11277825 | doi = 10.1001/jama.285.13.1711 | doi-access = free }}</ref>)可以用于检测预测变量效果。
+
* 对于连续的结果数据,协方差分析(例如,急性冠状动脉综合征后接受阿托伐他汀后血脂水平的变化<ref name="Schwartz-2001">{{Cite journal | author = Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Ezekowitz MD, Ganz P, Oliver MF, Waters D, Zeiher A, Chaitman BR, Leslie S, Stern T; Myocardial Ischemia Reduction with Aggressive Cholesterol Lowering (MIRACL) Study Investigators | title = Effects of atorvastatin on early recurrent ischemic events in acute coronary syndromes: the MIRACL study: a randomized controlled trial | journal = J Am Med Assoc | volume = 285 | issue = 13 | pages = 1711–8 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11277825 | doi = 10.1001/jama.285.13.1711 | doi-access = free }}</ref>)可以用于检测预测变量效果。
   −
* 对于可能删失的时间到事件结果数据,生存分析(如绝经后接受激素替代治疗后冠心病发生时间的卡普兰-迈耶估计值 Kaplan–Meier estimator和考克斯比例风险模型 Cox proportional hazards model<ref name="Rossouw-2002">{{Cite journal | author = Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, [[Ross Prentice|Prentice RL]], LaCroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML, Jackson RD, Beresford SA, Howard BV, Johnson KC, Kotchen JM, Ockene J; Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators | title = Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial | journal = [[J Am Med Assoc]] | volume = 288 | issue = 3 | pages = 321–33 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12117397 | doi = 10.1001/jama.288.3.321 | s2cid = 20149703 | url = https://escholarship.org/content/qt3mr6f93p/qt3mr6f93p.pdf?t=prll4c | doi-access = free }}</ref>)是合适的。
+
* 对于可能删失的时间到事件结果数据,生存分析(如绝经后接受激素替代治疗后冠心病发生时间的卡普兰-迈耶估计值 Kaplan–Meier estimator和考克斯比例风险模型 Cox proportional hazards model<ref name="Rossouw-2002">{{Cite journal | author = Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Ross Prentice, LaCroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML, Jackson RD, Beresford SA, Howard BV, Johnson KC, Kotchen JM, Ockene J; Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators | title = Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women's Health Initiative randomized controlled trial | journal = J Am Med Assoc | volume = 288 | issue = 3 | pages = 321–33 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12117397 | doi = 10.1001/jama.288.3.321 | s2cid = 20149703 | url = https://escholarship.org/content/qt3mr6f93p/qt3mr6f93p.pdf?t=prll4c | doi-access = free }}</ref>)是合适的。
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* 由于中期结果,是否应该提前停止RCT。例如,如果干预产生“大于预期的益处或危害”,或者如果“研究者发现实验干预和对照干预之间没有重要区别的证据”,则可能会提前停止随机对照试验。<ref name="Moher-2010"/>
 
* 由于中期结果,是否应该提前停止RCT。例如,如果干预产生“大于预期的益处或危害”,或者如果“研究者发现实验干预和对照干预之间没有重要区别的证据”,则可能会提前停止随机对照试验。<ref name="Moher-2010"/>
   −
* 这些组在多大程度上可以完全按照随机化时的状态进行分析(即,是否使用了所谓的“意向治疗分析”)。一项“纯”意向治疗分析“只有在获得所有随机受试者的完整结果数据时才有可能”;<ref name="Hollis-1999">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Hollis S, Campbell F | title = What is meant by intention to treat analysis? Survey of published randomised controlled trials | journal = [[Br Med J]] | volume = 319 | issue = 7211 | pages = 670–4 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10480822 | pmc = 28218 | doi=10.1136/bmj.319.7211.670}}</ref>当一些结果数据缺失时,选项包括仅分析具有已知结果的病例和使用估算数据。<ref name="Moher-2010"/> 然而,分析越能包括他们被随机分组的所有参与者,RCT受到的偏见就越少。<ref name="Moher-2010"/>
+
* 这些组在多大程度上可以完全按照随机化时的状态进行分析(即,是否使用了所谓的“意向治疗分析”)。一项“纯”意向治疗分析“只有在获得所有随机受试者的完整结果数据时才有可能”;<ref name="Hollis-1999">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Hollis S, Campbell F | title = What is meant by intention to treat analysis? Survey of published randomised controlled trials | journal = Br Med J| volume = 319 | issue = 7211 | pages = 670–4 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10480822 | pmc = 28218 | doi=10.1136/bmj.319.7211.670}}</ref>当一些结果数据缺失时,选项包括仅分析具有已知结果的病例和使用估算数据。<ref name="Moher-2010"/> 然而,分析越能包括他们被随机分组的所有参与者,RCT受到的偏见就越少。<ref name="Moher-2010"/>
    
* 是否应进行亚组分析。这些“通常是不鼓励的”,因为多次比较可能会产生假阳性结果,而其他研究无法证实。<ref name="Moher-2010"/>
 
* 是否应进行亚组分析。这些“通常是不鼓励的”,因为多次比较可能会产生假阳性结果,而其他研究无法证实。<ref name="Moher-2010"/>
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== 结果报告 ==
 
