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社会网络 (查看源代码)

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The social network is a [[Scientific theory|theoretical]] [[Construct (philosophy of science)|construct]] useful in the [[social sciences]] to study relationships between individuals, [[social groups|groups]], [[formal organizations|organizations]], or even entire [[society|societies]] ([[social unit]]s, see [[Differentiation (sociology)|differentiation]]). The term is used to describe a [[social structure]] determined by such [[social interactions|interactions]]. The ties through which any given social unit connects represent the convergence of the various social contacts of that unit. This theoretical approach is, necessarily, relational. An [[axiom]] of the social network approach to understanding [[social interaction]] is that social phenomena should be primarily conceived and investigated through the properties of relations between and within units, instead of the properties of these units themselves. Thus, one common criticism of social network theory is that [[Agency (sociology)|individual agency]] is often ignored<ref name="jscott">Scott, John P. (2000). ''Social Network Analysis: A Handbook'' (2nd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</ref> although this may not be the case in practice (see [[agent-based model]]ing). Precisely because many different types of relations, singular or in combination, form these network configurations, [[Network science|network analytics]] are useful to a broad range of research enterprises. In social science, these fields of study include, but are not limited to [[anthropology]], [[biology]], [[communication studies]], [[economics]], [[geography]], [[information science]], [[organizational studies]], [[social psychology]], [[sociology]], and [[sociolinguistics]].

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社会网络是社会科学中研究个人、团体、组织甚至整个社会（社会单位，见分化）之间关系的理论构造。这个术语用来描述由这种相互作用决定的社会结构。任何一个特定的社会单元之间的联系都代表着这个单元各种社会联系的聚合。这种理论方法必然是相关的。理解社会互动的社会网络方法的一个公理是，社会现象应该主要通过单元之间和单元内部关系的性质来构思和研究，而不是这些单元本身的性质。因此，社会网络理论总被诟病的一点是其常忽视个体代理<ref name="jscott" /> ，而实践中可能并非如此（见基于主体的建模）。正是因为许多不同类型的关系（单独或组合形式）形成这些网络配置，网络分析在广泛的研究中有用。在社会科学中，这些研究领域包括但不限于人类学 、生物学、传播学、经济学、地理学、信息科学、组织学、社会心理学、社会学和社会语言学。

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社会网络是社会科学中研究个人、团体、组织甚至整个社会（社会单位，见分化）之间关系的理论构造。这个术语用来描述由这种相互作用决定的社会结构。任何一个特定的社会单元之间的联系都代表着这个单元各种社会联系的聚合。这种理论方法必然是相关的。理解社会互动的社会网络方法的一个公理是，社会现象应该主要通过单元之间和单元内部关系的性质来构思和研究，而不是这些单元本身的性质。因此，社会网络理论总被诟病的一点是其常忽视个体代理<ref name="jscott" /> ，而实践中可能并非如此（见基于主体的建模）。正是因为许多不同类型的关系（单独或组合形式）形成这些网络配置，网络分析在广泛的研究中有用。在社会科学中，这些研究领域包括但不限于人类学、生物学、传播学、经济学、地理学、信息科学、组织学、社会心理学、社会学和社会语言学。

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==历史==

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在19世纪90年代晚期，埃米尔·涂尔干（Émile Durkheim）和斐迪南·滕尼斯（Ferdinand Tönnies）在他们关于社会群体的理论和研究中都预示了社会网络的概念。滕尼斯认为，社会群体可以作为个人和直接的社会关系存在，这种关系或者将具有共同价值观和信仰的个人（德语 Gemeinschaft，通常翻译为“社区”）联系在一起，或者将非个人的、正式的和工具性的社会关系（德语 Gesellschaft，通常翻译为“社会”）联系在一起。<ref name=":2" /> 涂尔干对社会事实给出了非个人主义的解释，认为当相互作用的个体构成一种再也不能用个体行为者的特性来解释的现实时，社会现象就产生了。<ref name=":3" />格奥尔格·齐美尔在20世纪之交的著作中指出了网络的本质和网络规模对互动的影响，并研究了在松散的网络而非群体中互动的可能性。<ref name=":4" />

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[[File:Moreno Sociogram 2nd Grade.png|thumb|图2：Moreno's sociogram of a 2nd grade class 莫雷诺对一个二年级班级的社会关系图]]

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Major developments in the field can be seen in the 1930s by several groups in psychology, anthropology, and mathematics working independently.<ref name="jscott" /><ref>For a historical overview of the development of social network analysis, see: {{cite book|last1=Carrington|first1=Peter J.|last2=Scott|first2=John|chapter=Introduction|title=The Sage Handbook of Social Network Analysis| publisher=Sage|year=2011|isbn=978-1-84787-395-8|page=1|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2chSmLzClXgC&pg=PA1}}</ref><ref>See also the diagram in {{cite book|author=Scott, John|title=Social Network Analysis: A Handbook|publisher=Sage|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7619-6339-4|page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ww3_bKcz6kgC&pg=PA8}}</ref> In [[psychology]], in the 1930s, [[Jacob L. Moreno]] began systematic recording and analysis of social interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups (see [[sociometry]]). In [[anthropology]], the foundation for social network theory is the theoretical and [[ethnography|ethnographic]] work of [[Bronislaw Malinowski]],<ref>Malinowski, Bronislaw (1913). ''The Family Among the Australian Aborigines: A Sociological Study''. London: University of London Press.</ref> [[Radcliffe-Brown|Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]],<ref>Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald (1930) ''The social organization of Australian tribes''. Sydney, Australia: University of Sydney ''Oceania'' monographs, No.1.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Radcliffe-Brown | first1 = A. R. | year = 1940 | title = On social structure | url = | journal = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | volume = 70 | issue = 1| pages = 1–12 | doi=10.2307/2844197| jstor = 2844197 }}</ref> and [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]].<ref>Lévi-Strauss, Claude ([1947]1967). ''Les structures élémentaires de la parenté''. Paris: La Haye, Mouton et Co. (Translated, 1969 by J. H. Bell, J. R. von Sturmer, and R. Needham, 1969, as ''The Elementary Structures of Kinship'', Boston: Beacon Press.)</ref> A group of social anthropologists associated with [[Max Gluckman]] and the [[Manchester school (anthropology)|Manchester School]], including [[John Arundel Barnes|John A. Barnes]],<ref>Barnes, John (1954). "Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish". ''Human Relations'', (7): 39–58.</ref> [[J. Clyde Mitchell]] and [[Elizabeth Bott Spillius]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Freeman | first1 = Linton C. | last2 = Wellman | first2 = Barry | year = 1995 | title = A note on the ancestoral Toronto home of social network analysis | url = | journal = Connections | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 15–19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Savage | first1 = Mike | year = 2008 | title = Elizabeth Bott and the formation of modern British sociology | url = | journal = The Sociological Review | volume = 56 | issue = 4| pages = 579–605 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-954x.2008.00806.x}}</ref> often are credited with performing some of the first fieldwork from which network analyses were performed, investigating community networks in southern Africa, India and the United Kingdom.<ref name="jscott" /> Concomitantly, British anthropologist [[Siegfried Frederick Nadel|S. F. Nadel]] codified a theory of social structure that was influential in later network analysis.<ref>Nadel, S. F. 1957. ''The Theory of Social Structure''. London: Cohen and West.</ref> In [[sociology]], the early (1930s) work of [[Talcott Parsons]] set the stage for taking a relational approach to understanding social structure.<ref>Parsons, Talcott ([1937] 1949). ''The Structure of Social Action: A Study in Social Theory with Special Reference to a Group of European Writers''. New York: The Free Press.</ref><ref>Parsons, Talcott (1951). ''The Social System''. New York: The Free Press.</ref> Later, drawing upon Parsons' theory, the work of sociologist [[Peter Blau]] provides a strong impetus for analyzing the relational ties of social units with his work on [[social exchange theory]].<ref>Blau, Peter (1956). ''Bureaucracy in Modern Society''. New York: Random House, Inc.</ref><ref>Blau, Peter (1960). "A Theory of Social Integration". ''The American Journal of Sociology'', (65)6: 545–556, (May).</ref><ref>Blau, Peter (1964). ''Exchange and Power in Social Life''.</ref>

