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A '''social network ''' is a [[social structure]] made up of a set of [[social]] actors (such as individuals or organizations), sets of [[Dyad (sociology)|dyadic]] ties, and other [[Social relation|social interactions]] between actors. The social network perspective provides a set of methods for analyzing the structure of whole social entities as well as a variety of theories explaining the patterns observed in these structures.<ref name="WF94CH1">{{cite book|last1=Wasserman |first1=Stanley | author-link1= Stanley Wasserman|last2=Faust |first2=Katherine |year=1994 |title=Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications |isbn=9780521387071 |chapter=Social Network Analysis in the Social and Behavioral Sciences |pages=1–27 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> The study of these structures uses [[social network analysis]] to identify local and global patterns, locate influential entities, and examine network dynamics.

A '''social network ''' is a [[social structure]] made up of a set of [[social]] actors (such as individuals or organizations), sets of [[Dyad (sociology)|dyadic]] ties, and other [[Social relation|social interactions]] between actors. The social network perspective provides a set of methods for analyzing the structure of whole social entities as well as a variety of theories explaining the patterns observed in these structures.<ref name="WF94CH1">{{cite book|last1=Wasserman |first1=Stanley | author-link1= Stanley Wasserman|last2=Faust |first2=Katherine |year=1994 |title=Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications |isbn=9780521387071 |chapter=Social Network Analysis in the Social and Behavioral Sciences |pages=1–27 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> The study of these structures uses [[social network analysis]] to identify local and global patterns, locate influential entities, and examine network dynamics.

社会网络（Social Network）是一种由一组社会行为者（个人或组织）、一组二元关系以及行为者之间的其他社会互动组成的社会结构。社会网络视角为分析整个社会实体的结构提供了一套方法，也为解释在这些结构中观察到的模式提供了各种理论。<ref name="WF94CH1" /> 通常使用社会网络分析（Social Network Analysis），以确定本地及全球模式，定位有影响力的实体，并审查网络动态。

社会网络（Social Network）是一种由一组社会行为者（个人或组织）、一组二元关系以及行为者之间的其他社会互动组成的社会结构。社会网络视角为分析整个社会实体的结构提供了一套方法，也为解释在这些结构中观察到的模式形态提供了各种理论。<ref name="WF94CH1" /> 对于这些结构的研究，人们通常使用社会网络分析（Social Network Analysis）来识别局部和全球模式，定位有影响力的实体，并审查网络动态。

Social networks and the analysis of them is an inherently [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] academic field which emerged from [[social psychology]], [[sociology]], [[statistics]], and [[graph theory]]. [[Georg Simmel]] authored early structural theories in sociology emphasizing the dynamics of triads and "web of group affiliations".<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Scott |first1=W. Richard |last2=Davis |first2=Gerald F. |author-link1= William Richard Scott|author-link2= Gerald F. Davis|title=Organizations and Organizing |chapter=Networks In and Around Organizations |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-13-195893-7 |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall}}</ref> [[Jacob Moreno]] is credited with developing the first [[sociogram]]s in the 1930s to study interpersonal relationships. These approaches were mathematically formalized in the 1950s and theories and methods of social networks became pervasive in the [[Social science|social and behavioral sciences]] by the 1980s.<ref name="WF94CH1" /><ref name="Freeman History">{{cite book|last=Freeman |first=Linton |year=2004 |publisher=Empirical Press |isbn=978-1-59457-714-7 |title=The Development of Social Network Analysis: A Study in the Sociology of Science}}</ref> [[Social network analysis]] is now one of the major paradigms in contemporary sociology, and is also employed in a number of other social and formal sciences. Together with other [[complex network]]s, it forms part of the nascent field of [[network science]].<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|journal=Science |year=2009 |volume=323 |number=5916 |pages=892–895 |doi=10.1126/science.1165821 |pmid=19213908 |title=Network Analysis in the Social Sciences |first1=Stephen P. |last1=Borgatti |first2=Ajay |last2=Mehra |first3=Daniel J. |last3=Brass |first4=Giuseppe |last4=Labianca|bibcode=2009Sci...323..892B |citeseerx=10.1.1.536.5568 }}</ref><ref name="EK">{{cite book|title=Networks, Crowds, and Markets: Reasoning about a Highly Connected World |first1=David |last1=Easley |first2=Jon |last2=Kleinberg |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |chapter=Overview |pages=1–20 |isbn=978-0-521-19533-1}}</ref>