== 结果报告 ==
CONSORT 2010声明是“一套基于证据的报告随机对照试验的最低建议。”CONSORT 2010核对表包含25个项目(许多带有子项目),重点关注“个体随机、两组、平行试验”,这是RCT最常见的类型。
+
CONSORT 2010声明是“一套基于证据的报告随机对照试验的最低建议。”<ref name="CONSORT">{{cite web |url=http://www.consort-statement.org |title=Welcome to the CONSORT statement Website |author=CONSORT Group |access-date=2010-03-29}}</ref>CONSORT 2010核对表包含25个项目(许多带有子项目),重点关注“个体随机、两组、平行试验”,这是RCT最常见的类型。<ref name="Schulz-2010"/>
    
对于其他RCT研究设计,“CONSORT扩展版”已经发布,一些例子是:
 
对于其他RCT研究设计,“CONSORT扩展版”已经发布,一些例子是:
* CONSORT 2010 声明: 扩展至聚类随机试验
+
* CONSORT 2010 声明: 扩展至聚类随机试验<ref name="CONSORT2010-EXTENSION-CLUSTER">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Campbell MK, Piaggio G, Elbourne DR, Altman DG| title = Consort 2010 statement: extension to cluster randomised trials | journal = BMJ | volume = 345| pages = e5661 | year = 2012  | pmid = 22951546 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.e5661 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* CONSORT 2010 声明: 非药物治疗干预
+
* CONSORT 2010 声明: 非药物治疗干预<ref name="CONSORT2010-EXTENSION-NON-PHARMACOLOGIC-1">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Boutron I, Moher D, Altman DG, Schulz K, Ravaud P| title = Extending the CONSORT Statement to randomized trials of nonpharmacologic treatment: explanation and elaboration | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine| volume = 148| issue = 4 | year = 2008 | pages=295–309  | pmid = 18283207 | doi=10.7326/0003-4819-148-4-200802190-00008| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="CONSORT2010-EXTENSION-NON-PHARMACOLOGIC-2">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Boutron I, Moher D, Altman DG, Schulz K, Ravaud P| title = Methods and Processes of the CONSORT Group: Example of an Extension for Trials Assessing Nonpharmacologic Treatments | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine| volume = 148| issue = 4 | year = 2008  | pmid = 18283201 | doi=10.7326/0003-4819-148-4-200802190-00008-w1 | pages=W60–6| doi-access = free }}</ref>
       
=== 相对重要性和观察性研究 ===
 
=== 相对重要性和观察性研究 ===
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2000年发表在《新英格兰医学杂志》上的两项研究发现,观察性研究和随机对照试验总体上产生了相似的结果。2000年研究结果的作者质疑“观察性研究不应用于定义循证医疗”以及随机对照试验的结果是“最高等级的证据”的观点。然而,2001年发表在《美国医学协会杂志》上的一项研究得出结论,观察性研究和随机对照试验之间“确实会出现超越偶然的差异,估计治疗效果的差异非常普遍”。
+
2000年发表在《新英格兰医学杂志》上的两项研究发现,观察性研究和随机对照试验总体上产生了相似的结果。<ref name="Benson-2000">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Benson K, Hartz AJ | title = A comparison of observational studies and randomized, controlled trials | journal = N Engl J Med| volume = 342 | issue = 25 | pages = 1878–86 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10861324 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM200006223422506 }}</ref><ref name="Concato-2000">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Concato J, Shah N, Horwitz RI | title = Randomized, controlled trials, observational studies, and the hierarchy of research designs | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 342 | issue = 25 | pages = 1887–92 | year = 2000 | url = http://nejm.highwire.org/cgi/content/full/342/25/1887 | pmid = 10861325 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM200006223422507 | pmc = 1557642 }}</ref>2000年研究结果的作者质疑“观察性研究不应用于定义循证医疗”以及随机对照试验的结果是“最高等级的证据”的观点。<ref name="Benson-2000"/><ref name="Concato-2000"/>然而,2001年发表在《美国医学协会杂志》上的一项研究得出结论,观察性研究和随机对照试验之间“确实会出现超越偶然的差异,估计治疗效果的差异非常普遍”。<ref name="Ioannidis-2001">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Ioannidis JP, Haidich AB, Pappa M, Pantazis N, Kokori SI, Tektonidou MG, Contopoulos-Ioannidis DG, Lau J | title = Comparison of evidence of treatment effects in randomized and nonrandomized studies | journal = J Am Med Assoc | volume = 286 | issue = 7 | pages = 821–30 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11497536 | doi = 10.1001/jama.286.7.821 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.590.2854 }}</ref>
 +
 
    
另外两条推理路线质疑随机对照试验对科学知识的贡献超过了其他类型的研究:
 
另外两条推理路线质疑随机对照试验对科学知识的贡献超过了其他类型的研究:
* 如果按照新发现的潜力对研究设计进行排序,那么轶事证据将排在首位,其次是观察性研究,然后是随机对照试验。
+
* 如果按照新发现的潜力对研究设计进行排序,那么轶事证据将排在首位,其次是观察性研究,然后是随机对照试验。<ref name="Vandenbroucke-2008">{{Cite journal | author = Vandenbroucke JP | title = Observational research, randomised trials, and two views of medical science | journal = PLoS Med | volume = 5 | issue = 3 | pages = e67 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050067 | pmid = 18336067 | pmc = 2265762 }}</ref>
* 相对于所治疗疾病的预期稳定或逐渐恶化的自然病程而言,RCT对于具有显著和快速效果的治疗可能是不必要的。一个例子是联合化疗,包括顺铂治疗转移性睾丸癌,在1977年的一项非随机研究中将治愈率从5%提高到60%。
+
 