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Major developments in the field can be seen in the 1930s by several groups in psychology, anthropology, and mathematics working independently.<ref name="jscott" /><ref name=":11">For a historical overview of the development of social network analysis, see: {{cite book|last1=Carrington|first1=Peter J.|last2=Scott|first2=John|chapter=Introduction|title=The Sage Handbook of Social Network Analysis| publisher=Sage|year=2011|isbn=978-1-84787-395-8|page=1|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2chSmLzClXgC&pg=PA1}}</ref><ref name=":12">See also the diagram in {{cite book|author=Scott, John|title=Social Network Analysis: A Handbook|publisher=Sage|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7619-6339-4|page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ww3_bKcz6kgC&pg=PA8}}</ref> In [[psychology]], in the 1930s, [[Jacob L. Moreno]] began systematic recording and analysis of social interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups (see [[sociometry]]). In [[anthropology]], the foundation for social network theory is the theoretical and [[ethnography|ethnographic]] work of [[Bronislaw Malinowski]],<ref name=":13">Malinowski, Bronislaw (1913). ''The Family Among the Australian Aborigines: A Sociological Study''. London: University of London Press.</ref> [[Radcliffe-Brown|Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]],<ref name=":14">Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald (1930) ''The social organization of Australian tribes''. Sydney, Australia: University of Sydney ''Oceania'' monographs, No.1.</ref><ref name=":15">{{cite journal | last1 = Radcliffe-Brown | first1 = A. R. | year = 1940 | title = On social structure | url = | journal = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | volume = 70 | issue = 1| pages = 1–12 | doi=10.2307/2844197| jstor = 2844197 }}</ref> and [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]].<ref name=":16">Lévi-Strauss, Claude ([1947]1967). ''Les structures élémentaires de la parenté''. Paris: La Haye, Mouton et Co. (Translated, 1969 by J. H. Bell, J. R. von Sturmer, and R. Needham, 1969, as ''The Elementary Structures of Kinship'', Boston: Beacon Press.)</ref> A group of social anthropologists associated with [[Max Gluckman]] and the [[Manchester school (anthropology)|Manchester School]], including [[John Arundel Barnes|John A. Barnes]],<ref name=":17">Barnes, John (1954). "Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish". ''Human Relations'', (7): 39–58.</ref> [[J. Clyde Mitchell]] and [[Elizabeth Bott Spillius]],<ref name=":18">{{cite journal | last1 = Freeman | first1 = Linton C. | last2 = Wellman | first2 = Barry | year = 1995 | title = A note on the ancestoral Toronto home of social network analysis | url = | journal = Connections | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 15–19 }}</ref><ref name=":19">{{cite journal | last1 = Savage | first1 = Mike | year = 2008 | title = Elizabeth Bott and the formation of modern British sociology | url = | journal = The Sociological Review | volume = 56 | issue = 4| pages = 579–605 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-954x.2008.00806.x}}</ref> often are credited with performing some of the first fieldwork from which network analyses were performed, investigating community networks in southern Africa, India and the United Kingdom.<ref name="jscott" /> Concomitantly, British anthropologist [[Siegfried Frederick Nadel|S. F. Nadel]] codified a theory of social structure that was influential in later network analysis.<ref name=":20">Nadel, S. F. 1957. ''The Theory of Social Structure''. London: Cohen and West.</ref> In [[sociology]], the early (1930s) work of [[Talcott Parsons]] set the stage for taking a relational approach to understanding social structure.<ref name=":21">Parsons, Talcott ([1937] 1949). ''The Structure of Social Action: A Study in Social Theory with Special Reference to a Group of European Writers''. New York: The Free Press.</ref><ref name=":22">Parsons, Talcott (1951). ''The Social System''. New York: The Free Press.</ref> Later, drawing upon Parsons' theory, the work of sociologist [[Peter Blau]] provides a strong impetus for analyzing the relational ties of social units with his work on [[social exchange theory]].<ref name=":23">Blau, Peter (1956). ''Bureaucracy in Modern Society''. New York: Random House, Inc.</ref><ref name=":24">Blau, Peter (1960). "A Theory of Social Integration". ''The American Journal of Sociology'', (65)6: 545–556, (May).</ref><ref name=":25">Blau, Peter (1964). ''Exchange and Power in Social Life''.</ref>

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20世纪30年代，心理学、人类学和数学领域的几个独立研究小组已经看到了这一领域的重大发展。在心理学方面，在20世纪30年代，雅各布·L·莫雷诺开始系统地记录和分析小团体中的社会互动，尤其是课堂和工作团体中的社会互动（见'''社会测量 Sociometry）'''。在人类学中，社会网络理论的基础是'''布罗尼斯拉夫·马林诺夫斯基 Bronislaw Malinowski'''，'''阿尔弗雷德·拉德克利夫-布朗 Alfred Radcliffe-Brown'''和'''克洛德·列维-斯特劳斯 Claude Lévi-Strauss'''的理论和人种学著作。包括'''约翰·A·巴恩斯 John A. Barnes'''、'''J·克莱德·米切尔 J. Clyde Mitchell'''和'''伊丽莎白·博特·斯皮利厄斯 Elizabeth Bott Spillius'''在内的一群与'''马克斯·格拉克曼 Max Gluckman'''和'''曼彻斯特学派 Manchester School'''有关的社会人类学家，经常被认为是执行了一些最初的实地工作，从而进行了网络分析，调查了南非、印度和英国的社区网络。在社会学方面，'''塔尔科特·帕森斯 Talcott Parsons'''的早期工作（1930年代）为采用关系方法理解社会结构奠定了基础。后来，社会学家'''彼得·布劳 Peter Blau'''的'''社会交换论 Social Exchange Theory'''为分析社会单位之间的关系提供了强大的动力。

