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In [[sociology]], '''social complexity''' is a [[conceptual framework]] used in the [[analysis]] of society. Contemporary definitions of [[complexity]] in the [[science]]s are found in relation to [[systems theory]], in which a [[phenomenon]] under study has many parts and many possible arrangements of the relationships between those parts. At the same time, what is complex and what is simple is relative and may change with time.<ref>Waldrop, M. Mitchell (1992.) ''Complexity: The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos.'' New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.</ref>

在社会学中，'''社会复杂性 social complexity'''是用于分析社会的概念性框架工具，科学中关于复杂性的当代定义与系统理论息息相关，而其研究的现象中包含了众多部分，这些部分之间又存在许多可能性的联系。同时，复杂和简单是相对存在的，并会随着时间而改变的。<ref>Waldrop, M. Mitchell (1992.) ''Complexity: The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos.'' New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.</ref>

在社会学领域中，“复杂性”术语的当前用法，通常是将社会理论称作复杂适应性系统。然而，贯穿社会思想的整个历史发展进程和社会变迁的研究发现，主要反复出现的却是社会复杂性及其表现的特征。<ref name="CCS-MMT">Eve, Raymond, Sara Horsfall and Mary E. Lee (eds.) (1997). ''Chaos, Complexity and Sociology: Myths, Models, and Theories.'' Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</ref>社会学理论的早期奠基者，例如费迪南德·托尼斯 FerdinandTönnies，埃米尔·杜尔克海姆 ÉmileDurkheim，马克斯·韦伯 Max Weber，维尔弗雷多·帕累托 Vilfredo Pareto和乔治·西梅尔 Georg Simmel，都验证过社会交往交换程度呈指数增长，且其相互关联性持续上升这一现象。社会关系中的互联性和社会内部涌现的全新属性，在社会学多个领域的理论思考中都受到了重视。<ref name="AGid-79">Giddens, Anthony (1979). ''Central problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure and Contradiction in Social Analysis.'' London: Macmillan.</ref>社会复杂性作为一种理论工具，是微观和宏观社会现象之间联系的基础，为后期的假设形成提供了中观或中程（又称中层）的理论平台。<ref>Freese, Lee (1980). "Formal Theorizing." ''Annual Review of Sociology'', 6: 187–212 (August 1980).</ref><ref>Cohen, B. P. (1989). ''Developing sociological knowledge: theory and method'' (2nd ed.). Chicago: Nelson–Hall.</ref>从方法上讲，社会复杂性这一特征是无关乎于理论的，这意味着无论是地方性（局部）或全球性（全局）社会学研究都将适用。<ref name="CCS-MMT" />

 

Current usage of the term "complexity" in the field of sociology typically refers specifically to theories of society as a [[complex adaptive system]]. However, social complexity and its [[emergence|emergent]] properties are central recurring themes throughout the historical development of [[Social philosophy|social thought]] and the study of [[social change]].<ref name="CCS-MMT">Eve, Raymond, Sara Horsfall and Mary E. Lee (eds.) (1997). ''Chaos, Complexity and Sociology: Myths, Models, and Theories.'' Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</ref> The [[History of sociology|early founders]] of [[sociological theory]], such as [[Ferdinand Tönnies]], [[Émile Durkheim]], [[Max Weber]], [[Vilfredo Pareto]], and [[Georg Simmel]], all examined the exponential growth and increasing interrelatedness of social encounters and [[Social exchange theory|exchanges]]. This emphasis on [[interconnectivity]] in social relationships and the emergence of new properties within society is found in [[Social theory|theoretical thinking]] in multiple [[Subfields of sociology|areas of sociology]].<ref name="AGid-79">Giddens, Anthony (1979). ''Central problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure and Contradiction in Social Analysis.'' London: Macmillan.</ref> As a theoretical tool, social complexity theory serves as a basis for the connection of [[Microsociology|micro-]] and [[Macrosociology|macro]]-level social phenomena, providing a [[wikt:meso-|meso-]]level or [[Middle range theory (sociology)|middle-range]] theoretical platform for [[hypothesis]] formation.<ref>Freese, Lee (1980). "Formal Theorizing." ''Annual Review of Sociology'', 6: 187–212 (August 1980).</ref><ref>Cohen, B. P. (1989). ''Developing sociological knowledge: theory and method'' (2nd ed.). Chicago: Nelson–Hall.</ref> [[Research methods#Research methods|Methodologically]], the concept of social complexity is theory-neutral, meaning that it accommodates both local