 +
* 相对于所治疗疾病的预期稳定或逐渐恶化的自然病程而言,RCT对于具有显著和快速效果的治疗可能是不必要的。<ref name="Black-1996"/><ref name="Glasziou-2007">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Glasziou P, Chalmers I, Rawlins M, McCulloch P | title = When are randomised trials unnecessary? Picking signal from noise | journal = Br Med J | volume = 334 | issue = 7589 | pages = 349–51 | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.39070.527986.68 | pmc=1800999 | pmid = 17303884 }}</ref>一个例子是联合化疗,包括顺铂治疗转移性睾丸癌,在1977年的一项非随机研究中将治愈率从5%提高到60%。<ref name="Glasziou-2007"/><ref name="Einhorn-2002">{{Cite journal | author = Einhorn LH | author-link = Lawrence Einhorn | title = Curing metastatic testicular cancer | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | volume = 99 | issue = 7 | pages = 4592–5 | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.072067999 | pmid = 11904381 | pmc = 123692 }}</ref>
       
=== 统计结果解读 ===
 
=== 统计结果解读 ===
 +
与所有统计方法一样,随机对照试验同时存在ⅰ型(“假阳性”)和ⅱ型(“假阴性”)统计误差。关于第一类错误,典型的RCT将使用0.05(即20分之一)作为RCT错误地发现两种同等有效的治疗方法显著不同的概率。<ref name="Wittes-2002">{{Cite journal | author = Wittes J | title = Sample size calculations for randomized controlled trials | journal = Epidemiol Rev | volume = 24 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–53 | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1093/epirev/24.1.39 | pmid = 12119854 | doi-access = free }}</ref>关于第二类错误,尽管1978年发表的一篇论文指出,许多“阴性”随机对照试验的样本量太小,无法对阴性结果做出明确的结论,,<ref name="Freiman-1978">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1056/NEJM197809282991304 |vauthors=Freiman JA, Chalmers TC, ((Smith H Jr)), Kuebler RR | title = The importance of beta, the type II error and sample size in the design and interpretation of the randomized control trial. Survey of 71 "negative" trials | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 299 | issue = 13 | pages = 690–4 | year = 1978 | pmid = 355881 }}</ref>但到2005-2006年,相当大比例的随机对照试验仍然有不准确或不完全报告的样本量计算。<ref name="Charles-2009">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Charles P, Giraudeau B, Dechartres A, Baron G, Ravaud P | title = Reporting of sample size calculation in randomised controlled trials: review | journal = Br Med J | volume = 338 | pages = b1732 | date = 2009-05-12 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.b1732 | pmid = 19435763 | pmc = 2680945 }}</ref>
   −
与所有统计方法一样,随机对照试验同时存在ⅰ型(“假阳性”)和ⅱ型(“假阴性”)统计误差。关于第一类错误,典型的RCT将使用0.05(即20分之一)作为RCT错误地发现两种同等有效的治疗方法显著不同的概率。关于第二类错误,尽管1978年发表的一篇论文指出,许多“阴性”随机对照试验的样本量太小,无法对阴性结果做出明确的结论,但到2005-2006年,相当大比例的随机对照试验仍然有不准确或不完全报告的样本量计算。
      +
=== 同行评审 ===
   −
=== 同行评审 ===
+
结果的同行评审是科学方法的重要组成部分。审查者检查研究结果是否存在可能导致不可靠结果的潜在设计问题(例如,通过产生系统偏差),在相关研究和其他证据的背景下评估研究,并评估是否可以合理地认为研究已经证明了其结论。为了强调同行评审的必要性和过度概括结论的危险,两位波士顿地区的医学研究人员进行了一项随机对照试验,他们随机给23名从双翼飞机或直升机上跳下的志愿者分配了一个降落伞或一个空背包。这项研究能够准确地报告,与空背包相比,降落伞不能减少伤害。限制这一结论普遍适用性的关键背景是,飞机停在地面上,参与者只跳了大约两英尺。<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2018/12/22/679083038/researchers-show-parachutes-dont-work-but-there-s-a-catch |title=Researchers Show Parachutes Don't Work, But There's A Catch |date=22 Dec 2018 |author=Richard Harris}}</ref>
   −
结果的同行评审是科学方法的重要组成部分。审查者检查研究结果是否存在可能导致不可靠结果的潜在设计问题(例如,通过产生系统偏差),在相关研究和其他证据的背景下评估研究,并评估是否可以合理地认为研究已经证明了其结论。为了强调同行评审的必要性和过度概括结论的危险,两位波士顿地区的医学研究人员进行了一项随机对照试验,他们随机给23名从双翼飞机或直升机上跳下的志愿者分配了一个降落伞或一个空背包。这项研究能够准确地报告,与空背包相比,降落伞不能减少伤害。限制这一结论普遍适用性的关键背景是,飞机停在地面上,参与者只跳了大约两英尺。
      