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By the 1970s, a growing number of scholars worked to combine the different tracks and traditions. One group consisted of sociologist [[Harrison White]] and his students at the [[Harvard Department of Social Relations|Harvard University Department of Social Relations]]. Also independently active in the Harvard Social Relations department at the time were [[Charles Tilly]], who focused on networks in political and community sociology and social movements, and [[Stanley Milgram]], who developed the "six degrees of separation" thesis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.semioticon.com/semiotix/semiotix14/sem-14-05.html |title=The Networked Individual: A Profile of Barry Wellman |author=Bernie Hogan}}</ref> [[Mark Granovetter]]<ref name="Introduction for the French Reader">{{cite journal | last1 = Granovetter | first1 = Mark | year = 2007 | title = Introduction for the French Reader | url = | journal = Sociologica | volume = 2 | issue = | pages = 1–8 }}</ref> and [[Barry Wellman]]<ref>Wellman, Barry (1988). "Structural analysis: From method and metaphor to theory and substance". pp. 19–61 in B. Wellman and S. D. Berkowitz (eds.) ''Social Structures: A Network Approach'', Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</ref> are among the former students of White who elaborated and championed the analysis of social networks.<ref name="Introduction for the French Reader"/><ref>Mullins, Nicholas. ''Theories and Theory Groups in Contemporary American Sociology''. New York: Harper and Row, 1973.</ref><ref>Tilly, Charles, ed. ''An Urban World''. Boston: Little Brown, 1974.</ref><ref>Wellman, Barry. 1988. "Structural Analysis: From Method and Metaphor to Theory and Substance". pp. 19–61 in ''Social Structures: A Network Approach'', edited by Barry Wellman and S. D. Berkowitz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

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到了20世纪70年代，越来越多的学者致力于将不同的轨迹和传统结合起来。其中一组由社会学家'''哈里森·怀特 Harrison White'''和他在哈佛大学社会关系系的学生组成。当时在哈佛大学社会关系系独立活动的还有专注于政治和社区社会学和社会运动的网络的'''查尔斯·堤利 Charles Tilly'''，还有发表了六度分隔理论论文的'''斯坦利·米尔格拉姆 Stanley Milgram'''。'''马克·格兰诺维特 Mark Granovetter'''和'''巴里·威尔曼 Barry Wellman'''是怀特以前的学生，他们阐述并支持对社交网络的分析。

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20世纪30年代，心理学、人类学和数学领域的几个独立研究小组已经看到了这一领域的重大发展。<ref name="jscott" /><ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" /> 在心理学方面，在20世纪30年代，雅各布·L·莫雷诺开始系统地记录和分析小团体中的社会互动，尤其是课堂和工作团体中的社会互动（见社会测量sociometry）。在人类学中，社会网络理论的基础是布罗尼斯拉夫·马林诺夫斯基（Bronislaw Malinowski）<ref name=":13" /> 、阿尔弗雷德·拉德克利夫-布朗（Alfred Radcliffe-Brown）<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" /> 和克洛德·列维-斯特劳斯（Claude Lévi-Strauss）<ref name=":16" /> 的理论和人种学著作。包括约翰·A·巴恩斯（John A. Barnes）<ref name=":17" /> 、J·克莱德·米切尔（J. Clyde Mitchell）和伊丽莎白·博特·斯皮利厄斯（Elizabeth Bott Spillius）<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /> 在内的一群与马克斯·格拉克曼（Max Gluckman）和曼彻斯特学派（Manchester School）有关的社会人类学家，经常被认为是执行了一些最初的实地工作，从而进行了网络分析，调查了南非、印度和英国的社区网络。<ref name="jscott" /> 与此同时，英国人类学家纳德尔（S.F. Nadel）发展出了一种社会结构理论，对后来的网络分析产生重要影响影响。<ref name=":20" /> 在社会学方面，塔尔科特·帕森斯（Talcott Parsons）的早期工作（1930年代）为采用关系方法理解社会结构奠定了基础。<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /> 后来，社会学家彼得·布劳 Peter Blau的社会交换论为分析社会单位之间的关系提供了强大的动力。<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" /><ref name=":25" />

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By the 1970s, a growing number of scholars worked to combine the different tracks and traditions. One group consisted of sociologist [[Harrison White]] and his students at the [[Harvard Department of Social Relations|Harvard University Department of Social Relations]]. Also independently active in the Harvard Social Relations department at the time were [[Charles Tilly]], who focused on networks in political and community sociology and social movements, and [[Stanley Milgram]], who developed the "six degrees of separation" thesis.<ref name=":26">{{cite web |url=http://www.semioticon.com/semiotix/semiotix14/sem-14-05.html |title=The Networked Individual: A Profile of Barry Wellman |author=Bernie Hogan}}</ref> [[Mark Granovetter]]<ref name="Introduction for the French Reader">{{cite journal | last1 = Granovetter | first1 = Mark | year = 2007 | title = Introduction for the French Reader | url = | journal = Sociologica | volume = 2 | issue = | pages = 1–8 }}</ref> and [[Barry Wellman]]<ref name=":27">Wellman, Barry (1988). "Structural analysis: From method and metaphor to theory and substance". pp. 19–61 in B. Wellman and S. D. Berkowitz (eds.) ''Social Structures: A Network Approach'', Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</ref> are among the former students of White who elaborated and championed the analysis of social networks.<ref name="Introduction for the French Reader" /><ref name=":28">Mullins, Nicholas. ''Theories and Theory Groups in Contemporary American Sociology''. New York: Harper and Row, 1973.</ref><ref name=":29">Tilly, Charles, ed. ''An Urban World''. Boston: Little Brown, 1974.</ref><ref name=":30">Wellman, Barry. 1988. "Structural Analysis: From Method and Metaphor to Theory and Substance". pp. 19–61 in ''Social Structures: A Network Approach'', edited by Barry Wellman and S. D. Berkowitz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

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到了20世纪70年代，越来越多的学者致力于将不同的轨迹和传统结合起来。其中一组由社会学家哈里森·怀特（Harrison White）和他在哈佛大学社会关系系的学生组成。当时在哈佛大学社会关系系独立活动的还有专注于政治和社区社会学和社会运动的网络的查尔斯·堤利（Charles Tilly），还有发表了六度分隔理论论文的斯坦利·米尔格拉姆（Stanley Milgram）。<ref name=":26" /> 马克·格兰诺维特（Mark Granovetter）<ref name="Introduction for the French Reader" /> 和巴里·威尔曼（Barry Wellman）<ref name=":27" /> 是怀特以前的学生，他们阐述并支持对社交网络的分析。<ref name="Introduction for the French Reader" /><ref name=":28" /><ref name=":29" /><ref name=":30" />

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Beginning in the late 1990s, social network analysis experienced work by sociologists, political scientists, and physicists such as [[Duncan J. Watts]], [[Albert-László Barabási]], [[Peter Bearman]], [[Nicholas A. Christakis]], [[James H. Fowler]], and others, developing and applying new models and methods to emerging data available about online social networks, as well as "digital traces" regarding face-to-face networks.