([[Microsociology|micro]]) and global ([[Macrosociology|macro]]) phenomena in sociological research.<ref name="CCS-MMT" />

 

==理论背景==

==理论背景==

在现代组织和管理研究中发现，在社会和行为科学中，“复杂性”一词最早用于专称复杂系统。<ref>Kiel, L. Douglas (1994). ''Managing Chaos and Complexity in Government: A New Paradigm for Managing Change, Innovation and Organizational Renewal.'' Jossey-Bass: San Francisco.</ref>但是在管理研究中，该术语通常以隐喻而不是定性或定量的理论方式使用。<ref name="CCS-MMT" />直到到1990年代中期，社会科学开始向“复杂性转变”<ref name=Urry>Urry, John (2005). "The Complexity Turn." ''Theory, Culture and Society'', 22(5): 1–14.</ref>，因为复杂性科学中通常使用的某些工具同时被纳入社会科学中。到1998年，国际电子期刊《人工社会与社会模拟杂志》创建。在过去的几年中，许多出版物对社会学领域的复杂性理论进行了概述。这一系列工作，还与其他传统理论建立了联系，包括建构主义认识论和现象学，后现代主义和批判现实主义的哲学立场。

 

 

 

 

One of the earliest usages of the term "complexity", in the [[Social science|social]] and [[behavioral sciences]], to refer specifically to a [[complex system]] is found in the study of [[Complexity theory and organizations|modern organizations]] and [[management studies]].<ref>Kiel, L. Douglas (1994). ''Managing Chaos and Complexity in Government: A New Paradigm for Managing Change, Innovation and Organizational Renewal.'' Jossey-Bass: San Francisco.</ref> However, particularly in management studies, the term often has been used in a [[metaphor]]ical rather than in a [[Qualitative property|qualitative]] or [[quantitative property|quantitative]] theoretical manner.<ref name="CCS-MMT" /> By the mid-1990s, the "complexity turn"<ref name=Urry>Urry, John (2005). "The Complexity Turn." ''Theory, Culture and Society'', 22(5): 1–14.</ref> in social sciences begins as some of the same tools generally used in [[complexity science]] are incorporated into the social sciences. By 1998, the international, electronic periodical, ''[[Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation]]'', had been created. In the last several years, many publications have presented overviews of complexity theory within the field of sociology. Within this body of work, connections also are drawn to yet other theoretical traditions, including [[constructivist epistemology]] and the philosophical positions of [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]], [[postmodernism]] and [[critical realism (philosophy of the social sciences)|critical realism]].

 

 

 

===方法论===

===方法论===

Methodologically, social complexity is theory-neutral, meaning that it accommodates both local and global approaches to sociological research.<ref name="CCS-MMT"/> The very idea of social complexity arises out of the [[Historical comparative research|historical-comparative]] methods of early sociologists; obviously, this method is important in developing, defining, and refining the theoretical construct of social complexity. As complex social systems have many parts and there are many possible relationships between those parts, appropriate methodologies are typically determined to some degree by the research level of analysis [[Differentiation (sociology)|differentiated]]<ref>Luhmann, Niklas (1982). ''The Differentiation of Society.'' New York, NY: Columbia University Press.</ref> by the researcher according to the level of description or explanation demanded by the research hypotheses.

从方法上讲，社会复杂性这一特征是无关乎于理论的，这意味着无论是地方性（局部）或全球性（全局）社会学研究都将适用。<ref name="CCS-MMT"/>社会复杂性的想法源于早期社会学家的历史比较方法。显然，这种方法对于发展，定义和完善社会复杂性的理论构造非常重要。由于复杂社会系统包含了许多部分，而且这些部分之间又存在许多可能的关系。因此不同的适用方法在一定程度上取决于不同的分析研究深度<ref>Luhmann, Niklas (1982). ''The Differentiation of Society.'' New York, NY: Columbia University Press.</ref>，再进一步说，便是由研究人员根据研究假设所要求的描述或解释程度来区分。

 

 

 

 

在地方性（局部）分析中，人种志研究（也称作人类学研究或民族志研究）观察法，参与或非参与观察法，内容分析法和其他定性研究方法可能比较合适。近日，同时适用于地方性（局部）和全球性（全局）的社会学研究法正在开发使用中，它是具有高度复杂的定量研究方法。这样的方法包括（但不限于）分岔图法，网络分析法和非线性建模法；以及包括元胞自动机编程，社会控制论和其他社会仿真在内的计算建模法。