== 优势 ==
 
== 优势 ==
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* 截至1998年,澳大利亚国家卫生和医学研究委员会将“一级”证据指定为“从所有相关随机对照试验的系统审查中获得的”,将“二级”证据指定为“从至少一项适当设计的随机对照试验中获得的”<ref>{{cite book |url= http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/file/publications/synopses/cp30.pdf |title= A guide to the development, implementation and evaluation of clinical practice guidelines |author= National Health and Medical Research Council |date=1998-11-16 |publisher= Commonwealth of Australia |location = Canberra | isbn = 978-1-86496-048-8 |page= 56|access-date=2010-03-28}}</ref>
 
* 截至1998年,澳大利亚国家卫生和医学研究委员会将“一级”证据指定为“从所有相关随机对照试验的系统审查中获得的”,将“二级”证据指定为“从至少一项适当设计的随机对照试验中获得的”<ref>{{cite book |url= http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/file/publications/synopses/cp30.pdf |title= A guide to the development, implementation and evaluation of clinical practice guidelines |author= National Health and Medical Research Council |date=1998-11-16 |publisher= Commonwealth of Australia |location = Canberra | isbn = 978-1-86496-048-8 |page= 56|access-date=2010-03-28}}</ref>
   −
* 至少自2001年以来,美国预防服务工作组在提出临床实践指南建议时,将研究的设计及其内部有效性作为其质量的指标。<ref name="Harris-2001">{{Cite journal | author = Harris RP, Helfand M, Woolf SH, Lohr KN, Mulrow CD, Teutsch SM, Atkins D; Methods Work Group, Third US Preventive Services Task Force | title = Current methods of the US Preventive Services Task Force: a review of the process | journal = Am J Prev Med | volume = 20 | issue = 3 Suppl | pages = 21–35 | year = 2001 | url = http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/ajpmsuppl/review.pdf | pmid = 11306229 | doi = 10.1016/S0749-3797(01)00261-6 }}</ref>它承认“从至少一个适当的随机对照试验中获得的证据”具有良好的内部有效性(即“良好”评级),是它所能获得的最高质量的证据。<ref name="Harris-2001"/>
+
* 至少自2001年以来,美国预防服务工作组在提出临床实践指南建议时,将研究的设计及其内部有效性作为其质量的指标。<ref name="Harris-2001">{{Cite journal | author = Harris RP, Helfand M, Woolf SH, Lohr KN, Mulrow CD, Teutsch SM, Atkins D; Methods Work Group, Third US Preventive Services Task Force | title = Current methods of the US Preventive Services Task Force: a review of the process | journal = Am J Prev Med | volume = 20 | issue = 3 Suppl | pages = 21–35 | year = 2001 | url = http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/ajpmsuppl/review.pdf | pmid = 11306229 | doi = 10.1016/S0749-3797(01)00261-6 }}</ref>它承认“从至少一个适当的随机对照试验中获得的证据”具有良好的内部有效性(即“良好”评级),是它所能获得的最高质量的证据。<ref name="Harris-2001"/>
    
* GRADE工作组在2008年得出结论,“没有重要限制的随机试验构成了高质量的证据。”<ref name="Guyatt-2008">{{Cite journal | author = Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Kunz R, Vist GE, Falck-Ytter Y, Schünemann HJ; GRADE Working Group | title = What is "quality of evidence" and why is it important to clinicians? | journal = BMJ | volume = 336 | issue = 7651 | pages = 995–8 |year = 2008 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.39490.551019.BE | pmc = 2364804 | pmid = 18456631 }}</ref>
 
* GRADE工作组在2008年得出结论,“没有重要限制的随机试验构成了高质量的证据。”<ref name="Guyatt-2008">{{Cite journal | author = Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Kunz R, Vist GE, Falck-Ytter Y, Schünemann HJ; GRADE Working Group | title = What is "quality of evidence" and why is it important to clinicians? | journal = BMJ | volume = 336 | issue = 7651 | pages = 995–8 |year = 2008 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.39490.551019.BE | pmc = 2364804 | pmid = 18456631 }}</ref>
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* 对于涉及“治疗/预防、病因学/危害”的问题,截至2011年,牛津循证医学中心将“1a级”证据定义为相互一致的随机对照试验的系统审查,“1b级”证据定义为“个体RCT(置信区间较窄)。”<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=1025 |title= Levels of evidence |author= Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine |date=2011-09-16 |access-date=2012-02-15}}</ref>
+
* 对于涉及“治疗/预防、病因学/危害”的问题,截至2011年,牛津循证医学中心将“1a级”证据定义为相互一致的随机对照试验的系统审查,“1b级”证据定义为“个体RCT(置信区间较窄)。”<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=1025 |title= Levels of evidence |author= Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine |date=2011-09-16 |access-date=2012-02-15}}</ref>
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== 不足 ==
 