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~~Beginning in the late 1990s, social network analysis experienced work by sociologists, political scientists, and physicists such as [[Duncan~~ J. ~~Watts]], [[Albert~~-László ~~Barabási]], [[Peter Bearman]], [[Nicholas~~ A. ~~Christakis]], [[James~~ H. ~~Fowler]], and others, developing and applying new models and methods to emerging data available about online social networks, as well as "digital traces" regarding face-to-face networks.~~

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从20世纪90年代末开始，社会网络分析经历了社会学家、政治学家和物理学家的工作，如邓肯·瓦茨（Duncan J. Watts）、艾伯特-拉斯洛·巴拉巴西（Albert-László Barabási）、Peter Bearman、Nicholas A. Christakis、James H. Fowler等人，开发和应用新的模型和方法来获得有关在线社会网络的新兴数据，以及有关面对面网络的“数字痕迹”。

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从20世纪90年代末开始，社会网络分析经历了社会学家、政治学家和物理学家的工作，如'''[[邓肯·瓦茨 Duncan J. Watts]]'''、'''[[艾伯特-拉斯洛·巴拉巴西 Albert-László Barabási]]'''、Peter Bearman、Nicholas A. Christakis、James H. Fowler等人，开发和应用新的模型和方法来获得有关在线社会网络的新兴数据，以及有关面对面网络的“数字痕迹”。

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==~~Levels of analysis~~ 分析层次==

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==分析层次==

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[[File:Social Network Diagram (large).svg|right|thumb|Centrality|链接=Special:FilePath/Social_Network_Diagram_(large).svg]]

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~~Centrality中心性~~

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中心性

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In general, social networks are [[self-organization|self-organizing]], [[emergence|emergent]], and [[social complexity|complex]], such that a globally coherent pattern appears from the local interaction of the elements that make up the system.<ref>Newman, Mark, Albert-László Barabási and Duncan J. Watts (2006). ''The Structure and Dynamics of Networks'' (Princeton Studies in Complexity). Oxford: Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wellman | first1 = Barry | year = 2008 | title = Review: The development of social network analysis: A study in the sociology of science | url = | journal = Contemporary Sociology | volume = 37 | issue = 3| pages = 221–222 | doi=10.1177/009430610803700308}}</ref> These patterns become more apparent as network size increases. However, a global network analysis<ref>{{cite book|last=Faust|first=Stanley Wasserman; Katherine|title=Social network analysis : methods and applications|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|isbn=978-0521382694|edition=Reprint.}}</ref> of, for example, all [[interpersonal relationships]] in the world is not feasible and is likely to contain so much [[Information theory|information]] as to be uninformative. Practical limitations of computing power, ethics and participant recruitment and payment also limit the scope of a social network analysis.<ref name="Kadu12">Kadushin, C. (2012). ''Understanding social networks: Theories, concepts, and findings''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| author=Granovetter, M.|title= Network sampling: Some first steps| year=1976 |pages=1287–1303 |volume=81| issue=6 |journal= American Journal of Sociology | doi=10.1086/226224}}</ref> The nuances of a local system may be lost in a large network analysis, hence the quality of information may be more important than its scale for understanding network properties. Thus, social networks are analyzed at the scale relevant to the researcher's theoretical question. Although [[level of analysis|levels of analysis]] are not necessarily [[Mutually exclusive events|mutually exclusive]], there are three general levels into which networks may fall: [[Microsociology|micro-level]], [[wikt:meso-|meso-level]], and [[Macrosociology|macro-level]].

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一般来说，社会网络是自组织的、涌现的和复杂的，这样，一个全局一致的模式就会从组成系统的元素的局部交互中显现出来。随着网络规模的增大，这些模式变得更加明显。然而，一个全球网络分析（如世界上所有的人际关系）是不可行的，它可能包含太多的信息，以至于相当于没有提供信息。计算能力的实际限制、道德规范以及参与者的招聘和报酬也限制了社会网络分析的规模。局部系统的细微差别在大规模网络分析中可能会消失，因此对于理解网络属性来说，信息的质量可能比其规模更重要。因此，社会网络是在与研究者的理论问题相关的尺度上加以分析的。虽然分析层次不一定相互排斥，但网络可以分为三个一般层次: 微观、中观和宏观。

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===~~Micro level 微观层面~~===

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In general, social networks are [[self-organization|self-organizing]], [[emergence|emergent]], and [[social complexity|complex]], such that a globally coherent pattern appears from the local interaction of the elements that make up the system.<ref name=":31">Newman, Mark, Albert-László Barabási and Duncan J. Watts (2006). ''The Structure and Dynamics of Networks'' (Princeton Studies in Complexity). Oxford: Princeton University Press.</ref><ref name=":32">{{cite journal | last1 = Wellman | first1 = Barry | year = 2008 | title = Review: The development of social network analysis: A study in the sociology of science | url = | journal = Contemporary Sociology | volume = 37 | issue = 3| pages = 221–222 | doi=10.1177/009430610803700308}}</ref> These patterns become more apparent as network size increases. However, a global network analysis<ref name=":33">{{cite book|last=Faust|first=Stanley Wasserman; Katherine|title=Social network analysis : methods and applications|year=1998|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|isbn=978-0521382694|edition=Reprint.}}</ref> of, for example, all [[interpersonal relationships]] in the world is not feasible and is likely to contain so much [[Information theory|information]] as to be uninformative. Practical limitations of computing power, ethics and participant recruitment and payment also limit the scope of a social network analysis.<ref name="Kadu12">Kadushin, C. (2012). ''Understanding social networks: Theories, concepts, and findings''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref><ref name=":34">{{Cite journal| author=Granovetter, M.|title= Network sampling: Some first steps| year=1976 |pages=1287–1303 |volume=81| issue=6 |journal= American Journal of Sociology | doi=10.1086/226224}}</ref> The nuances of a local system may be lost in a large network analysis, hence the quality of information may be more important than its scale for understanding network properties. Thus, social networks are analyzed at the scale relevant to the researcher's theoretical question. Although [[level of analysis|levels of analysis]] are not necessarily [[Mutually exclusive events|mutually exclusive]], there are three general levels into which networks may fall: [[Microsociology|micro-level]], [[wikt:meso-|meso-level]], and [[Macrosociology|macro-level]].