在地方性（局部）分析中，人种志研究（也称作人类学研究或民族志研究）观察法，参与或非参与观察法，内容分析法和其他定性研究方法可能比较合适。近日，同时适用于地方性（局部）和全球性（全局）的社会学研究法正在开发使用中，它是具有高度复杂的定量研究方法。这样的方法包括（但不限于）分岔图法，网络分析法和非线性建模法；以及包括元胞自动机编程，社会控制论和其他社会仿真在内的计算建模法。

===复杂社交网络分析法===

===复杂社交网络分析法===

通过约翰·乌里 John Urry的工作，加上全球性网络中的学者们对社会学的研究，不断涌现出新的全球性网络分析方法，这些方法同时与曼努埃尔·卡斯特尔 Manuel Castells的工作以及伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦 Immanuel Wallerstein的后续工作相关。自1990年代后期以来，Wallerstein越来越多地利用复杂性理论，尤其是Ilya Prigogine的著作。<ref>Barabási, Albert-László (2003). ''Linked: The New Science of Networks.'' Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.</ref><ref>Freeman, Linton C. (2004). ''The Development of Social Network Analysis: A Study in the Sociology of Science.'' Vancouver Canada: Empirical Press.</ref><ref>Watts, Duncan J. (2004). "The New Science of Networks." ''Annual Review of Sociology'', 30: 243–270.</ref>动态社会网络分析与系统思想之外的各种传统方法学相关，包括图论，社会学中的传统社会网络分析和数学社会学。它还通过Duncan Watts和Steven Strogatz的研究与混沌数学和复杂动力学联系在一起，并通过Albert-László Barabási和他在无标度网络上的研究成果发展出分形几何法。

 

 

 

 

New methods of global network analysis are emerging from the work of [[John Urry (sociologist)|John Urry]] and the sociological study of globalization, linked to the work of [[Manuel Castells]] and the later work of [[Immanuel Wallerstein]]. Since the late 1990s, Wallerstein increasingly makes use of complexity theory, particularly the work of [[Ilya Prigogine]].<ref>Barabási, Albert-László (2003). ''Linked: The New Science of Networks.'' Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.</ref><ref>Freeman, Linton C. (2004). ''The Development of Social Network Analysis: A Study in the Sociology of Science.'' Vancouver Canada: Empirical Press.</ref><ref>Watts, Duncan J. (2004). "The New Science of Networks." ''Annual Review of Sociology'', 30: 243–270.</ref> Dynamic social network analysis is linked to a variety of methodological traditions, above and beyond [[systems thinking]], including [[graph theory]], traditional [[social network]] analysis in sociology, and [[mathematical sociology]]. It also links to [[chaos theory|mathematical chaos]] and [[complex dynamics]] through the work of [[Duncan Watts]] and [[Steven Strogatz]], as well as fractal geometry through [[Albert-László Barabási]] and his work on [[scale-free networks]].

 

 

通过约翰·乌里（John Urry）的工作，加上全球性网络中的学者们对社会学的研究，不断涌现出新的全球性网络分析方法，这些方法同时与曼努埃尔·卡斯特尔（Manuel Castells）的工作以及伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦（Immanuel Wallerstein）的后续工作相关。自1990年代后期以来，Wallerstein越来越多地利用复杂性理论，尤其是Ilya Prigogine的著作。动态社会网络分析与系统思想之外的各种传统方法学相关，包括图论，社会学中的传统社会网络分析和数学社会学。它还通过Duncan Watts和Steven Strogatz的研究与混沌数学和复杂动力学联系在一起，并通过Albert-László Barabási和他在无标度网络上的研究成果发展出分形几何法。

===计算社会学===

===计算社会学===

计算社会学的发展涉及到以下学者的研究：奈杰尔·吉尔伯特（Nigel Gilbert），克劳斯·G·特罗伊茨（Klaus G.Troitzsch），约书亚·爱泼斯坦（Joshua M.Epstein）等。该领域研究的方法的集中包括社会仿真和数据挖掘，它们都是计算社会学的子领域。社会仿真运用计算机创建一个用于研究复杂社会系统的人工实验室；数据挖掘则运用机器智能，在大型、复杂的真实世界数据库中搜索其之间联系的关键点（斑图）。全新的社会人格学方法是计算社会学的一种变体。<ref>Gilbert, Nigel and Klaus G. Troitzsch (2005). ''Simulation for Social Scientists'', 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Open University Press.</ref><ref name=epstein07>Epstein, Joshua M. (2007). ''Generative Social Science: Studies in Agent-Based Computational Modeling''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref>