Social networks and the analysis of them is an inherently [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] academic field which emerged from [[social psychology]], [[sociology]], [[statistics]], and [[graph theory]]. [[Georg Simmel]] authored early structural theories in sociology emphasizing the dynamics of triads and "web of group affiliations".<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Scott |first1=W. Richard |last2=Davis |first2=Gerald F. |author-link1= William Richard Scott|author-link2= Gerald F. Davis|title=Organizations and Organizing |chapter=Networks In and Around Organizations |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-13-195893-7 |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall}}</ref> [[Jacob Moreno]] is credited with developing the first [[sociogram]]s in the 1930s to study interpersonal relationships. These approaches were mathematically formalized in the 1950s and theories and methods of social networks became pervasive in the [[Social science|social and behavioral sciences]] by the 1980s.<ref name="WF94CH1" /><ref name="Freeman History">{{cite book|last=Freeman |first=Linton |year=2004 |publisher=Empirical Press |isbn=978-1-59457-714-7 |title=The Development of Social Network Analysis: A Study in the Sociology of Science}}</ref> [[Social network analysis]] is now one of the major paradigms in contemporary sociology, and is also employed in a number of other social and formal sciences. Together with other [[complex network]]s, it forms part of the nascent field of [[network science]].<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|journal=Science |year=2009 |volume=323 |number=5916 |pages=892–895 |doi=10.1126/science.1165821 |pmid=19213908 |title=Network Analysis in the Social Sciences |first1=Stephen P. |last1=Borgatti |first2=Ajay |last2=Mehra |first3=Daniel J. |last3=Brass |first4=Giuseppe |last4=Labianca|bibcode=2009Sci...323..892B |citeseerx=10.1.1.536.5568 }}</ref><ref name="EK">{{cite book|title=Networks, Crowds, and Markets: Reasoning about a Highly Connected World |first1=David |last1=Easley |first2=Jon |last2=Kleinberg |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |chapter=Overview |pages=1–20 |isbn=978-0-521-19533-1}}</ref>

The social network is a [[Scientific theory|theoretical]] [[Construct (philosophy of science)|construct]] useful in the [[social sciences]] to study relationships between individuals, [[social groups|groups]], [[formal organizations|organizations]], or even entire [[society|societies]] ([[social unit]]s, see [[Differentiation (sociology)|differentiation]]). The term is used to describe a [[social structure]] determined by such [[social interactions|interactions]]. The ties through which any given social unit connects represent the convergence of the various social contacts of that unit. This theoretical approach is, necessarily, relational.  An [[axiom]] of the social network approach to understanding [[social interaction]] is that social phenomena should be primarily conceived and investigated through the properties of relations between and within units, instead of the properties of these units themselves. Thus, one common criticism of social network theory is that [[Agency (sociology)|individual agency]] is often ignored<ref name="jscott">Scott, John P. (2000). ''Social Network Analysis: A Handbook'' (2nd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</ref> although this may not be the case in practice (see [[agent-based model]]ing). Precisely because many different types of relations, singular or in combination, form these network configurations, [[Network science|network analytics]] are useful to a broad range of research enterprises. In social science, these fields of study include, but are not limited to [[anthropology]], [[biology]], [[communication studies]], [[economics]], [[geography]], [[information science]], [[organizational studies]], [[social psychology]], [[sociology]], and [[sociolinguistics]].

The social network is a [[Scientific theory|theoretical]] [[Construct (philosophy of science)|construct]] useful in the [[social sciences]] to study relationships between individuals, [[social groups|groups]], [[formal organizations|organizations]], or even entire [[society|societies]] ([[social unit]]s, see [[Differentiation (sociology)|differentiation]]). The term is used to describe a [[social structure]] determined by such [[social interactions|interactions]]. The ties through which any given social unit connects represent the convergence of the various social contacts of that unit. This theoretical approach is, necessarily, relational.  An [[axiom]] of the social network approach to understanding [[social interaction]] is that social phenomena should be primarily conceived and investigated through the properties of relations between and within units, instead of the properties of these units themselves. Thus, one common criticism of social network theory is that [[Agency (sociology)|individual agency]] is often ignored<ref name="jscott">Scott, John P. (2000). ''Social Network Analysis: A Handbook'' (2nd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.</ref> although this may not be the case in practice (see [[agent-based model]]ing). Precisely because many different types of relations, singular or in combination, form these network configurations, [[Network science|network analytics]] are useful to a broad range of research enterprises. In social science, these fields of study include, but are not limited to [[anthropology]], [[biology]], [[communication studies]], [[economics]], [[geography]], [[information science]], [[organizational studies]], [[social psychology]], [[sociology]], and [[sociolinguistics]].