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一般来说，社会网络是自组织的、涌现的和复杂的，这样，一个全局一致的模式就会从组成系统的元素的局部交互中显现出来。<ref name=":31" /><ref name=":32" /> 随着网络规模的增大，这些模式变得更加明显。然而，一个全球网络分析<ref name=":33" />（如世界上所有的人际关系）是不可行的，它可能包含太多的信息，以至于相当于没有提供信息。计算能力的实际限制、道德规范以及参与者的招聘和报酬也限制了社会网络分析的规模。<ref name="Kadu12" /><ref name=":34" /> 局部系统的细微差别在大规模网络分析中可能会消失，因此对于理解网络属性来说，信息的质量可能比其规模更重要。因此，社会网络是在与研究者的理论问题相关的尺度上加以分析的。虽然分析层次不一定相互排斥，但网络可以分为三个一般层次: 微观、中观和宏观。

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===微观层面===

At the micro-level, social network research typically begins with an individual, [[Snowball sampling|snowballing]] as social relationships are traced, or may begin with a small group of individuals in a particular social context.

在微观层面上，社会网络研究通常从个人开始，随着社会关系的追踪而像滚雪球一样扩大，或者可能从特定社会背景下的一小群个体开始。

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'''Dyadic level''': A [[Dyad (sociology)|dyad]] is a social relationship between two individuals. Network research on dyads may concentrate on [[Structural functionalism|structure]] of the relationship (e.g. multiplexity, strength), [[social equality]], and tendencies toward [[Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)|reciprocity/mutuality]].

二元层面：二元是两个个体之间的社会关系。网络对二元关系的研究可以集中在关系的结构上（如多样性、力量)、社会平等以及互惠互利的倾向。

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'''Triadic level''': Add one individual to a dyad, and you have a [[Triadic relation|triad]]. Research at this level may concentrate on factors such as [[Independence number|balance]] and [[Vertex-transitive graph|transitivity]], as well as [[social equality]] and tendencies toward [[Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)|reciprocity/mutuality]].<ref name="Kadu12"/> In the [[balance theory]] of [[Fritz Heider]] the triad is the key to social dynamics. The discord in a rivalrous [[love triangle]] is an example of an unbalanced triad, likely to change to a balanced triad by a change in one of the relations. The dynamics of social friendships in society has been modeled by balancing triads. The study is carried forward with the theory of [[signed graph]]s.

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三元层面：再加一个个体到二元组中，就得到一个三元组。这一层次的研究可能集中在诸如平衡和传递性等因素，以及社会平等和互惠互利的倾向。在'''弗里茨 · 海德 Fritz ~~Heider'''的'''平衡理论~~ Balance Theory'''中，三元组是社会动力学的关键。在敌对的三角恋中的不和谐是不平衡的三角关系的一个例子，很可能通过其中一种关系的改变而变成平衡的三角关系。社会中社会友谊的动态模型是通过平衡三角关系建立起来的。该研究利用了符号图理论。

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三元层面：再加一个个体到二元组中，就得到一个三元组。这一层次的研究可能集中在诸如平衡和传递性等因素，以及社会平等和互惠互利的倾向。<ref name="Kadu12" /> 在弗里茨 · 海德 Fritz Heider的平衡理论 Balance Theory中，三元组是社会动力学的关键。在敌对的三角恋中的不和谐是不平衡的三角关系的一个例子，很可能通过其中一种关系的改变而变成平衡的三角关系。社会中社会友谊的动态模型是通过平衡三角关系建立起来的。该研究利用了符号图理论。

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'''Actor level''': The smallest unit of analysis in a social network is an individual in their social setting, i.e., an "actor" or "ego". Egonetwork analysis focuses on network characteristics such as size, relationship strength, density, [[centrality]], [[wikt:prestige|prestige]] and roles such as [[isolates|isolates, liaisons]], and [[Bridge (interpersonal)|bridges]].<ref name="Jone11"/> Such analyses, are most commonly used in the fields of [[psychology]] or [[Social psychology (sociology)|social psychology]], [[ethnographic]] [[kinship]] analysis or other [[genealogy|genealogical]] studies of relationships between individuals.

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行为者层面：社会网络中最小的分析单位是社会环境中的个体，即“行为者”或“自我”。自我网络分析主要关注网络特征，例如大小、关系强度、密度、中心性、声望和隔离、联络和桥梁等角色。这种分析最常用于心理学或社会心理学、人种学亲属关系分析或其他个体关系的系谱研究领域。

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行为者层面：社会网络中最小的分析单位是社会环境中的个体，即“行为者”或“自我”。自我网络分析主要关注网络特征，例如大小、关系强度、密度、中心性、声望和隔离、联络和桥梁等角色。<ref name="Jone11" /> 这种分析最常用于心理学或社会心理学、人种学亲属关系分析或其他个体关系的系谱研究领域。

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'''Subset level''': [[Subset]] levels of network research problems begin at the micro-level, but may cross over into the meso-level of analysis. Subset level research may focus on [[Distance (graph theory)|distance]] and reachability, [[cliques]], [[Cohesion (social policy)|cohesive]] subgroups, or other [[Group action (sociology)|group actions]] or [[Group behaviour|behavior]].<ref~~>{{cite book | title~~="~~Graph Theoretical Approaches to Social Network Analysis~~". in Computational Complexity: Theory, Techniques, and Applications (Robert A. Meyers, ed.) | publisher=Springer | author=de Nooy, Wouter |year=2012 | pages=2864–2877 | isbn=978-1-4614-1800-9|doi=10.1007/~~978-1-4614-1800-9_176| chapter=Social Network Analysis, Graph Theoretical Approaches to }}</ref~~>

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子集层面：网络研究问题的子集级别开始于微观级别，但可能跨越到中观级别的分析。子集级别的研究可能集中在距离和可达性、派系、凝聚子群或其他群体行为或行为。

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'''Subset level''': [[Subset]] levels of network research problems begin at the micro-level, but may cross over into the meso-level of analysis. Subset level research may focus on [[Distance (graph theory)|distance]] and reachability, [[cliques]], [[Cohesion (social policy)|cohesive]] subgroups, or other [[Group action (sociology)|group actions]] or [[Group behaviour|behavior]].<ref name=":35">{{cite book | title="Graph Theoretical Approaches to Social Network Analysis". in Computational Complexity: Theory, Techniques, and Applications (Robert A. Meyers, ed.) | publisher=Springer | author=de Nooy, Wouter |year=2012 | pages=2864–2877 | isbn=978-1-4614-1800-9|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-1800-9_176| chapter=Social Network Analysis, Graph Theoretical Approaches to }}</ref>

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子集层面：网络研究问题的子集级别开始于微观级别，但可能跨越到中观级别的分析。子集级别的研究可能集中在距离和可达性、派系、凝聚子群或其他群体行为或行为。<ref name=":35" />

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~~===Meso level 中观层面===~~

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===中观层面===

In general, meso-level theories begin with a [[Sample population|population]] size that falls between the micro- and macro-levels. However, meso-level may also refer to analyses that are specifically designed to reveal connections between micro- and macro-levels. Meso-level networks are low density and may exhibit causal processes distinct from interpersonal micro-level networks.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hedström | first1 = Peter | last2 = Sandell | first2 = Rickard | last3 = Stern | first3 = Charlotta | year = 2000 | title = Mesolevel Networks and the Diffusion of Social Movements: The Case of the Swedish Social Democratic Party | url = http://www.nuffield.ox.ac.uk/users/hedstrom/ajs3.pdf | journal = American Journal of Sociology | volume = 106 | issue = 1| pages = 145–172 | doi = 10.1086/303109 }}</ref>

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===~~Macro level~~ 宏观层面===

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===宏观层面===

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Rather than tracing interpersonal interactions, macro-level analyses generally trace the outcomes of interactions, such as [[economic]] or other [[resource]] [[Transfer function|transfer]] interactions over a large [[Sample population|population]].