== 不足 ==
 
许多论文讨论了随机对照试验的缺点。<ref name="Black-1996">{{Cite journal | author = Black N | title = Why we need observational studies to evaluate the effectiveness of health care | journal = BMJ | volume = 312 | issue = 7040 | pages = 1215–8 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8634569 | pmc = 2350940 | doi=10.1136/bmj.312.7040.1215}}</ref><ref name="Bell & Peck-2012">{{Cite journal | author = Bell, S.H., & Peck, L.R. | title = Obstacles to and limitations of social experiments: 15 false alarms | journal = Abt Thought Leadership Paper Series | year = 2012 | url = http://abtassociates.com/white-papers/2012/obstacles-to-and-limitations-of-social-experiments.aspx }}</ref><ref name="Sanson-Fisher-2007">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sanson-Fisher RW, Bonevski B, Green LW, D'Este C | title = Limitations of the randomized controlled trial in evaluating population-based health interventions | journal = Am J Prev Med | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 155–61 | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.04.007 | url = http://www.ajpm-online.net/article/S0749-3797%2807%2900225-5/abstract | pmid = 17673104 }}</ref>最常被提及的缺点包括:
 
许多论文讨论了随机对照试验的缺点。<ref name="Black-1996">{{Cite journal | author = Black N | title = Why we need observational studies to evaluate the effectiveness of health care | journal = BMJ | volume = 312 | issue = 7040 | pages = 1215–8 | year = 1996 | pmid = 8634569 | pmc = 2350940 | doi=10.1136/bmj.312.7040.1215}}</ref><ref name="Bell & Peck-2012">{{Cite journal | author = Bell, S.H., & Peck, L.R. | title = Obstacles to and limitations of social experiments: 15 false alarms | journal = Abt Thought Leadership Paper Series | year = 2012 | url = http://abtassociates.com/white-papers/2012/obstacles-to-and-limitations-of-social-experiments.aspx }}</ref><ref name="Sanson-Fisher-2007">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sanson-Fisher RW, Bonevski B, Green LW, D'Este C | title = Limitations of the randomized controlled trial in evaluating population-based health interventions | journal = Am J Prev Med | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 155–61 | year = 2007 | doi = 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.04.007 | url = http://www.ajpm-online.net/article/S0749-3797%2807%2900225-5/abstract | pmid = 17673104 }}</ref>最常被提及的缺点包括:
 +
    
=== 时间和花销 ===
 
=== 时间和花销 ===
   −
RCT可能很贵;一项研究发现,在2000年之前,由国家神经障碍和中风研究所资助的28个三期随机对照试验总费用为3.35亿美元,平均每个RCT花费1200万美元。尽管如此,随机对照试验的投资回报可能很高,因为同一项研究预测,根据对质量调整生命年的评估,28个随机对照试验产生的“10年社会净收益”是试验项目成本的46倍,等于当时的人均国内生产总值平均值。
+
RCT可能很贵;<ref name="Sanson-Fisher-2007"/>一项研究发现,在2000年之前,由国家神经障碍和中风研究所资助的28个三期随机对照试验总费用为3.35亿美元,<ref name="Johnston-2006">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Johnston SC, Rootenberg JD, Katrak S, Smith WS, Elkins JS | title = Effect of a US National Institutes of Health programme of clinical trials on public health and costs | journal = The Lancet | volume = 367 | issue = 9519 | pages = 1319–27 | year = 2006 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68578-4 | url = http://www.chrp.org/pdf/HSR20070511.pdf | pmid = 16631910 | s2cid = 41035177 }}</ref>平均每个RCT花费1200万美元。尽管如此,随机对照试验的投资回报可能很高,因为同一项研究预测,根据对质量调整生命年的评估,28个随机对照试验产生的“10年社会净收益”是试验项目成本的46倍,等于当时的人均国内生产总值平均值。<ref name="Johnston-2006"/>
   −
一部RCT的行为需要几年才能出版;因此,数据在很长一段时间内受到医学界的限制,在发表时可能不太相关。
     −
维持几年或几十年的随机对照试验成本很高,而这些试验对于评估一些干预措施是理想的。
+
一部RCT的行为需要几年才能出版;因此,数据在很长一段时间内受到医学界的限制,在发表时可能不太相关。<ref name="CaseReport">{{cite journal |vauthors=Yitschaky O, Yitschaky M, Zadik Y |title=Case report on trial: Do you, Doctor, swear to tell the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth? |journal=J Med Case Rep |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=179 |date=May 2011 |pmid=21569508 |url=http://www.jmedicalcasereports.com/content/pdf/1752-1947-5-179.pdf|doi=10.1186/1752-1947-5-179 |pmc=3113995}}</ref>
   −
预防不常发生的事件(如婴儿猝死综合征)和不常见的不良后果(如药物的罕见副作用)的干预措施需要样本量极大的随机对照试验,因此最好通过观察性研究进行评估。
     −
由于运行随机对照试验的成本,这些通常只检查一个变量或很少的变量,很少反映复杂医疗情况的全貌;而例如病例报告可以详细描述患者医疗状况的许多方面(例如,患者病史、体检、诊断、心理社会方面、随访)。
+
维持几年或几十年的随机对照试验成本很高,而这些试验对于评估一些干预措施是理想的。<ref name="Black-1996"/><ref name="Sanson-Fisher-2007"/>
 +
 
 +
 
 +
预防不常发生的事件(如婴儿猝死综合征)和不常见的不良后果(如药物的罕见副作用)的干预措施需要样本量极大的随机对照试验,因此最好通过观察性研究进行评估。<ref name="Black-1996"/>
 +
 