The development of [[computational sociology]] involves such scholars as [[Nigel Gilbert]], [[Klaus G. Troitzsch]], [[Joshua M. Epstein]], and others. The foci of methods in this field include [[social simulation]] and [[data-mining]], both of which are sub-areas of computational sociology. Social simulation uses computers to create an artificial laboratory for the study of complex social systems; [[Data mining|data-mining]] uses machine intelligence to search for non-trivial patterns of relations in large, complex, real-world databases. The emerging methods of [[socionics]] are a variant of computational sociology.<ref>Gilbert, Nigel and Klaus G. Troitzsch (2005). ''Simulation for Social Scientists'', 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Open University Press.</ref><ref name=epstein07>Epstein, Joshua M. (2007). ''Generative Social Science: Studies in Agent-Based Computational Modeling''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref>

 

 

 

 

计算社会学受到许多微观社会学领域以及系统科学和系统思维的宏观传统的影响。符号互动理论，社会交换理论和理性选择理论的微观影响，以及罗伯特·阿克塞尔罗德（Robert Axelrod）等计算政治学家的微观中心思想，共同促进了计算社会学自下而上，基于主体建模方法的发展，进而研究于复杂系统。这就是约书亚·爱泼斯坦（Joshua M. Epstein）所称的生成科学。

计算社会学受到许多微观社会学领域以及系统科学和系统思维的宏观传统的影响。符号互动理论，社会交换理论和理性选择理论的微观影响，以及罗伯特·阿克塞尔罗德（Robert Axelrod）等计算政治学家的微观中心思想，共同促进了计算社会学自下而上，基于主体建模方法的发展，进而研究于复杂系统。这就是约书亚·爱泼斯坦（Joshua M. Epstein）所称的生成科学。<ref name=epstein07 />其他重要的影响领域包括统计、数学建模和计算机模拟。

===社会控制论===

===社会控制论===

 

社会控制论将社会学与二阶控制论和尼古拉斯·卢曼 Niklas Luhmann的工作结合在一起，并结合了复杂性科学的最新成果。在学术研究方面，社会控制论偏重于概念性，弱于方法论或经验实践。<ref>[[Geyer, Felix]] and [[Johannes van der Zouwen]] (1992). "Sociocybernetics." ''Handbook of Cybernetics'', C.V. Negoita (ed.): 95–124. New York: Marcel Dekker.</ref>社会控制论与社会学内外系统直接相关，特别是在二阶控制论领域。

 

[[Sociocybernetics]] integrates sociology with [[second-order cybernetics]] and the work of [[Niklas Luhmann]], along with the latest advances in [[complexity science]]. In terms of scholarly work, the focus of sociocybernetics has been primarily conceptual and only slightly methodological or empirical.<ref>[[Geyer, Felix]] and [[Johannes van der Zouwen]] (1992). "Sociocybernetics." ''Handbook of Cybernetics'', C.V. Negoita (ed.): 95–124. New York: Marcel Dekker.</ref> Sociocybernetics is directly tied to [[Systems thinking|systems thought]] inside and outside of sociology, specifically in the area of second-order cybernetics.

 

 

==应用与分支==

==应用与分支==

==Areas of application==

===适用范围===

As a [[Middle range theory (sociology)|middle-range]] theoretical platform, social complexity can be applied to any research in which [[social interaction]] or the outcomes of such interactions can be observed, but particularly where they can be [[Measurement|measured]] and expressed as [[Continuous function (set theory)|continuous]] or [[Discrete mathematics|discrete]] data points. One common criticism often cited regarding the usefulness of complexity science in sociology is the difficulty of obtaining adequate data.<ref>Stewart, Peter (2001). "Complexity Theories, Social Theory, and the Question of Social Complexity." ''Philosophy of the Social Sciences'', 31(3): 323–360.</ref> Nonetheless, application of the concept of social complexity and the analysis of such complexity has begun and continues to be an ongoing field of inquiry in sociology. From [[childhood]] friendships and [[teen pregnancy]]<ref name="CCS-MMT" /> to [[criminology]]<ref>Lee, Ju-Sung. (2001). "Evolving Drug Networks." [http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/ Carnegie Mellon Center for Computational Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems (CASOS)] Conference Presentation (unpublished).</ref> and [[counter-terrorism]],<ref>Carley, Kathleen (2003). "Destabilizing Terrorist Networks." ''Proceedings of the 8th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium''. Conference held at the National Defense War College: Washington D.C., Evidence Based Research, Track 3. [http://www.dodccrp.org/events/2003/8th_ICCRTS/pdf/021.pdf (Electronic Publication).] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041218014917/http://www.dodccrp.org/events/2003/8th_ICCRTS/pdf/021.pdf |date=2004-12-18 }}</ref> theories of social complexity are being applied in almost all [[Subfields of sociology|areas of sociological research]].