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[[File:Diagram of a social network.jpg|thumb|right|图6: Diagram: section of a large-scale social network 一大型社会网络局部|链接=Special:FilePath/Diagram_of_a_social_network.jpg]]

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'''Large-scale networks''': [[Large-scale macroeconometric model|Large-scale network]] is a term somewhat synonymous with "macro-level" as used, primarily, in [[social science|social]] and [[Behavioural sciences|behavioral]] sciences, in [[economics]]. Originally, the term was used extensively in the [[computer sciences]] (see [[Network mapping#Large-scale mapping project|large-scale network mapping]]).

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==~~Theoretical links~~ 理论联系==

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==理论联系==

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=== ~~Imported theories~~ 输入的理论 ===

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=== 输入的理论 ===

Various theoretical frameworks have been imported for the use of social network analysis. The most prominent of these are [[Graph theory]], [[Balance theory]], Social comparison theory, and more recently, the [[Social identity approach]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kilduff|first1=M.|last2=Tsai|first2=W. |year=2003 |title= Social networks and organisations |publisher=Sage Publications}}</ref>

为了使用社会网络分析，已经引入了各种理论框架。其中最突出的是[[图论]]、'''平衡理论 Balance theory'''、社会比较论，以及最近的社会认同方法。

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===~~Indigenous theories~~ 本土理论===

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===本土理论===

Few complete theories have been produced from social network analysis. Two that have are [[role theory|structural role theory]] and [[heterophily|heterophily theory]].

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==~~Structural holes~~ 结构洞==

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==结构洞==

In the context of networks, [[social capital]] exists where people have an advantage because of their location in a network. Contacts in a network provide information, opportunities and perspectives that can be beneficial to the central player in the network. Most social structures tend to be characterized by dense clusters of strong connections.<ref name="Burt 2004">{{cite journal|last=Burt|first=Ronald|title=Structural Holes and Good Ideas|journal=American Journal of Sociology|year=2004|doi=10.1086/421787|volume=110|issue=2|pages=349–399|citeseerx=10.1.1.388.2251}}</ref> Information within these clusters tends to be rather homogeneous and redundant. Non-redundant information is most often obtained through contacts in different clusters.<ref name="Burt 1992">{{cite book|last=Burt|first=Ronald|title=Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition|year=1992|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref> When two separate clusters possess non-redundant information, there is said to be a structural hole between them.<ref name="Burt 1992" /> Thus, a network that bridges [[structural holes]] will provide network benefits that are in some degree additive, rather than overlapping. An ideal network structure has a vine and cluster structure, providing access to many different clusters and structural holes.<ref name="Burt 1992" />

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==~~Research clusters~~ 研究集群==

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==研究集群==

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===~~Communication~~ 传播学===

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===传播学===

[[Communication Studies]] are often considered a part of both the social sciences and the humanities, drawing heavily on fields such as [[sociology]], [[psychology]], [[anthropology]], [[information science]], [[biology]], [[political science]], and [[economics]] as well as [[rhetoric]], [[literary studies]], and [[semiotics]]. Many communication concepts describe the transfer of information from one source to another, and can thus be conceived of in terms of a network.

传播学通常被认为是社会科学和人文科学的一部分，主要集中在社会学、心理学、人类学、信息科学、生物学、政治学、经济学以及修辞学、文学研究和符号学等领域。许多通信概念描述了从一个源到另一个源的信息传输，因此可以从网络的角度来考虑。

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===~~Community~~ 社区===

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===社区===

In J.A. Barnes' day, a "[[community]]" referred to a specific geographic location and studies of community ties had to do with who talked, associated, traded, and attended church with whom. Today, however, there are extended "online" communities developed through [[telecommunications]] devices and [[social network services]]. Such devices and services require extensive and ongoing maintenance and analysis, often using [[network science]] methods. [[Community development]] studies, today, also make extensive use of such methods.

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在J.A. Barnes' day，“社区”指的是一个特定的地理位置和与谁交谈、联系、贸易和一同上教堂做礼拜有关的社区关系的研究。然而如今，通过电信设备和社交网络服务，有了扩展的“在线”社区。这样的设备和服务需要广泛和持续的维护和分析，通常使用网络科学方法。社区发展研究在如今也广泛使用这些方法。

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===~~Complex networks~~ 复杂网络===

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===复杂网络===

[[Complex networks]] require methods specific to modelling and interpreting [[social complexity]] and [[complex adaptive system]]s, including techniques of [[dynamic network analysis]].

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'''双相演化理论 Dual-phase Evolution'''等机制解释了连接性的时间变化如何促进社会网络结构的形成。

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===~~Criminal networks~~ 犯罪网络===

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===犯罪网络===

In [[criminology]] and [[urban sociology]], much attention has been paid to the social networks among criminal actors. For example, Andrew Papachristos<ref>{{cite journal |last=Papachristos |first=Andrew |year=2009 |title=Murder by Structure: Dominance Relations and the Social Structure of Gang Homicide |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=74–128 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.855304 |url=http://www.papachristos.org/Publications_2_files/ajs_final_version.pdf |accessdate=29 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407094725/http://www.papachristos.org/Publications_2_files/ajs_final_version.pdf |archivedate=7 April 2014 }}</ref> has studied gang murders as a series of exchanges between gangs. Murders can be seen to diffuse outwards from a single source, because weaker gangs cannot afford to kill members of stronger gangs in retaliation, but must commit other violent acts to maintain their reputation for strength.

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在'''犯罪学 Criminology和'''城市社会学 Urban sociology中，犯罪行为人之间的社会网络问题受到了广泛的关注。例如，'''安德鲁·帕帕克里斯托斯 Andrew Papachristos'''将帮派谋杀研究为帮派之间的一系列交流。谋杀可以视为从单一来源向外扩散，因为较弱的帮派无法承担为报复杀死较强帮派成员的代价，而必须采取其他暴力行动来维护其势力强大之名声。

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===~~Diffusion of innovations~~ 创新扩散理论===

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===创新扩散理论===

[[Diffusion of innovations|Diffusion of ideas and innovations]] studies focus on the spread and use of ideas from one actor to another or one [[culture]] and another. This line of research seeks to explain why some become "early adopters" of ideas and innovations, and links social network structure with facilitating or impeding the spread of an innovation.