 +
 
 +
由于运行随机对照试验的成本,这些通常只检查一个变量或很少的变量,很少反映复杂医疗情况的全貌;而例如病例报告可以详细描述患者医疗状况的许多方面(例如,患者病史、体检、诊断、心理社会方面、随访)。<ref name="CaseReport"/>
       
=== 利益冲突 ===
 
=== 利益冲突 ===
 +
2011年的一项研究披露了用于医学荟萃分析的基础研究中可能存在的利益冲突,该研究回顾了29项荟萃分析,发现在荟萃分析的基础研究中很少披露利益冲突。29项荟萃分析包括11项来自普通医学期刊;15篇来自专业医学期刊,3篇来自Cochrane系统综述数据库。29项荟萃分析共审查了509项随机对照试验。其中,318个随机对照试验报告了资金来源,219个(69%)得到了行业资助。509个随机对照试验中有132个报告了作者利益冲突披露,91项研究(69%)披露了与一名或多名作者的行业财务联系。然而,这些信息很少反映在荟萃分析中。只有两个(7%)报告了RCT的资金来源,没有一个报告了RCT作者与行业的联系。作者总结道,“如果由于行业资助或作者行业财务联系而不承认荟萃分析中随机对照试验的COI,读者对荟萃分析证据的理解和评估可能会受到影响。"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cochrane.org/news/blog/how-well-do-meta-analyses-disclose-conflicts-interests-underlying-research-studies |title=How Well Do Meta-Analyses Disclose Conflicts of Interests in Underlying Research Studies &#124; The Cochrane Collaboration |publisher=Cochrane.org |access-date=2011-08-19}}</ref>
 +
 +
 +
一些随机对照试验完全或部分由医疗保健行业(如制药行业)资助,而不是由政府、非营利或其他来源资助。2003年发表的一项系统综述发现了四篇1986-2002年的文章,比较了行业赞助和非行业赞助的随机对照试验,在所有文章中,行业赞助和积极的研究结果之间存在相关性。<ref name="Bekelman-2003">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Bekelman JE, Li Y, Gross CP | title = Scope and impact of financial conflicts of interest in biomedical research: a systematic review | journal = J Am Med Assoc| volume = 289 | issue = 4 | pages = 454–65 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12533125 | doi = 10.1001/jama.289.4.454 }}</ref>2004年发表在主要医学和外科杂志上的一项关于1999-2001年随机对照试验的研究确定,行业资助的随机对照试验“更有可能与有统计学意义的亲行业发现相关。”<ref name="Bhandari-2004">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Bhandari M, Busse JW, Jackowski D, Montori VM, Schünemann H, Sprague S, Mears D, Schemitsch EH, Heels-Ansdell D, Devereaux PJ | title = Association between industry funding and statistically significant pro-industry findings in medical and surgical randomized trials | journal = Can Med Assoc J| volume = 170 | issue = 4 | pages = 477–80 | year = 2004 | url = http://ecmaj.com/cgi/content/full/170/4/477 | pmid = 14970094 | pmc = 332713 }}</ref>这些结果在外科试验中得到了反映,尽管行业资助不影响试验中止率,但与完成试验的发表几率较低有关。<ref name="Chapman-2014">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Chapman SJ, Shelton B, Mahmood H, Fitzgerald JE, Harrison EM, Bhangu A | title = Discontinuation and non-publication of surgical randomised controlled trials: observational study | journal = BMJ| volume = 349 | page = g6870| year = 2014 | pmid = 25491195 | pmc = 4260649 | doi=10.1136/bmj.g6870}}</ref>行业资助的已发表随机对照试验中出现亲行业结果的一个可能原因是发表偏倚。<ref name="Bhandari-2004"/> 其他作者认为学术和行业赞助研究的不同目标是造成这种差异的原因。商业赞助商可能会更专注于对已经在早期试验中显示出希望的药物进行试验,并复制以前的积极结果,以满足药物批准的监管要求。<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ridker PM, Torres J |title=Reported outcomes in major cardiovascular clinical trials funded by for-profit and not-for-profit organizations: 2000-2005 |journal=JAMA |volume=295 |issue=19 |pages=2270–4 |year=2006 |pmid=16705108 |doi=10.1001/jama.295.19.2270 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
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2011年的一项研究披露了用于医学荟萃分析的基础研究中可能存在的利益冲突,该研究回顾了29项荟萃分析,发现在荟萃分析的基础研究中很少披露利益冲突。29项荟萃分析包括11项来自普通医学期刊;15篇来自专业医学期刊,3篇来自Cochrane系统综述数据库。29项荟萃分析共审查了509项随机对照试验。其中,318个随机对照试验报告了资金来源,219个(69%)得到了行业资助。509个随机对照试验中有132个报告了作者利益冲突披露,91项研究(69%)披露了与一名或多名作者的行业财务联系。然而,这些信息很少反映在荟萃分析中。只有两个(7%)报告了RCT的资金来源,没有一个报告了RCT作者与行业的联系。作者总结道,“如果由于行业资助或作者行业财务联系而不承认荟萃分析中随机对照试验的COI,读者对荟萃分析证据的理解和评估可能会受到影响。"一些随机对照试验完全或部分由医疗保健行业(如制药行业)资助,而不是由政府、非营利或其他来源资助。2003年发表的一项系统综述发现了四篇1986-2002年的文章,比较了行业赞助和非行业赞助的随机对照试验,在所有文章中,行业赞助和积极的研究结果之间存在相关性。2004年发表在主要医学和外科杂志上的一项关于1999-2001年随机对照试验的研究确定,行业资助的随机对照试验“更有可能与有统计学意义的亲行业发现相关。”这些结果在外科试验中得到了反映,尽管行业资助不影响试验中止率,但与完成试验的发表几率较低有关。行业资助的已发表随机对照试验中出现亲行业结果的一个可能原因是发表偏倚。其他作者认为学术和行业赞助研究的不同目标是造成这种差异的原因。商业赞助商可能会更专注于对已经在早期试验中显示出希望的药物进行试验,并复制以前的积极结果,以满足药物批准的监管要求。
      