作为一个中等规模的理论平台，社会复杂性可以应用于任何社会互动或可以观察到这种互动的结果的研究，只需要相关的数据可以用连续或者离散的点来表示即可。 关于复杂性科学在社会学中的应用，一个常见的批判问题就是很难获得足够的数据。<ref>Stewart, Peter (2001). "Complexity Theories, Social Theory, and the Question of Social Complexity." ''Philosophy of the Social Sciences'', 31(3): 323–360.</ref>尽管如此，社会复杂性概念的应用以及对这种复杂性的分析已经开始并将继续成为社会学研究的必要研究领域。从儿时的友谊<ref name="CCS-MMT" />和少女怀孕<ref>Lee, Ju-Sung. (2001). "Evolving Drug Networks." [http://www.casos.cs.cmu.edu/ Carnegie Mellon Center for Computational Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems (CASOS)] Conference Presentation (unpublished).</ref>到犯罪学和反恐怖主义，<ref>Carley, Kathleen (2003). "Destabilizing Terrorist Networks." ''Proceedings of the 8th International Command and Control Research and Technology Symposium''. Conference held at the National Defense War College: Washington D.C., Evidence Based Research, Track 3. [http://www.dodccrp.org/events/2003/8th_ICCRTS/pdf/021.pdf (Electronic Publication).] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041218014917/http://www.dodccrp.org/events/2003/8th_ICCRTS/pdf/021.pdf |date=2004-12-18 }}</ref>社会复杂性理论几乎应用于社会学研究的所有方面。

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

在21世纪的第一个十年，随着方法的发展应用领域也在不断增加。 社会复杂性理论应用于社会研究的各个方面，包括社会合作和公共产品的研究，利他主义，投票行为，教育，全球社会动乱，集体行动和社会运动，社会不平等，劳动力和失业，经济地理和经济社会学，政策分析，卫生健康系统，创新和社会变革等等。 当前的一个国际科学研究项目，Seshat: 全球历史数据库，被明确地设计用来分析从新石器革命到工业革命的社会复杂性的变化。

在通信研究和信息计量学领域，自组织系统的概念出现在20世纪90年代中期与科学通信有关的研究中，<ref>[[Loet Leydesdorff|Leydesdorff, Loet]] (1995). ''The Challenge of Scientometrics: The development, measurement, and self-organization of scientific communications''. Leiden: DSWO Press, Leiden University.</ref>主要得益于科学计量学，文献计量学，社会语言学都是可以获得离散数据的研究领域，<ref name="CCS-MMT" />社会复杂性也是符号学中使用的一个概念。<ref>Dimitrov, Vladimir and Robert Woog (1997). "Studying Social Complexity: From Soft to Virtual Systems Methodology." [http://www.complex-systems.com/pdf/11-6-5.pdf Complex Systems, 11:(6)].</ref>