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'''创新扩散理论 Diffusion of Innovations'''研究的重点是思想从一个行动者到另一个或一种文化到另一种的传播。这一系列的研究试图解释为什么有些人成为创意和创新的“早期接受者” ，并将社交网络结构与促进或阻碍创新的传播联系起来。

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===~~Demography~~ 人口学===

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===人口学===

In [[demography]], the study of social networks has led to new sampling methods for estimating and reaching populations that are hard to enumerate (for example, homeless people or intravenous drug users.) For example, respondent driven sampling is a network-based sampling technique that relies on respondents to a survey recommending further respondents.

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在'''人口学 Demography'''方面，对社会网络的研究导致了新的抽样方法，用于估计和覆盖难以统计的人群（如无家可归者或静脉注射毒品者）。例如，受访者驱动的抽样依赖于调查的受访者推荐更多的受访者，是一种基于网络的抽样技术。

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===~~Economic sociology~~ 经济社会学===

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===经济社会学===

The field of [[sociology]] focuses almost entirely on networks of outcomes of social interactions. More narrowly, [[economic sociology]] considers behavioral interactions of individuals and groups through [[social capital]] and social "markets". Sociologists, such as Mark Granovetter, have developed core principles about the interactions of social structure, information, ability to punish or reward, and trust that frequently recur in their analyses of political, economic and other institutions. Granovetter examines how social structures and social networks can affect economic outcomes like hiring, price, productivity and innovation and describes sociologists' contributions to analyzing the impact of social structure and networks on the economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Granovetter |first=Mark |year=2005 |title=The Impact of Social Structure on Economic Outcomes |journal=The Journal of Economic Perspectives |jstor=4134991 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=33–50|doi=10.1257/0895330053147958 }}</ref>

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社会学领域几乎完全关注社会互动的结果网络。更狭义地说，'''经济社会学 Economic Sociology'''通过社会资本和社会“市场”考虑个人和群体的行为互动。社会学家，如马克·格兰诺维特，已经研究出关于社会结构、信息、奖惩能力和信任相互作用的核心原则，这些原则在他们对政治、经济和其他制度的分析中经常出现。格兰诺维特研究了社会结构和社会网络如何影响经济结果，如雇佣、价格、生产力和创新，并描述了社会学家对分析社会结构和网络对经济的影响的贡献。

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===~~Health care~~ 卫生保健===

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===卫生保健===

Analysis of social networks is increasingly incorporated into [[health care analytics]], not only in [[epidemiology|epidemiological]] studies but also in models of [[Health Communication|patient communication]] and education, disease prevention, mental health diagnosis and treatment, and in the study of health care organizations and [[health care systems|systems]].<ref>Levy, Judith and Bernice Pescosolido (2002). ''Social Networks and Health''. Boston, MA: JAI Press.</ref>

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社会网络分析越来越多地被纳入卫生保健分析——不仅在'''流行病学 Epidemiology'''研究中，而且在病人沟通和教育、疾病预防、心理健康诊断和治疗模型中，以及在卫生保健组织和系统的研究中。

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===~~Human ecology~~ 人类生态学===

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===人类生态学===

[[Human ecology]] is an [[interdisciplinary]] and [[transdisciplinary]] study of the relationship between [[human]]s and their [[natural environment|natural]], [[Social environment|social]], and [[built environment]]s. The scientific philosophy of human ecology has a diffuse history with connections to [[geography]], [[sociology]], [[psychology]], [[anthropology]], [[zoology]], and natural [[ecology]].<ref>Crona, Beatrice and Klaus Hubacek (eds.) (2010). [http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/issues/view.php?sf=48 "Special Issue: Social network analysis in natural resource governance"]. ''Ecology and Society'', 48.</ref><ref>Ernstson, Henrich (2010). "Reading list: Using social network analysis (SNA) in social-ecological studies". [http://rs.resalliance.org/2010/11/03/reading-list-using-social-network-analysis-sna-in-social-ecological-studies/ ''Resilience Science'']</ref>

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'''人类生态学 Human ecology'''是研究人类与其自然环境、社会环境和'''建成环境 Built environment'''之间关系的一门跨学科科学。人类生态学的科学哲学与地理学、社会学、心理学、人类学、动物学和自然生态学有着密切的联系。

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===~~Language and linguistics~~ 语言与语言学===

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===语言与语言学===

Studies of [[language]] and [[linguistics]], particularly [[evolutionary linguistics]], focus on the development of [[Morphology (linguistics)|linguistic forms]] and transfer of changes, [[Phonology|sounds]] or words, from one language system to another through networks of social interaction. Social networks are also important in [[language shift]], as groups of people add and/or abandon languages to their repertoire.

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语言学和语言学的研究，特别是'''演化语言学 Evolutionary Linguistics'''，关注通过社会互动网络从一个语言系统转移到另一个语言系统时，语言形式的发展以及声音或词语的变化。社交网络在语言转换中也很重要，因为一些人群增加或者放弃了他们的语言。

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===~~Literary networks~~ 文学网络===

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===文学网络===

In the study of literary systems, network analysis has been applied by Anheier, Gerhards and Romo,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Anheier | first1 = H. K. | last2 = Romo | first2 = F. P. | year = 1995 | title = Forms of capital and social structure of fields: examining Bourdieu's social topography | url = | journal = American Journal of Sociology | volume = 100 | issue = 4| pages = 859–903 | doi=10.1086/230603}}</ref> De Nooy,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = De Nooy | first1 = W | year = 2003| title = Fields and networks: Correspondence analysis and social network analysis in the framework of Field Theory | url = | journal = Poetics | volume = 31 | issue = 5–6| pages = 305–327 | doi = 10.1016/S0304-422X(03)00035-4 }}</ref> and Senekal,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Senekal | first1 = B. A. | year = 2012 | title = Die Afrikaanse literêre sisteem: ŉ Eksperimentele benadering met behulp van Sosiale-netwerk-analise (SNA) | url = | journal = LitNet Akademies | volume = 9 | issue = | page = 3 }}</ref> to study various aspects of how literature functions. The basic premise is that polysystem theory, which has been around since the writings of [[Even-Zohar]], can be integrated with network theory and the relationships between different actors in the literary network, e.g. writers, critics, publishers, literary histories, etc., can be mapped using [[Computer graphics (computer science)|visualization]] from SNA.