社会网络是社会科学中研究个人、团体、组织甚至整个社会（社会单位，见分化）之间关系的理论构造。这个术语用来描述由这种相互作用决定的社会结构。任何一个特定的社会单元之间的联系都代表着这个单元各种社会联系的聚合。这种理论方法必然是相关的。理解社会互动的社会网络方法的一个公理是，社会现象应该主要通过单元之间和单元内部关系的性质来构思和研究，而不是这些单元本身的性质。因此，社会网络理论总被诟病的一点是其常忽视个体代理<ref name="jscott" /> ，而实践中可能并非如此（见基于主体的建模）。正是因为许多不同类型的关系（单独或组合形式）形成这些网络配置，网络分析在广泛的研究中有用。在社会科学中，这些研究领域包括但不限于人类学、生物学、传播学、经济学、地理学、信息科学、组织学、社会心理学、社会学和社会语言学。

社会网络是社会科学中用来研究个人、团体、组织甚至整个社会（社会单位，参见分化）之间关系的理论建构。这个术语用来描述由这种相互作用决定的社会结构。任何一个特定的社会单元之间的联系都代表着这个单元各种社会联系的聚合。这种理论方法必然是相关的。理解社会互动的社会网络方法的一个公理是，社会现象应该主要通过单元之间和单元内部关系的性质来构想和研究，而不是这些单元本身的性质。因此，社会网络理论总被诟病的一点是其常忽视个体能动性<ref name="jscott" /> ，而实践中可能并非如此（参见基于主体的建模）。正是因为许多不同类型的关系，单一的或者组合的，形成了这些网络配置，这使得网络分析在广泛的企业研究中是有用的。在社会科学中，这些研究领域包括但不限于人类学、生物学、传播学、经济学、地理学、信息科学、组织学、社会心理学、社会学和社会语言学。

==历史==

==历史==

In the late 1890s, both [[Émile Durkheim]] and [[Ferdinand Tönnies]] foreshadowed the idea of social networks in their theories and research of [[social group]]s. Tönnies argued that social groups can exist as personal and direct social ties that either link individuals who share values and belief (''[[Gemeinschaft]]'', German, commonly translated as "[[community]]") or impersonal, formal, and instrumental social links (''[[Gesellschaft]]'', German, commonly translated as "[[society]]").<ref name=":2">Tönnies, Ferdinand (1887). ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft'', Leipzig: Fues's Verlag. (Translated, 1957 by Charles Price Loomis as ''Community and Society'', East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.)</ref> Durkheim gave a non-individualistic explanation of social facts, arguing that social phenomena arise when interacting individuals constitute a reality that can no longer be accounted for in terms of the properties of individual actors.<ref name=":3">Durkheim, Emile (1893). ''De la division du travail social: étude sur l'organisation des sociétés supérieures'', Paris: F. Alcan. (Translated, 1964, by Lewis A. Coser as ''The Division of Labor in Society'', New York: Free Press.)</ref> [[Georg Simmel]], writing at the turn of the twentieth century, pointed to the nature of networks and the effect of network size on interaction and examined the likelihood of interaction in loosely knit networks rather than groups.<ref name=":4">Simmel, Georg (1908). ''Soziologie'', Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot.</ref>