=== 伦理 ===
 
=== 伦理 ===
如果医疗技术出现了颠覆性创新,如果“明显”对照受试者的结局较差,可能很难在RCT进行伦理测试——这可能是由于其他前述测试,也可能是在RCT的初始阶段。从伦理上讲,可能有必要过早地中止RCT,而获得伦理批准(和患者同意)以在未来的RCT试验中阻止对照组的创新可能是不可行的。
+
如果医疗技术出现了颠覆性创新,如果“明显”对照受试者的结局较差,可能很难在RCT进行伦理测试——这可能是由于其他前述测试,也可能是在RCT的初始阶段。从伦理上讲,可能有必要过早地中止RCT,而获得伦理批准(和患者同意)以在未来的RCT试验中阻止对照组的创新可能是不可行的。
 +
 
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历史对照试验(HCT)利用以前随机对照试验的数据来减少样本量;然而,这些方法在科学界有争议,必须小心处理。<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Song Zhang|last2=Jing Cao|last3=Ahn|first3=C.|title=Calculating sample size in trials using historical controls|journal=Clinical Trials: Journal of the Society for Clinical Trials|volume=7|issue=4|pages=343–353|date=23 June 2010|doi=10.1177/1740774510373629|pmid=20573638|pmc=3085081}}</ref>
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历史对照试验(HCT)利用以前随机对照试验的数据来减少样本量;然而,这些方法在科学界有争议,必须小心处理。
      
== 社会科学 ==
 
== 社会科学 ==
第268行: 第276行:  
=== 运输科学 ===
 
=== 运输科学 ===
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交通科学的研究人员认为,除非随机对照试验证明其有效性,否则在学校旅行计划等项目上的公共支出是不合理的。格雷厄姆-罗和他的同事们回顾了文献中发现的77项交通干预评估,将它们分为5个“质量等级”。他们得出结论,大多数研究质量较低,并主张在未来的运输研究中尽可能使用随机对照试验。
+
交通科学的研究人员认为,除非随机对照试验证明其有效性,否则在学校旅行计划等项目上的公共支出是不合理的。<ref name="Rowland et al (2003)">{{cite journal |author=Rowland, D., DiGuiseppi, C., Gross, M., Afolabi, E. and Roberts, I. |year=2003 |title=Randomised controlled trial of site specific advice on school travel patterns. |journal=Archives of Disease in Childhood|volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=8–11 |doi=10.1136/adc.88.1.8|pmc=1719287 |pmid=12495948}}</ref> Graham-Rowe和他的同事们<ref name="Graham-Rowe et al (2011)">{{cite journal |author=Graham-Rowe, E., Skippon, S., Gardner, B. and Abraham, C. |year=2011 |title=Can we reduce car use and, if so, how? A review of available evidence. |journal=Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice|volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=401–418|doi=10.1016/j.tra.2011.02.001 }}</ref>回顾了文献中发现的77项交通干预评估,将它们分为5个“质量等级”。他们得出结论,大多数研究质量较低,并主张在未来的运输研究中尽可能使用随机对照试验。
   −
Steve Melia博士不同意这些结论,他认为关于随机对照试验在建立因果关系和避免偏见方面优势的说法被夸大了。在干预措施必须改变人类行为才能有效的情况下,他提出了以下八项使用随机对照试验的标准:
+
Steve Melia博士<ref name="Melia 2011">Melia(2011) [http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/16117/''Do Randomised Control Trials Offer a Solution to ’low Quality’ Transport Research?''] Bristol: University of the West of England]</ref>不同意这些结论,他认为关于随机对照试验在建立因果关系和避免偏见方面优势的说法被夸大了。在干预措施必须改变人类行为才能有效的情况下,他提出了以下八项使用随机对照试验的标准:
    
干预措施:
 
干预措施:
# 没有适用于一个独特群体的所有成员(例如,整个国家的人口、一个独特组织的所有雇员等)
+
# 没有适用于一个独特群体的所有成员(例如,整个国家的人口、一个独特组织的所有雇员等)
 