==See also==

在21世纪的第一个十年，随着方法的发展应用领域也在不断增加<ref>Saberi, Mohammad Karim, Alireza Isfandyari-Moghaddam and Sedigheh Mohamadesmaeil (2011). "Web Citations Analysis of the JASSS: the First Ten Years." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/22.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14:(4), 22].</ref>。 社会复杂性理论应用于社会研究的各个方面，包括社会合作和公共产品的研究，<ref>Nowak, Martin and Roger Highfield (2011). ''Super Cooperators: Altruism, Evolution, and Why We Need Each Other to Succeed''. New York, NY: Free Press.</ref>利他主义，<ref>Hang, Ye, Fei Tan, Mei Ding, Yongmin Jia and Yefeng Chen (2011). "Sympathy and Punishment: Evolution of Cooperation in Public Goods Game." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/20.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14(4): 20].</ref>投票行为，<ref>Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2016). [https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.04406 Voting Contagion]. arXiv preprint arXiv:1610.04406.</ref><ref>Braha, D., & de Aguiar, M. A. (2017). [http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0177970 Voting contagion: Modeling and analysis of a century of U.S. presidential elections]. PLoS ONE 12(5): e0177970.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177970</ref>教育，<ref>Mason, Mark (2008). ''Complexity Theory and the Philosophy of Education''. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell (Educational Philosophy and Theory Special Issues).</ref>全球社会动乱，<ref>Castellani, Brian. (2018). "The Defiance of Global Commitment: A Complex Social Psychology. Routledge complexity in social science series." doi:10.4324/9781351137140.</ref><ref>Braha, Dan. (2012). [http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0048596 "Global Civil Unrest: Contagion, Self-Organization, and Prediction."] PLoS ONE 7(10): e48596. doi:10.1371/journal.pone .0048596.</ref>集体行动和社会运动，<ref>Lohmann Susanne (1994). "Dynamics of Informational Cascades: The Monday Demonstrations in Leipzig, East Germany, 1989–1991," ''World Politics'', 47: 42–101.</ref><ref>Chesters, Graeme and Ian Welsh (2006). ''Complexity and Social Movements: Protest at the Edge of Chaos." London: Routledge (International Library of Sociology).</ref>社会不平等，<ref>Castellani, Brian et al. (2011). "Addressing the U.S. Financial/Housing Crisis: Pareto, Schelling and Social Mobility."[http://cch.ashtabula.kent.edu/publications/Addressing%20the%20U.S.%20Financial%20&%20Housing%20Crisis.pdf Working Paper].</ref>劳动力和失业，<ref>Hedström, Peter and Yvonne Åberg (2011). "Social interaction and youth unemployment." ''Analytical Sociology and Social Mechanisms'', Pierre Demeulenaere (ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Yilmaz, Levent (2011). "Toward Multi-Level, Multi-Theoretical Model Portfolios for Scientific Enterprise Workforce Dynamics." [http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/4/2.html ''Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation'', 14(4): 2.]</ref>经济地理和经济社会学，<ref>Dan Braha, Blake Stacey and Yaneer Bar-Yam. (2011).  [http://necsi.edu/affiliates/braha/Journal_Version_SON_Braha.pdf "Corporate Competition: A Self-Organizing Network."] Social Networks, 33(3): 219-230.</ref>政策分析，<ref>Jervis, Robert (1998). ''System Effects: Complexity in Political and Social Life''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Elliott, Euel and L. Douglas Kiel (eds.) (2000). ''Nonlinear Dynamics, Complexity and Public Policy''. Hauppauge NY: Nova Science Publishers.</ref>卫生健康系统，<ref>Brian Castellani, Rajeev Rajaram, J. Galen Buckwalter, Michael Ball and Frederic Hafferty (2012). [https://www.springer.com/public+health/book/978-3-319-09733-6 "Place and Health as Complex Systems: A Case Study and Empirical Test"]. ''SpringerBriefs in Public Health.''</ref>创新和社会变革<ref>Leydesdorff, Loet (2006). ''The Knowledge-Based Economy Modeled, Measured, Simulated''. Boca Raton, FL: Universal-Publishers .</ref><ref>Lane, D.; Pumain, D.; Leeuw, S.E. van der; West, G. (eds.) (2009). ''Complexity Perspectives in Innovation and Social Change''. New York, NY: Springer (Methodos Series, Vol. 7).</ref>等等。 当前的一个国际科学研究项目，Seshat：全球历史数据库，被明确地设计用来分析从新石器革命到工业革命的社会复杂性的变化。

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=== Social science ===

==另见==

* [[Complex society]]

===社会科学===

* [[Complexity economics]]

* 复杂社会

* [[Complexity theory and organizations]]

* 复杂性经济学

* [[Differentiation (sociology)]]

* 复杂性理论和组织

* [[Econophysics]]

* 差异化（社会学）

* [[Engaged theory]]

* 经济物理学

* ''[[Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems]]''

* 敬业理论

* [[Personal information management]]

* 《网络分析和民族志问题》

* 个人信息管理

=== General ===

===一般信息===

* [[Aggregate data]]

* 聚合数据

* [[Artificial neural network]]

* 人工神经网络

* [[Cognitive complexity]]

* 认知复杂性

* [[Computational complexity theory]]

* 计算复杂性理论

* [[Dual-phase evolution]]

* 双阶段演进

* [[Evolutionary programming]]

* 进化编程

* [[Game theory]]

* 博弈论

* [[Generic-case complexity]]

* 类属-案例复合体

* [[Multi-agent system]]

* 多智能体系统

* [[Systemography]]

* 系统学

==参考资料==

==参考资料==