In the late 1890s, both [[Émile Durkheim]] and [[Ferdinand Tönnies]] foreshadowed the idea of social networks in their theories and research of [[social group]]s. Tönnies argued that social groups can exist as personal and direct social ties that either link individuals who share values and belief (''[[Gemeinschaft]]'', German, commonly translated as "[[community]]") or impersonal, formal, and instrumental social links (''[[Gesellschaft]]'', German, commonly translated as "[[society]]").<ref name=":2">Tönnies, Ferdinand (1887). ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft'', Leipzig: Fues's Verlag. (Translated, 1957 by Charles Price Loomis as ''Community and Society'', East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.)</ref> Durkheim gave a non-individualistic explanation of social facts, arguing that social phenomena arise when interacting individuals constitute a reality that can no longer be accounted for in terms of the properties of individual actors.<ref name=":3">Durkheim, Emile (1893). ''De la division du travail social: étude sur l'organisation des sociétés supérieures'', Paris: F. Alcan. (Translated, 1964, by Lewis A. Coser as ''The Division of Labor in Society'', New York: Free Press.)</ref> [[Georg Simmel]], writing at the turn of the twentieth century, pointed to the nature of networks and the effect of network size on interaction and examined the likelihood of interaction in loosely knit networks rather than groups.<ref name=":4">Simmel, Georg (1908). ''Soziologie'', Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot.</ref>

在19世纪90年代晚期，埃米尔·涂尔干 （Émile Durkheim）和斐迪南·滕尼斯（Ferdinand Tönnies）在他们关于社会群体的理论和研究中都预示了社会网络的概念。滕尼斯认为，社会群体可以作为个人和直接的社会关系存在，这种关系或者将具有共同价值观和信仰的个人（德语 Gemeinschaft，通常翻译为“社区”）联系在一起，或者将非个人的、正式的和工具性的社会关系（德语 Gesellschaft，通常翻译为“社会”）联系在一起。<ref name=":2" /> 涂尔干对社会事实给出了非个人主义的解释，认为当相互作用的个体构成一种再也不能用个体行为者的特性来解释的现实时，社会现象就产生了。<ref name=":3" />格奥尔格·齐美尔在20世纪之交的著作中指出了网络的本质和网络规模对互动的影响，并研究了在松散的网络而非群体中互动的可能性。<ref name=":4" />

在19世纪90年代晚期，埃米尔·涂尔干 （Émile Durkheim）和斐迪南·滕尼斯（Ferdinand Tönnies）在他们关于社会群体的理论和研究中都预示了社会网络的概念。滕尼斯认为，社会群体可以作为个人和直接的社会关系存在，这种关系将具有共同价值观和信仰的个人（德语 Gemeinschaft，通常翻译为“社区”）联系在一起，或者将非个人的、正式的和工具性的社会关系（德语 Gesellschaft，通常翻译为“社会”）联系在一起。<ref name=":2" /> 涂尔干对社会事实给出了非个人主义的解释，认为当相互作用的个体构成一种再也不能用个体行为者的特性来解释的现实时，社会现象就产生了。<ref name=":3" />格奥尔格·齐美尔在20世纪之交的著作中指出了网络的本质和网络规模对互动的影响，并研究了在松散的网络而不是群体中互动的可能性。<ref name=":4" />

[[File:Moreno Sociogram 2nd Grade.png|thumb|图2：Moreno's sociogram of a 2nd grade class 莫雷诺对一个二年级班级的社会关系图]]

[[File:Moreno Sociogram 2nd Grade.png|thumb|图2：Moreno's sociogram of a 2nd grade class 莫雷诺对一个二年级班级的社会关系图]]