# 应用于类似于应用于控制组的上下文或设置中
 
# 应用于类似于应用于控制组的上下文或设置中
 
# 可以从其他活动中分离出来,本研究的目的是评估这种分离的效果
 
# 可以从其他活动中分离出来,本研究的目的是评估这种分离的效果
第283行: 第291行:  
# 与外部因素有稳定且可预测的关系
 
# 与外部因素有稳定且可预测的关系
 
# 如果对照组和干预组颠倒过来,会以同样的方式起作用
 
# 如果对照组和干预组颠倒过来,会以同样的方式起作用
 +
    
=== 犯罪学 ===
 
=== 犯罪学 ===
2005年的一项审查发现,1982-2004年发表了83项犯罪学随机实验,而1957-1981年只发表了35项。作者将他们发现的研究分为五类:“警务”、“预防”、“惩戒”、“法院”和“社区”。Hollin (2008)只关注犯罪行为项目,他认为随机对照试验可能很难实施(例如,如果RCT要求“判刑时随机将罪犯分配到项目中”),因此准实验设计的实验仍然是必要的。
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2005年的一项审查发现,1982-2004年发表了83项犯罪学随机实验,而1957-1981年只发表了35项。<ref name="Farrington-2005">{{cite journal |vauthors=Farrington DP, Welsh BC |year= 2005 |title= Randomized experiments in criminology: What have we learned in the last two decades? |journal=Journal of Experimental Criminology|volume=1 |issue=1 |pages= 9–38 |doi= 10.1007/s11292-004-6460-0 |s2cid= 145758503 }}</ref>作者将他们发现的研究分为五类:“警务”、“预防”、“惩戒”、“法院”和“社区”。<ref name="Farrington-2005"/> Hollin (2008)只关注犯罪行为项目,他认为随机对照试验可能很难实施(例如,如果RCT要求“判刑时随机将罪犯分配到项目中”),因此准实验设计的实验仍然是必要的。<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hollin CR |year= 2008 |title= Evaluating offending behaviour programmes: does only randomization glister? |journal=Criminology and Criminal Justice |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages= 89–106 |doi= 10.1177/1748895807085871 |s2cid= 141222135 }}</ref>
       
=== 教育 ===
 
=== 教育 ===
   −
RCT已被用于评估一些教育干预措施。从1980年到2016年,已经发表了1000多份随机对照试验报告。例如,2009年的一项研究随机选择了260名小学教师的教室,让他们接受或不接受行为筛查、课堂干预和家长培训,然后测量他们学生的行为和学业表现。另一项2009年的研究对678名一年级儿童进行了随机课堂,让他们接受以课堂为中心的干预、以家长为中心的干预或不干预,然后跟踪他们19岁的学习成绩。
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RCT已被用于评估一些教育干预措施。从1980年到2016年,已经发表了1000多份随机对照试验报告。<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Connolly|first1=Paul|last2=Keenan|first2=Ciara|last3=Urbanska|first3=Karolina|date=2018-07-09|title=The trials of evidence-based practice in education: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials in education research 1980–2016|journal=Educational Research|volume=60|issue=3|language=en|pages=276–291|doi=10.1080/00131881.2018.1493353|issn=0013-1881|url=https://pure.qub.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-trials-of-evidencebased-practice-in-education-a-systematic-review-of-randomised-controlled-trials-in-education-research-19802016(34e5d239-e91a-4807-96eb-a926022cbb14).html|doi-access=free}}</ref>例如,2009年的一项研究随机选择了260名小学教师的教室,让他们接受或不接受行为筛查、课堂干预和家长培训,然后测量他们学生的行为和学业表现。<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Walker HM, Seeley JR, Small J, Severson HH, Graham BA, Feil EG, Serna L, Golly AM, Forness SR |year= 2009 |title=A randomized controlled trial of the First Step to Success early intervention. Demonstration of program efficacy outcomes in a diverse, urban school district |journal=Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders |volume= 17 |issue=4 |pages=197–212 |doi= 10.1177/1063426609341645 |s2cid= 144571336 }}</ref>另一项2009年的研究对678名一年级儿童进行了随机课堂,让他们接受以课堂为中心的干预、以家长为中心的干预或不干预,然后跟踪他们19岁的学习成绩。<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bradshaw CP, Zmuda JH, Kellam SG, Ialongo NS |year=2009 |title= Longitudinal impact of two universal preventive interventions in first grade on educational outcomes in high school |journal= Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=926–937 |doi= 10.1037/a0016586 |pmid=23766545 |pmc=3678772 }}</ref>
       
== 批评 ==
 
== 批评 ==
2018年对10个引用最多的随机对照试验的回顾指出了背景特征分布不佳、致盲困难,并讨论了随机对照试验中固有的其他假设和偏见。其中包括“独特的时间段评估偏差”、“背景特征保持不变假设”、“平均治疗效果限制”、“个体水平的简单治疗限制”、“所有前提条件均完全满足假设”、“定量变量限制”和“仅安慰剂或仅常规治疗限制”。
+
2018年对10个引用最多的随机对照试验的回顾指出了背景特征分布不佳、致盲困难,并讨论了随机对照试验中固有的其他假设和偏见。其中包括“独特的时间段评估偏差”、“背景特征保持不变假设”、“平均治疗效果限制”、“个体水平的简单治疗限制”、“所有前提条件均完全满足假设”、“定量变量限制”和“仅安慰剂或仅常规治疗限制”。<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Krauss|first=Alexander|date=2018|title=Why all randomised controlled trials produce biased results|journal=Annals of Medicine|volume=50|issue=4|pages=312–322|doi=10.1080/07853890.2018.1453233|issn=0785-3890|pmid=29616838|doi-access=free}}</ref>
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==参考文献==
 
==参考文献==
 
<references />
 
<references />
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