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在文学体系的研究中，网络分析被'''阿海尔 Anheier'''、'''格尔哈兹 Gerhards'''和'''罗姆 Romo'''、'''努伊 De Nooy'''和Senekal应用于研究文学如何运作的各个方面。其基本前提是将'''文-佐哈尔 Even-Zohar'''著述以来就存在的多元系统理论可以与网络理论相结合，以及文学网络中不同行为者（如作家、评论家、出版商、文学史等）之间的关系可以通过SNA可视化映射。

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===~~Organizational studies~~ 组织研究===

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===组织研究===

Research studies of [[Formal organization|formal]] or [[informal organization]] [[Social relation|relationships]], [[organizational communication]], [[economics]], [[economic sociology]], and other [[resource]] [[Transfer function|transfers]]. Social networks have also been used to examine how organizations interact with each other, characterizing the many [[Interlocking directorate|informal connections]] that link executives together, as well as associations and connections between individual employees at different organizations.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Podolny | first1 = J. M. | last2 = Baron | first2 = J. N. | year = 1997 | title = Resources and relationships: Social networks and mobility in the workplace | url = | journal = American Sociological Review | volume = 62 | issue = 5| pages = 673–693 | doi=10.2307/2657354| jstor = 2657354 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.114.6822 }}</ref> Intra-organizational networks have been found to affect [[organizational commitment]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = J. | last2 = Kim | first2 = S. | year = 2011 | title = Exploring the role of social networks in affective organizational commitment: Network centrality, strength of ties, and structural holes | url = | journal = The American Review of Public Administration | volume = 41 | issue = 2| pages = 205–223 | doi=10.1177/0275074010373803}}</ref> [[organizational identification]],<ref name="Jone11">{{cite journal | last1 = Jones | first1 = C. | last2 = Volpe | first2 = E.H. | year = 2011 | title = Organizational identification: Extending our understanding of social identities through social networks | url = | journal = Journal of Organizational Behavior | volume = 32 | issue = 3| pages = 413–434 | doi=10.1002/job.694}}</ref> [[Organizational citizenship behavior|interpersonal citizenship behaviour]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bowler | first1 = W. M. | last2 = Brass | first2 = D. J. | year = 2011 | title = Relational correlates of interpersonal citizenship behaviour: A social network perspective | doi = 10.1037/0021-9010.91.1.70 | pmid = 16435939 | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 91 | issue = 1| pages = 70–82 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.516.8746 }}</ref>

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=== 社会资本 ===

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===~~Social capital~~ 社会资本===

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[[Social capital]] is a form of [[Capital (economics)|economic]] and [[cultural capital]] in which social networks are central, [[Stock and flow|transactions]] are marked by [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]], [[Trust (social sciences)|trust]], and [[cooperation]], and [[Market (economics)|market]] [[Agent (economics)|agents]] produce [[goods and services]] not mainly for themselves, but for a [[common good]]. [[Social capital]] is split into three dimensions: the structural, the relational and the cognitive dimension. The structural dimension describes how partners interact with each other and which specific partners meet in a social network. Also The structural dimension of social capital indicates the level of ties among organizations.<ref>(Claridge, 2018).</ref>. This dimension is highly connected to the relational dimension which refers to trustworthiness, norms, expectations and idenfications of the bonds between partners.The relational dimension explains the nature of these ties which is mainly illustrated by the level of trust accorded to the network of organizations. <ref>(Claridge, 2018).</ref> The cognitive dimension analyses the extent to which organizations share common goals and objectives as a result of their ties and interactions. <ref>(Claridge, 2018).</ref>

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社会资本是一个关于社会关系的价值、以及合作与信心对取得积极成果的作用的社会学概念。该术语指的是一个人可以从其社会关系中获得的价值。例如，新来的移民可以利用他们与先到的移民的社会关系，获得可能本难以获得的工作（如因为不熟悉当地语言）。社会资本与社会网络使用强度存在正相关关系。在一个动态的框架中，网络中更高的活动会产生更高的社会资本，而社会资本本身又会激励更多的活动。

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=== ~~Advertising~~ 广告===

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=== 广告===

This particular cluster focuses on brand-image and promotional strategy effectiveness, taking into account the impact of customer participation on sales and brand-image. This is gauged through techniques such as sentiment analysis which rely on mathematical areas of study such as data mining and analytics. This area of research produces vast numbers of commercial applications as the main goal of any study is to understand consumer behaviour and drive sales.

这个特别的集群侧重于品牌形象和促销策略的有效性，同时考虑到顾客参与对销售和品牌形象的影响。这是通过诸如基于数学领域的研究（如数据挖掘和分析）的情感分析等技术来衡量的。这一研究领域产生了大量的商业应用，因为任何研究的主要目标都是了解消费者行为并推动销售。

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===~~Network position and benefits 网络地位和利益~~===

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===网络位置和收益===

In many [[Formal organizations|organizations]], members tend to focus their activities inside their own groups, which stifles creativity and restricts opportunities. A player whose network bridges structural holes has an advantage in detecting and developing rewarding opportunities.<ref name="Burt 2004" /> Such a player can mobilize social capital by acting as a "broker" of information between two clusters that otherwise would not have been in contact, thus providing access to new ideas, opinions and opportunities. British philosopher and political economist [[John Stuart Mill]], writes, "it is hardly possible to overrate the value ... of placing human beings in contact with persons dissimilar to themselves.... Such communication [is] one of the primary sources of progress."<ref name=":5">{{cite book|last=Mill|first=John|title=Principles of Political Economy|year=1909|publisher=William J Ashley|location=Library of Economics and Liberty}}</ref> Thus, a player with a network rich in structural holes can add value to an organization through new ideas and opportunities. This in turn, helps an individual's career development and advancement.

在许多组织中，成员倾向于把他们的活动集中在他们自己的团队中，这抑制了创造力并限制了机会。一个网络连接结构洞的成员在发现和开发机会方面有优势。<ref name="Burt 2004"/> 这样的成员可以通过充当两个集群之间的信息“中间人”来调动社会资本，否则这些集群就不会有接触，并因此拥有了获取新想法、观点和机会的渠道。英国哲学家和政治经济学家John Stuart Mill写道:“不管怎样……让人们跟与自己不同的人接触....这种沟通是进步的主要来源之一。”<ref name=":5" /> 因此，一个拥有富含结构洞的网络的玩家可以通过新的想法和机会为组织增加价值。这反过来又有助于个人的职业发展和晋升。

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===社交媒体===

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===~~Social media~~ 社交媒体===

[[Computer network]]s combined with social networking software produces a new medium for social interaction.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=The International Encyclopedia of Media Effects|last=Amichai-Hamburger|first=Yair|last2=Hayat|first2=Tsahi|date=2017|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|isbn=9781118783764|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781118783764.wbieme0170}}</ref> A relationship over a computerized [[social networking service]] can be characterized by context, direction, and strength. The content of a relation refers to the resource that is exchanged. In a [[computer mediated communication]] context, social pairs exchange different kinds of information, including sending a data file or a computer program as well as providing emotional support or arranging a meeting. With the rise of [[electronic commerce]], information exchanged may also correspond to exchanges of money, goods or services in the "real" world.<ref name=":9">{{cite journal | title=Studying Online Social Networks | last1=Garton|first1=Laura|first2=Caroline |last2=Haythornthwaite|author2-link=Caroline Haythornthwaite|first3=Barry|last3=Wellman|author3-link=Barry Wellman | journal=Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication |date=23 June 2006 | volume=3 | issue=1 |pages = 0| doi=10.1111/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00062.x}}</ref> [[Social network analysis]] methods have become essential to examining these types of computer mediated communication.

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== 参阅 ==

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==~~'''~~参阅~~'''~~==

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* [[Bibliography of sociology]] 社会学参考书目

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