Major developments in the field can be seen in the 1930s by several groups in psychology, anthropology, and mathematics working independently.<ref name="jscott" /><ref name=":11">For a historical overview of the development of social network analysis, see: {{cite book|last1=Carrington|first1=Peter J.|last2=Scott|first2=John|chapter=Introduction|title=The Sage Handbook of Social Network Analysis| publisher=Sage|year=2011|isbn=978-1-84787-395-8|page=1|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2chSmLzClXgC&pg=PA1}}</ref><ref name=":12">See also the diagram in {{cite book|author=Scott, John|title=Social Network Analysis: A Handbook|publisher=Sage|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7619-6339-4|page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ww3_bKcz6kgC&pg=PA8}}</ref> In [[psychology]], in the 1930s, [[Jacob L. Moreno]] began systematic recording and analysis of social interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups (see [[sociometry]]). In [[anthropology]], the foundation for social network theory is the theoretical and [[ethnography|ethnographic]] work of [[Bronislaw Malinowski]],<ref name=":13">Malinowski, Bronislaw (1913). ''The Family Among the Australian Aborigines: A Sociological Study''. London: University of London Press.</ref> [[Radcliffe-Brown|Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]],<ref name=":14">Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald (1930) ''The social organization of Australian tribes''. Sydney, Australia: University of Sydney ''Oceania'' monographs, No.1.</ref><ref name=":15">{{cite journal | last1 = Radcliffe-Brown | first1 = A. R. | year = 1940 | title = On social structure | url = | journal = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | volume = 70 | issue = 1| pages = 1–12 | doi=10.2307/2844197| jstor = 2844197 }}</ref> and [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]].<ref name=":16">Lévi-Strauss, Claude ([1947]1967). ''Les structures élémentaires de la parenté''. Paris: La Haye, Mouton et Co. (Translated, 1969 by J. H. Bell, J. R. von Sturmer, and R. Needham, 1969, as ''The Elementary Structures of Kinship'', Boston: Beacon Press.)</ref> A group of social anthropologists associated with [[Max Gluckman]] and the [[Manchester school (anthropology)|Manchester School]], including [[John Arundel Barnes|John A. Barnes]],<ref name=":17">Barnes, John (1954). "Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish". ''Human Relations'', (7): 39–58.</ref> [[J. Clyde Mitchell]] and [[Elizabeth Bott Spillius]],<ref name=":18">{{cite journal | last1 = Freeman | first1 = Linton C. | last2 = Wellman | first2 = Barry | year = 1995 | title = A note on the ancestoral Toronto home of social network analysis | url = | journal = Connections | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 15–19 }}</ref><ref name=":19">{{cite journal | last1 = Savage | first1 = Mike | year = 2008 | title = Elizabeth Bott and the formation of modern British sociology | url = | journal = The Sociological Review | volume = 56 | issue = 4| pages = 579–605 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-954x.2008.00806.x}}</ref> often are credited with performing some of the first fieldwork from which network analyses were performed, investigating community networks in southern Africa, India and the United Kingdom.<ref name="jscott" /> Concomitantly, British anthropologist [[Siegfried Frederick Nadel|S. F. Nadel]] codified a theory of social structure that was influential in later network analysis.<ref name=":20">Nadel, S. F. 1957. ''The Theory of Social Structure''. London: Cohen and West.</ref> In [[sociology]], the early (1930s) work of [[Talcott Parsons]] set the stage for taking a relational approach to understanding social structure.<ref name=":21">Parsons, Talcott ([1937] 1949). ''The Structure of Social Action: A Study in Social Theory with Special Reference to a Group of European Writers''. New York: The Free Press.</ref><ref name=":22">Parsons, Talcott (1951). ''The Social System''. New York: The Free Press.</ref> Later, drawing upon Parsons' theory, the work of sociologist [[Peter Blau]] provides a strong impetus for analyzing the relational ties of social units with his work on [[social exchange theory]].<ref name=":23">Blau, Peter (1956). ''Bureaucracy in Modern Society''. New York: Random House, Inc.</ref><ref name=":24">Blau, Peter (1960). "A Theory of Social Integration". ''The American Journal of Sociology'', (65)6: 545–556, (May).</ref><ref name=":25">Blau, Peter (1964). ''Exchange and Power in Social Life''.</ref>

Major developments in the field can be seen in the 1930s by several groups in psychology, anthropology, and mathematics working independently.<ref name="jscott" /><ref name=":11">For a historical overview of the development of social network analysis, see: {{cite book|last1=Carrington|first1=Peter J.|last2=Scott|first2=John|chapter=Introduction|title=The Sage Handbook of Social Network Analysis| publisher=Sage|year=2011|isbn=978-1-84787-395-8|page=1|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2chSmLzClXgC&pg=PA1}}</ref><ref name=":12">See also the diagram in {{cite book|author=Scott, John|title=Social Network Analysis: A Handbook|publisher=Sage|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7619-6339-4|page=8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ww3_bKcz6kgC&pg=PA8}}</ref> In [[psychology]], in the 1930s, [[Jacob L. Moreno]] began systematic recording and analysis of social interaction in small groups, especially classrooms and work groups (see [[sociometry]]). In [[anthropology]], the foundation for social network theory is the theoretical and [[ethnography|ethnographic]] work of [[Bronislaw Malinowski]],<ref name=":13">Malinowski, Bronislaw (1913). ''The Family Among the Australian Aborigines: A Sociological Study''. London: University of London Press.</ref> [[Radcliffe-Brown|Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]],<ref name=":14">Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald (1930) ''The social organization of Australian tribes''. Sydney, Australia: University of Sydney ''Oceania'' monographs, No.1.</ref><ref name=":15">{{cite journal | last1 = Radcliffe-Brown | first1 = A. R. | year = 1940 | title = On social structure | url = | journal = Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute | volume = 70 | issue = 1| pages = 1–12 | doi=10.2307/2844197| jstor = 2844197 }}</ref> and [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]].<ref name=":16">Lévi-Strauss, Claude ([1947]1967). ''Les structures élémentaires de la parenté''. Paris: La Haye, Mouton et Co. (Translated, 1969 by J. H. Bell, J. R. von Sturmer, and R. Needham, 1969, as ''The Elementary Structures of Kinship'', Boston: Beacon Press.)</ref> A group of social anthropologists associated with [[Max Gluckman]] and the [[Manchester school (anthropology)|Manchester School]], including [[John Arundel Barnes|John A. Barnes]],<ref name=":17">Barnes, John (1954). "Class and Committees in a Norwegian Island Parish". ''Human Relations'', (7): 39–58.</ref> [[J. Clyde Mitchell]] and [[Elizabeth Bott Spillius]],<ref name=":18">{{cite journal | last1 = Freeman | first1 = Linton C. | last2 = Wellman | first2 = Barry | year = 1995 | title = A note on the ancestoral Toronto home of social network analysis | url = | journal = Connections | volume = 18 | issue = 2| pages = 15–19 }}</ref><ref name=":19">{{cite journal | last1 = Savage | first1 = Mike | year = 2008 | title = Elizabeth Bott and the formation of modern British sociology | url = | journal = The Sociological Review | volume = 56 | issue = 4| pages = 579–605 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-954x.2008.00806.x}}</ref> often are credited with performing some of the first fieldwork from which network analyses were performed, investigating community networks in southern Africa, India and the United Kingdom.<ref name="jscott" /> Concomitantly, British anthropologist [[Siegfried Frederick Nadel|S. F. Nadel]] codified a theory of social structure that was influential in later network analysis.<ref name=":20">Nadel, S. F. 1957. ''The Theory of Social Structure''. London: Cohen and West.</ref> In [[sociology]], the early (1930s) work of [[Talcott Parsons]] set the stage for taking a relational approach to understanding social structure.<ref name=":21">Parsons, Talcott ([1937] 1949). ''The Structure of Social Action: A Study in Social Theory with Special Reference to a Group of European Writers''. New York: The Free Press.</ref><ref name=":22">Parsons, Talcott (1951). ''The Social System''. New York: The Free Press.</ref> Later, drawing upon Parsons' theory, the work of sociologist [[Peter Blau]] provides a strong impetus for analyzing the relational ties of social units with his work on [[social exchange theory]].<ref name=":23">Blau, Peter (1956). ''Bureaucracy in Modern Society''. New York: Random House, Inc.</ref><ref name=":24">Blau, Peter (1960). "A Theory of Social Integration". ''The American Journal of Sociology'', (65)6: 545–556, (May).</ref><ref name=":25">Blau, Peter (1964). ''Exchange and Power in Social Life''.</ref>

20世纪30年代，心理学、人类学和数学领域的几个独立研究小组已经看到了这一领域的重大发展。<ref name="jscott" /><ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" /> 在心理学方面，在20世纪30年代，雅各布·L·莫雷诺开始系统地记录和分析小团体中的社会互动，尤其是课堂和工作团体中的社会互动（见社会测量sociometry）。在人类学中，社会网络理论的基础是布罗尼斯拉夫·马林诺夫斯基 （Bronislaw Malinowski）<ref name=":13" /> 、阿尔弗雷德·拉德克利夫-布朗（Alfred Radcliffe-Brown）<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" /> 和克洛德·列维-斯特劳斯（Claude Lévi-Strauss）<ref name=":16" /> 的理论和人种学著作。包括约翰·A·巴恩斯（John A. Barnes）<ref name=":17" /> 、J·克莱德·米切尔（J. Clyde Mitchell）和伊丽莎白·博特·斯皮利厄斯（Elizabeth Bott Spillius）<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /> 在内的一群与马克斯·格拉克曼（Max Gluckman）和曼彻斯特学派（Manchester School）有关的社会人类学家，经常被认为是执行了一些最初的实地工作，从而进行了网络分析，调查了南非、印度和英国的社区网络。<ref name="jscott" /> 与此同时，英国人类学家纳德尔（S.F. Nadel）发展出了一种社会结构理论，对后来的网络分析产生重要影响影响。<ref name=":20" /> 在社会学方面，塔尔科特·帕森斯（Talcott Parsons）的早期工作（1930年代）为采用关系方法理解社会结构奠定了基础。<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /> 后来，社会学家彼得·布劳 Peter Blau的社会交换论为分析社会单位之间的关系提供了强大的动力。<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" /><ref name=":25" />

20世纪30年代，心理学、人类学和数学领域的几个独立研究小组已经看到了这一领域的重大进展。<ref name="jscott" /><ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" /> 在心理学方面，在20世纪30年代，雅各布·L·莫雷诺开始系统地记录和分析小团体中的社会互动，尤其是课堂和工作团体中的社会互动（参见社会测量 sociometry）。在人类学中，社会网络理论的基础是布罗尼斯拉夫·马林诺夫斯基 （Bronislaw Malinowski）<ref name=":13" /> 、阿尔弗雷德·拉德克利夫-布朗（Alfred Radcliffe-Brown）<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" /> 和克洛德·列维-斯特劳斯（Claude Lévi-Strauss）<ref name=":16" /> 的理论和人种学著作。包括约翰·A·巴恩斯（John A. Barnes）<ref name=":17" /> 、J·克莱德·米切尔（J. Clyde Mitchell）和伊丽莎白·博特·斯皮利厄斯（Elizabeth Bott Spillius）<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /> 在内的一群与马克斯·格拉克曼（Max Gluckman）和曼彻斯特学派（Manchester School）有关的社会人类学家，经常被认为是执行了一些最初的实地工作，从而进行了网络分析，调查了南非、印度和英国的社区网络。<ref name="jscott" /> 与此同时，英国人类学家纳德尔（S.F. Nadel）发展出了一种社会结构理论，对后来的网络分析产生重要影响影响。<ref name=":20" /> 在社会学方面，塔尔科特·帕森斯（Talcott Parsons）的早期工作（1930年代）为采用关系方法理解社会结构奠定了基础。<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /> 后来，社会学家彼得·布劳 Peter Blau的社会交换论为分析社会单位之间的关系提供了强大的动力。<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":24" /><ref name=":25" />

By the 1970s, a growing number of scholars worked to combine the different tracks and traditions. One group consisted of sociologist [[Harrison White]] and his students at the [[Harvard Department of Social Relations|Harvard University Department of Social Relations]]. Also independently active in the Harvard Social Relations department at the time were [[Charles Tilly]], who focused on networks in political and community sociology and social movements, and [[Stanley Milgram]], who developed the "six degrees of separation" thesis.<ref name=":26">{{cite web |url=http://www.semioticon.com/semiotix/semiotix14/sem-14-05.html |title=The Networked Individual: A Profile of Barry Wellman |author=Bernie Hogan}}</ref> [[Mark Granovetter]]<ref name="Introduction for the French Reader">{{cite journal | last1 = Granovetter | first1 = Mark | year = 2007 | title = Introduction for the French Reader | url = | journal = Sociologica | volume = 2 | issue = | pages = 1–8 }}</ref> and [[Barry Wellman]]<ref name=":27">Wellman, Barry (1988). "Structural analysis: From method and metaphor to theory and substance". pp. 19–61 in B. Wellman and S. D. Berkowitz (eds.) ''Social Structures: A Network Approach'', Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</ref> are among the former students of White who elaborated and championed the analysis of social networks.<ref name="Introduction for the French Reader" /><ref name=":28">Mullins, Nicholas. ''Theories and Theory Groups in Contemporary American Sociology''. New York: Harper and Row, 1973.</ref><ref name=":29">Tilly, Charles, ed. ''An Urban World''. Boston: Little Brown, 1974.</ref><ref name=":30">Wellman, Barry. 1988. "Structural Analysis: From Method and Metaphor to Theory and Substance". pp. 19–61 in ''Social Structures: A Network Approach'', edited by Barry Wellman and S. D. Berkowitz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

By the 1970s, a growing number of scholars worked to combine the different tracks and traditions. One group consisted of sociologist [[Harrison White]] and his students at the [[Harvard Department of Social Relations|Harvard University Department of Social Relations]]. Also independently active in the Harvard Social Relations department at the time were [[Charles Tilly]], who focused on networks in political and community sociology and social movements, and [[Stanley Milgram]], who developed the "six degrees of separation" thesis.<ref name=":26">{{cite web |url=http://www.semioticon.com/semiotix/semiotix14/sem-14-05.html |title=The Networked Individual: A Profile of Barry Wellman |author=Bernie Hogan}}</ref> [[Mark Granovetter]]<ref name="Introduction for the French Reader">{{cite journal | last1 = Granovetter | first1 = Mark | year = 2007 | title = Introduction for the French Reader | url = | journal = Sociologica | volume = 2 | issue = | pages = 1–8 }}</ref> and [[Barry Wellman]]<ref name=":27">Wellman, Barry (1988). "Structural analysis: From method and metaphor to theory and substance". pp. 19–61 in B. Wellman and S. D. Berkowitz (eds.) ''Social Structures: A Network Approach'', Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.</ref> are among the former students of White who elaborated and championed the analysis of social networks.<ref name="Introduction for the French Reader" /><ref name=":28">Mullins, Nicholas. ''Theories and Theory Groups in Contemporary American Sociology''. New York: Harper and Row, 1973.</ref><ref name=":29">Tilly, Charles, ed. ''An Urban World''. Boston: Little Brown, 1974.</ref><ref name=":30">Wellman, Barry. 1988. "Structural Analysis: From Method and Metaphor to Theory and Substance". pp. 19–61 in ''Social Structures: A Network Approach'', edited by Barry Wellman and S. D. Berkowitz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref>

In [[criminology]] and [[urban sociology]], much attention has been paid to the social networks among criminal actors. For example, Andrew Papachristos<ref>{{cite journal |last=Papachristos |first=Andrew |year=2009 |title=Murder by Structure: Dominance Relations and the Social Structure of Gang Homicide |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=74–128 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.855304 |url=http://www.papachristos.org/Publications_2_files/ajs_final_version.pdf |accessdate=29 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407094725/http://www.papachristos.org/Publications_2_files/ajs_final_version.pdf |archivedate=7 April 2014 }}</ref> has studied gang murders as a series of exchanges between gangs. Murders can be seen to diffuse outwards from a single source, because weaker gangs cannot afford to kill members of stronger gangs in retaliation, but must commit other violent acts to maintain their reputation for strength.

In [[criminology]] and [[urban sociology]], much attention has been paid to the social networks among criminal actors. For example, Andrew Papachristos<ref>{{cite journal |last=Papachristos |first=Andrew |year=2009 |title=Murder by Structure: Dominance Relations and the Social Structure of Gang Homicide |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=74–128 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.855304 |url=http://www.papachristos.org/Publications_2_files/ajs_final_version.pdf |accessdate=29 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407094725/http://www.papachristos.org/Publications_2_files/ajs_final_version.pdf |archivedate=7 April 2014 }}</ref> has studied gang murders as a series of exchanges between gangs. Murders can be seen to diffuse outwards from a single source, because weaker gangs cannot afford to kill members of stronger gangs in retaliation, but must commit other violent acts to maintain their reputation for strength.

在'''<font color="#ff8000">犯罪学 Criminology</font>和'''<font color="#ff8000">城市社会学 Urban sociology</font>中，犯罪行为人之间的社会网络问题受到了广泛的关注。例如，'''安德鲁·帕帕克里斯托斯 Andrew Papachristos'''将帮派谋杀研究为帮派之间的一系列交流。谋杀可以视为从单一来源向外扩散，因为较弱的帮派无法承担为报复杀死较强帮派成员的代价，而必须采取其他暴力行动来维护其势力强大之名声。

在'''<font color="#ff8000">犯罪学 Criminology</font>和<font color="#ff8000">城市社会学 Urban sociology</font>'''中，犯罪行为人之间的社会网络问题受到了广泛的关注。例如，安德鲁·帕帕克里斯托斯（Andrew Papachristos）将帮派谋杀研究为帮派之间的一系列交流。谋杀可以视为从单一来源向外扩散，因为较弱的帮派无法承担为报复杀死较强帮派成员的代价，而必须采取其他暴力行动来维护其势力强大之名声。

===创新扩散理论===

===创新扩散理论===